WEEK 6: CH. 11: COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE

ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION AND WORK OUTCOMES 302-304

In 12 district offices of a state social services agency, one comprehensive study looked at the relationships among reported organizational communication effectiveness and five independent measures of organizational performance, including the number of clients served, the costs of operation, and the costs of operation per client served (Snyder & Morris, 1984). Questionnaires administered to more than 500 employees assessed perceptions of different types of organizational communication, which included two forms of downward communication—the adequacy of information provided concerning organizational policies and procedures, and the skills of supervisors as communicators. One form of lateral communication—the information exchange within the work group, and one type of downward communication— the feedback given about individual performance, were also measured. The results indicated that the amount of communication, particularly the lateral communication within work groups, and the communication skills of supervisors were related to more cost-effective organizational performance. In another study, it was found that employees' satisfaction with the amount and quality of organizational communication was positively correlated with measures of worker productivity—those who reported receiving more and better communication were the most productive workers (Clampitt & Downs, 1993). A laboratory study found that group performance on a manual task—assembling a complex toy—was related to the quality of communication. Although effective communication can lead to bottom-line payoffs in terms of increased productivity, it can also create increased levels of employee satisfaction. Research suggests positive relationships between the amount of upward communication in an organization and feelings of satisfaction in lower-level workers (Koehler, Anatol, & Applbaum, 1981). It has also been demonstrated that employees who receive a great deal of information about the organization in the form of downward communication tend to be more satisfied and have higher organizational commitment than those who do not. In addition to job performance and job satisfaction, effective communication may also have an impact on absenteeism and turnover rates. Although research has not directly addressed this relationship, one study found that open and supportive downward communication helped one organization retain its "surviving" workers after a companywide downsizing. Although it makes sense that organizations with free and open lines of communication would tend to have more satisfied workers, leading to lowered rates of absenteeism and turnover, OPEN COMMUNICATION among workers can also have some DRAWBACKS. For example, researchers who examined the patterns of turnover among workers in three fast-food restaurants found that workers tended to quit their jobs in clusters. Most importantly, the CLUSTERS tended to be among workers who communicated freely with one another, a phenomenon that has been termed the "SNOWBALL EFFECT." All in all, when dealing with organizational communication, more is usually better, although there may be a few exceptions, as when workers engage in so much non-work-related communication or are so deluged with messages and other information that job performance is impaired. Although much evidence indicates that it is usually better to keep communication flowing, open, and honest, some researchers claim that, because of organizational politics, at times organizational members might want to close some communication lines and keep certain types of information to themselves

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS IN WORKPLACE SETTINGS 286-290

People use a great deal of NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION which is sent and received by means OTHER than the WRITTEN or SPOKEN WORD. Broadly defined, nonverbal communication can OCCUR through facial expressions, gesture, tone of voice, body movements, posture, etc. For the SENDER, NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION can be USED in THREE WAYS. First, NONVERBAL CUES can be SUBSTITUTED for VERBAL communication. NODDING to show approval, SHAKING your HEAD in disagreement, or GESTURING for a person to come closer or to go away are all ways of SENDING clear, unspoken messages. The HAND SIGNALS used by ground crews to guide airline pilots or the gestures used by land surveyors are examples of the use of nonverbal communication. NONVERBAL CUES can also be used to ENHANCE VERBAL MESSAGES. We often use our TONE of VOICE, FACIAL EXPRESSIONS, and BODY MOVEMENTS to emphasize what we are saying. Given the INCREASE in ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION, particularly e-mail, one problem is the ABSENCE of NONVERBAL CUES in electronic text messages, although using emoticons can compensate. Nonverbal cues are also important for conveying certain IMPRESSIONS in ORGANIZATIONS and can be used to convey underlying feelings. A sender's NONVERBAL communication can also subtly COMMUNICATE his or her EXPECTATIONS to other WORKERS and INFLUENCE the WORKERS' BEHAVIORS in line with those expectations, in what is called the PYGMALION EFFECT. A META-ANALYSIS suggests that the PYGMALION EFFECT does indeed OCCUR in WORK ORGANIZATIONS, but is STRONGER in initially LOW-PERFORMING GROUPS and in the MILITARY, presumably because of the strong influence leaders have on followers in the armed forces. From the PERSPECTIVE of a RECEIVER, NONVERBAL cues SERVE TWO IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS. FIRST, they PROVIDE ADDITIONAL INFORMATION. When verbal communication is limited or when the receiver has reason to mistrust the verbal message, the receiver will look to nonverbal cues as a source of more data. This is particularly likely when the receiver feels that the verbal message may be deceptive, although RESEARCH has SHOWN that most PEOPLE do NOT READ the NONVERBAL CUES of DECEPTION very ACCURATELY. NONVERBAL CUES are also USED by RECEIVERS in PERSON PERCEPTION, that is, in MAKING JUDGMENTS about a PERSON'S ATTITUDES, personality, and competence. There is EVIDENCE that styles of NONVERBAL BEHAVIOR play an important part in PERSON PERCEPTION. This is particularly IMPORTANT in PERSONNEL DECISIONS such as in performance feedback sessions or in hiring. Often the MISUNDERSTANDINGS that occur in ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION, verbal and nonverbal, are RELATED to the INADEQUATE SKILLS of the sender or receiver, or both. A great deal of attention is paid to trying to improve the verbal and writing skills of employees, and less concern is focused on nonverbal communication skills, even though they may represent a great deal of the critical communication that occurs in work settings.

COMMUNICATION NETWORKS (CENTRALIZED/DECENTRALIZED/) 297-299

When we look beyond TWO-PERSON communication to the linkages among work group, departmental, or organizational members, we are concerned with COMMUNICATION NETWORKS, which are systems of communication lines LINKING various SENDERS and RECEIVERS. The FLOW of organizational communication is REGULATED by SEVERAL FACTORS: the PROXIMITY of workers to one another, the RULES governing who communicates with whom, the STATUS hierarchy, and other elements of the work situation, such as job assignments and duties. Thus, COMMUNICATION usually FOLLOWS predictable PATTERNS, or networks. Considerable research has been conducted on these networks and the properties associated with each. FIVE MAJOR TYPES of COMMUNICATION networks have been STUDIED in DEPTH. The first THREE are TERMED CENTRALIZED NETWORKS because the flow of information is centralized, or directed, through specific members. The NEXT TWO are called DECENTRALIZED NETWORKS, because the COMMUNICATION flow can ORIGINATE AT any POINT and DOES NOT have to be DIRECTED through certain central group members. CENTRALIZED NETWORKS are GOVERNED by MEMBERS' STATUS within the organization; DECENTRALIZED networks typically ARE NOT. (CENTRALIZED NETWORKS) The first centralized communication network, which is known as the CHAIN, represents a FIVE-MEMBER STATUS HIERARCHY. A MESSAGE typically ORIGINATES at the TOP or at the BOTTOM of the CHAIN and WORKS its way UPWARD or DOWNWARD through different links. The CHAIN is a SLOW process but it is DIRECT, with all levels of the hierarchy being made aware of the message because it must pass through each link. A RELATED communication NETWORK is the Y (which is actually an UPSIDE-DOWN Y). The Y is also a HIERARCHICAL NETWORK, representing FOUR LEVELS of STATUS within the organization, but its LAST link INVOLVES COMMUNICATION to MORE than ONE PERSON. The INVERTED Y is a MODEL of the COMMUNICATION network typically involved in a traditional, pyramid-shaped organizations. The CHAIN and the Y networks are very SIMILAR in terms of SPEED of transmission and the formality of who communicates with whom. The WHEEL NETWORK involves TWO STATUS LEVELS: a HIGHER-STATUS MEMBER (usually a work supervisor) and FOUR LOWER-LEVEL MEMBERS. The HIGHER-STATUS member is the HUB, or CENTER, through which all communication must PASS. In the WHEEL network, there are NO DIRECT COMMUNICATION links between the lower-level members. (DECENTRALIZED NETWORK): The CIRCLE network, the FIRST of the TWO DECENTRALIZED networks, REPRESENTS COMMUNICATION BETWEEN members who are IMMEDIATELY ACCESSIBLE to each other, such as workers positioned side by side on an assembly line or in adjacent cubicles. Because ANY MEMBER can INITIATE a COMMUNICATION and NO RULES GOVERN the DIRECTION in which it is sent, it can be DIFFICULT to TRACE the ORIGINAL SOURCE of the message in a CIRCLE NETWORK. ALSO, because the MESSAGE can TRAVEL in TWO DIRECTIONS, the CIRCLE NETWORK has a fairly QUICK RATE of TRANSMISSION. The ALL-CHANNEL, or COMCON, network allows COMPLETE FREEDOM among communication links. Any member can FREELY COMMUNICATE with any other, and ALL MEMBERS are ACCESSIBLE to each other. In all-CHANNEL networks, COMMUNICATION can be RAPID, and there is MAXIMUM opportunity for FEEDBACK. Extensive research has been conducted in labs, the RESULTS OF THESE STUDIES INDICATE that each of the different networks has different strengths and weaknesses. For the CENTRALIZED networks (the CHAIN, Y, and WHEEL) are FASTER and make FEWER ERRORS in DEALING with SIMPLE, REPETITIVE TASKS than do decentralized networks. This makes sense because the CENTRAL person through whom all messages must pass can coordinate group activities because that individual has all the information needed to perform the simple tasks. DECENTRALIZED networks (CIRCLE and ALL-CHANNEL), on the other hand, are better at dealing with complex tasks, such as abstract problem solving. In general, straightforward, repetitive tasks, such as assembly or manufacturing work, tend to operate well with a CENTRALIZED COMMUNICATION NETWORK, whereas creative tasks, such as a group working on a product advertising campaign, are best accomplished using a decentralized network. One REASON why CENTRALIZED networks may have DIFFICULTY in SOLVING COMPLEX PROBLEMS is because the CENTRAL people may be SUBJECT to INFORMATION OVERLOAD: They may have too much information to deal with efficiently. because of the RESTRICTIONS on who can initiate communication and on who can communicate with whom, MEMBERS in CENTRALIZED networks have LOWER levels of SATISFACTION than those in decentralized networks. More specifically, in the CENTRALIZED networks, the persons holding the CENTRAL positions tend to have HIGH LEVELS of SATISFACTION due to their role, whereas the noncentral members have extremely low satisfaction. Some of the RESEARCH on COMMUNICATION networks has been CRITICIZED for OVERSIMPLIFYING the COMMUNICATION PROCESS. EVIDENCE suggests that the DIFFERENCES in speed and efficiency among the various networks may disappear over time, as the group involved learns to adjust to the required communication patterns. Because most of the RESEARCH on communication networks has been CONDUCTED in CONTROLLED LABORATORY SETTINGS, there is some concern about whether the results of these studies will generalize to communication networks in actual work settings, although the findings do indeed allow us to model (although simplistically) the communication patterns in work organizations.

THE FLOW OF COMMUNICATION IN ORGANIZATIONS: DOWNWARD, UPWARD, AND LATERAL FLOW OF COMMUNICATION 290-292

(DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION) DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION consists of those messages sent from superiors to subordinates. Most commonly, they are one of SEVERAL TYPES: (a) INSTRUCTIONS or directions CONCERNING JOB PERFORMANCE, (b) INFORMATION about ORGANIZATIONAL PROCEDURES and policies, (c) FEEDBACK to the SUPERVISEE concerning job performance, or (d) INFORMATION to ASSIST in the COORDINATION of work tasks, much of the formal COMMUNICATIONS that occurs in WORK ORGANIZATIONS INVOLVES this DOWNWARD FLOW, because the TOP levels are involved in making important decisions that must be COMMUNICATED to the LOWER levels. Although much formal communication in organizations is downward, RESEARCH INDICATES that most ORGANIZATIONS still DO NOT HAVE ENOUGH of this COMMUNICATION. ONE REASON that DOWNWARD communication is INSUFFICIENT in some organizations is that superiors may OVERESTIMATE the AMOUNT of INFORMATION that their SUBORDINATES POSSESS and may UNDERESTIMATE the AMOUNT they DESIRE, It also appears that certain types of downward communication may be particularly LIMITED, such as FEEDBACK CONCERNING WORK PERFORMANCE. RESEARCH has SHOWN that the FREQUENCY and QUALITY of SUPERIOR-SUBORDINATE COMMUNICATION INFLUENCES important ORGANIZATIONAL OUTCOMES. (UPWARD COMMUNICATION) UPWARD COMMUNICATION is the FLOW of MESSAGES from the LOWER LEVELS of the ORGANIZATION to the UPPER LEVELS. It most typically CONSISTS of INFORMATION MANAGERS need to perform their jobs, such as feedback concerning the status of lower-level operations, which could include reports of production output or information about any problems. It is CRITICAL FOR MANAGERS who use info to make important work related decisions, and it can also involve COMPLAINTS and SUGGESTIONS for IMPROVEMENT from LOWER-level WORKERS and is significant because it gives SUBORDINATES some INPUT into the FUNCTIONING of the ORGANIZATION. RESEARCH SUGGESTS that SUPERVISORS are more ACCEPTING of that FEEDBACK if they believe it is MOTIVATED by a DESIRE for better PERFORMANCE/PRODUCTIVITY. Finally, an IMPORTANT FORM of UPWARD feedback CONCERNS SUBORDINATES' EVALUATIONS of the particular supervisor's effectiveness as a leader/supervisor. RESEARCH INDICATES that the UPWARD FLOW of SUGGESTIONS for IMPROVEMENT can be INCREASED when WORKERS feel highly ENGAGED in their jobs and they have a sense of self-efficacy. The UPWARD COMMUNICATION of FEEDBACK about problems or DIFFICULTIES in operations may be RESTRICTED because LOWER-level WORKERS FEAR that the NEGATIVE INFO might REFLECT POORLY on their ABILITIES, because managers neglect to ask for it, or because subordinates believe that management will not really listen to their suggestions and concerns. (LATERAL) LATERAL COMMUNICATION flows BETWEEN PEOPLE who are at the SAME LEVEL in the ORGANIZATIONAL HIERARCHY are particularly IMPORTANT when COWORKERS must COORDINATE their ACTIVITIES to accomplish a goal. Lateral communication can also OCCUR BETWEEN TWO or MORE DEPARTMENTS within an organization. Lateral communication between departments also ALLOWS the SHARING of NEWS and information and HELPS in the DEVELOPMENT and maintenance of INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS on the job. Although it can HELP in COORDINATING WORKER ACTIVITIES within or between departments, thereby leading to INCREASED PRODUCTIVITY, "UNAUTHORIZED" LATERAL communication, such as TOO MUCH SOCIALIZING on the job, can detract from effective job performance.

BARRIERS TO THE EFFECTIVE FLOW OF COMMUNICATION (DISTORTION: FILTERING AND EXAGGERATION) 292-296

(FILTERING) FILTERING is the SELECTIVE PRESENTATION of the CONTENT of a COMMUNICATION; in other words, certain PIECES of INFORMATION are LEFT OUT of the message. In DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION, INFORMATION is often FILTERED because it is CONSIDERED to be UNIMPORTANT to lower-level employees. Often, messages are sent telling workers what to do but not telling why it is being done. INFORMATION from UPPER LEVELS of the organization may also be FILTERED because MANAGEMENT FEARS the IMPACT of the COMPLETE MESSAGE on WORKERS. FILTERING of CONTENT in UPWARDS COMMUNICATION can occur if the INFORMATION is UNFAVORABLE and the communicator fears incurring the wrath of the superior. In such cases, the NEGATIVE INFORMATION might be ALTERED to make it appear less negative. FILTERING in LATERAL COMMUNICATION can occur when TWO EMPLOYEES FEEL that they are in COMPETITION with one another for important organizational rewards, such as promotions and recognition from superiors. Sometimes, there is purposeful OMISSION of a message to a receiver when a SENDER BELIEVES that the RECEIVER does NOT NEED the INFO because it is unimportant or would be disruptive to the receiver. DAVIS experience the covered. A POTENTIAL SENDER may NOT FORWARD a MESSAGE when it INVOLVES BAD news. This has been LABELED the "MUM effect." The MUM effect can be particularly DETRIMENTAL to ORGANIZATIONAL functioning and effectiveness. CHALLENGER EFFECT mentioned. (EXAGGERATION) EXAGGERATION is the DISTORTION of INFORMATION, which INVOLVES ELABORATING or OVEREMPHASIZING certain ASPECTS of the MESSAGE. To draw attention to a problem, people may EXAGGERATE its MAGNITUDE and IMPACT. In DOWNWARD communication, a SUPERVISOR might EMPHASIZE that if PERFORMANCE does not IMPROVE, subordinates may LOSE their jobs. In UPWARD communication, workers might present a problem as a CRISIS to get management to react and make some quick decisions. On the other hand, EXAGGERATION may OCCURR through the minimization of an issue, which involves making it seem like less of a problem than it actually is. Regardless of FORM, a DOWNWARD-flowing message from a high-status source is LESS LIKELY to be INTENTIONALLY ALTERED than a communication originating from a low-status member. O'Reilly (1978) studied SEVERAL FACTORS related to COMMUNICATION DISTORTION and specifically found a tendency for the greater distortion of upward messages that are unfavorable in content and less distortion of upward-flowing positive information. He also discovered that low trust in the receiver of a message resulted in a tendency toward distortion, particularly if the information reflected unfavorably on the sender.

RESEARCH ON THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS: SOURCE FACTORS, CHANNEL FACTORS, AUDIENCE FACTORS 283-286

(SOURCE FACTORS): Source factors are CHARACTERISTICS of the SENDER—the source of the message— that can facilitate or detract from the EFFECTIVE flow of communication. One such factor is the status of the source, which can affect whether potential receivers attend to a message. Generally, the HIGHER the ORGANIZATIONAL STATUS of the SENDER, the more likely the COMMUNICATION will be LISTENED TO and acted on. ANOTHER SOURCE factor is the CREDIBILITY, or believability, of the sender. If the source is trusted, particularly if someone is in a SUPERVISORY or LEADERSHIP role, it is more likely that the MESSAGE will RECEIVE proper ATTENTION. VARIABLES such as the expertise, knowledge, and reliability of the source contribute to the CREDIBILITY of the sender. Employees learn which sources can be trusted and pay closest attention to their messages. RESEARCH SUGGESTS that a SENDERS COMMUNICATION style is also IMPORTANT. A FINAL SOURCE FACTOR is the ENCODING SKILLS of the SENDER, or the source's ability to translate an abstract message into some sort of shared code, usually the written or spoken language, so that it can be clearly conveyed to the receiver, these SKILLS INCLUDE the ABILITIES to SPEAK and WRITE CLEARLY and to select the appropriate channel for transmitting information. (CHANNEL FACTORS): CHANNEL FACTORS, which are POSITIVE or NEGATIVE CHARACTERISTICS related to the vehicle through which the message is communicated, can also influence the effectiveness of the communication process. SELECTION of the PROPER CHANNEL can have an important effect on the accurate flow of communication, as well as the impact of the message. Using MULTIPLE CHANNELS to PRESENT COMPLICATED INFORMATION will increase the likelihood that it will be attended to and retained. RESEARCH on ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION has FOCUSED on specific types, or "GENRES," of MESSAGES, such as business letters, memos, or group meetings. SEMANTIC PROBLEMS are COMMON CHANNEL factors that can LEAD to a BREAKDOWN in COMMUNICATION. These DIFFICULTIES OCCUR because different people may interpret the meanings of certain words differently. SEMANTIC PROBLEMS may ARISE through the USE of TECHNICAL LANGUAGE, or JARGON, the special language that develops within a specific work environment. JARGON is typically filled with abbreviated words, acronyms, special vocabularies, and slang. Although JARGON SERVES the PURPOSE of SPEEDING UP COMMUNICATION between those who speak the language, it can CREATE PROBLEMS when the RECEIVER is NOT "FLUENT " in its use. The use of jargon can also create problems when a team of workers is COMPOSED of MEMBERS from DIFFERENT PROFESSIONAL DISCIPLINES, all of who may use DIFFERENT JARGON. The TYPES of CHANNEL used to COMMUNICATE can AFFECT important WORK-related OUTCOMES, such as JOB SATISFACTION. RESEARCH SUGGESTS that the FREQUENCY and quality of FACE-to-FACE communication between supervisors and subordinates is POSITIVELY RELATED to WORKERS' JOB SATISFACTION. The type of channel may also have some influence on work performance and efficiency. The use of COMPUTER-MEDIATED MEETINGS, where workers interconnect and hold meetings at their individual computer work stations, or teleconference via the Web is a topic of interest. RESEARCH INDICATES that COMPUTER-mediated meetings have the ADVANTAGES of CONVENIENCE, with members getting more equal participation in the interaction than occurs in face-to-face meetings, LOW-STATUS/SHY members may be MORE WILLING to SHARE INFORMATION in computer-mediated meetings. However, the lack of "social dynamics," including the loss of nonverbal cues available in face-to-face interactions, tends to lead members of computer-mediated meetings to engage in more extreme or "RISKY" decisions. Members communicating via computer may also be more outspoken, and members may engage in "rude" behaviors, including "put-downs" of other participants, because the members do not have to face the disapproving looks of other participantS. There may also be some difficulties in COORDINATING the FLOW of COMMUNICATION and in taking turns. (AUDIENCE FACTORS): AUDIENCE FACTORS are ELEMENTS RELATED to the RECEIVER, such as the PERSON'S ATTENTION span and perceptual abilities, which can FACILITATE or IMPAIR the COMMUNICATION process. The receiver's relationship to the sender can also affect the communication process. FINALLY, the DECODING SKILLS of the RECEIVER can INFLUENCE the effectiveness of communication. Although MANAGERS are often considered the SOURCE RATHER than the AUDIENCE of much organizational communication, researchers has SHOWN that EFFECTIVE MANAGERS have GOOD DECODING SKILLS in listening and responding to the needs and concerns of their subordinates, much of the COMMUNICATION in WORK settings INVOLVES spoken communication, ORAL DECODING SKILLS (AKA LISTENING SKILL), are considered to be the most IMPORTANT DECODING skills of all. RESEARCH suggests that "ACTIVE LISTENING"—where the decoder asks clarifying questions, repeats the encoder's words, and provides FEEDBACK has POSITIVE EFFECTS on the EFFECTIVENESS of the COMMUNICATION FLOW, in terms of greater comprehension and mutual understanding, and greater participant satisfaction.

THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS: A DEFINITION AND A MODEL 280-283

Communication is an ONGOING PROCESS that serves as the LIFEBLOOD of the ORGANIZATION. Communication is also extremely COMPLEX and can occur in a variety of WAYS: through the written or spoken word; through nonverbal means such as gestures, nods, or tone of voice; or through a picture or diagram. We can also communicate in a number of CONTEXTS. This COMPLEXITY, COUPLED with its almost CONTINUOUS nature's (even our silence can communicate), makes communication very DIFFICULT to STUDY. Communication involves the process of the EXCHANGE of information among TWO or MORE PARTIES, which is best represented by a simple MODEL of communication between two persons: the sender and the RECEIVER. The SENDER (AKA ENCODER) is the ORIGINATOR of the communication, and the RECEIVER (AKA DECODER) is the RECIPIENT. Communication BEGINS with some information a MESSAGE—that the SENDER WISHES to TRANSMIT to a RECEIVER. The SENDERS TASK is to TAKE the INFORMATION and put it into some form in which it can be COMMUNICATED to the RECEIVER. This process of PREPARING a MESSAGE for transmission is referred to as ENCODING, because the SENDER CHOOSES some sort of shared CODE as a means of communication. The NEXT STEP is for the SENDER to SELECT a CHANNEL, the VEHICLE through which the message will flow from the sender to the receiver. Different methods of comm. have different advantages/disadvantages. FACE-to-FACE, text messaging, or telephone communication is typically QUICK and CONVENIENT, whereas FORMAL reports or detailed memos can be TIME CONSUMING to prepare. However, the MORE FORMAL, written channels of communication are LESS LIKELY to be misun- derstood or MISINTERPRETED because of their length, detail, and careful prepara- tion. Importantly, the sender must also choose the channel of communication that is appropriate for the situation. TABLE OF PROS/CONS OF TYPES OF COMM. GIVEN ON 282. In the TWO-PERSON communication MODEL, the RECEIVER PICKS UP the MESSAGE and is RESPONSIBLE for DECODING it, or translating it in an effort to understand the meaning intended by the sender. Of course, in many communi- cations SOME of the ORIGINAL MESSAGE—that information drawn from the thought processes of the encoder—will be LOST or DISTORTED, either THROUGH the ENCODING process, through transmission, or in decoding. when the RECEIVER has DECIDED the MESSAGE, FEEDBACK, or a RESPONSE, is TRANSMITTED to the SENDER. The RECEIVER ACKNOWLEDGES receipt of the message and either tells the sender that the message is understood or requests clarification. In the FEEDBACK STAGE of the process, the COMMUNICATION model actually REVERSES, with the RECEIVER becoming the sender and VICE VERSA. the EFFECTIVE FLOW of INFORMATION from sender to receiver can BREAK DOWN at MANY POINTS. The SENDER can have DIFFICULTY in ENCODING the message, making comprehension by the receiver difficult. On the other side, the RECEIVER may INACCURATELY DECODE the MESSAGE and interpret it in a way wholly different from what the sender had in mind. A POOR CHOICE of CHANNEL may also result in a breakdown of effective communication. Furthermore, the WORK ENVIRONMENT may PROVIDE any number of DISTRACTIONS that can DISRUPT the COMMUNICATION PROCESS, such as competing conversations, loud machinery, or inconsistent or contradictory messages. Such distractions are collectively called NOISE. NOISE may ALSO REFER to PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS such as biases, perceptual differences, or selective attention, all of which make it difficult for persons to communicate with and to understand one another.

APPLYING I/O PSYCH: Increasing the Upward Flow of Organizational Communication 293

EMPLOYEE SUGGESTION SYSTEMS There are a variety of procedures by which workers can submit ideas for improving some aspect of company operations. The SUGGESTIONS are then reviewed by company decision makers, and beneficial ideas are implemented. Usually, suggestions are encouraged by some sort of incentive, such as recognition awards or cash prizes that are either fixed monetary amounts or amounts based on percentages of the savings that the suggestion produces. This form of upward communication can lead to innovations and improvement in company operations and can increase feelings of lower-level employees that they can indeed have some influence in the organiza- tion. One POTENTIAL PROBLEM with suggestion systems is that employees may use it to voice complaints about conditions that management is unable to change. GRIEVANCE SYSTEMS: related concept is the ESTABLISHMENT of FORMAL COMPLAINT or grievance procedures. Whereas suggestion systems focus on POSITIVE CHANGES, GRIEVANCES are DESIGNED to CHANGE existing negative situations and thus must be handled more delicately to protect the employee from the retribution that can result when the complaint concerns mistreatment by someone higher in the organizational hierarchy top intact. EMPLOYEE SURVEYS Conducting an EMPLOYEE SURVEY is an efficient and quick way to MEASURE employees' ATTITUDES about any aspect of organizational operations in an effort to target particular problem areas or solicit suggestions for improvement. Because surveys offer the added benefit of anonymity, workers can respond honestly without fear of reprisal from management. As in all methods, feedback from management, in the form of either action taken or justification for not taking action, is critical for the program to operate effectively. PARTICIPATIVE DECISION MAKING: A number of strategies based on DEMOCRATIC or PARTICIPATIVE STYLES of management facilitate the upward flow of communication by involving employees in the process of making important decisions. In PARTICIPATIVE decision making, EMPLOYEES can SUBMIT POSSIBLE plans and DISCUSS their BENEFITS and DRAWBACKS. They are then ALLOWED to VOTE on the courses of action the company or work group will take. This strategy covers a wide range of programs and techniques that we will be studying in later chapters.

UP CLOSE: Why Are Communication Breakdowns So Common in Organizations? 296

Even in very efficient and productive organizations, however, miscommunication seems to occur almost daily. Why are such breakdowns so common? ONE ANSWER is that many INFORMAL RULES (or norms) in organizations appear to work against open and honest communication. Organizational members learn that it is important to engage in impression management, that is, to PRESENT oneself in a FAVORABLE light to get ahead in the company. It is not considered wise to admit to personal faults or limitations. Likewise, it is seen as important to project an air of self-confidence and competence. This may lead to a worker trying to tackle a very difficult task or problem alone, rather than asking for assistance.In competitive organizational settings, an air of mistrust of others may arise. As a result, verbal messages may not be entirely believed or may be seen as containing underlying alternative meanings ("What was he really saying to me?"). MISTRUST is often present in organizations that have a history of not dealing honestly and openly with employees. This lack of trust may lead to limited communication, which is a serious problem for organizations whose lifeblood is the open flow of messages. ANOTHER REASON IS employee feelings of defensiveness. Organizational communication breakdowns can also be caused by the tendency for people to under- communicate. Workers generally assume that everyone in the work setting has access to the same information and possesses the same knowledge. Therefore, to avoid redundancy, a communicator may neglect to convey some important information to coworkers, assuming that they already know it. In reality, the other workers may not have the information or may have forgotten it and thus need to be reminded. Supervisors and managers are particularly prone to undercommunication, believing that subordinates do not need to be (or should not be) given certain information.

FORMAL AND INFORMAL LINES OF COMMUNICATION: THE HIERARCHY VERSUS THE GRAPEVINE 299-302

The OFFICIAL LINES of communication in an organization are illustrated in the company's ORGANIZATIONAL CHART, or ORGANIGRAM, which is a DIAGRAM of the HIERARCHY. When OFFICIAL MESSAGES must be SENT UP or DOWN the HIERARCHY, they typically follow the lines shown in the organigram. The FORMAL LINES of COMMUNICATION are usually GOVERNED by the ORGANIZATIONAL STATUS or AUTHORITY of the DIFFERENT members. However, although every organization possesses formal lines of communication, each also has INFORMAL COMMUNICATION LINES, AKA THE GRAPEVINE. Throughout the workday, messages are passed from one worker to another along the grapevine. Whereas formal communication lines are represented by the organigram, the INFORMAL LINES of COMMUNICATION among work group or organizational members are ILLUSTRATED by the SOCIOGRAM. In effect, the sociogram is a diagram of the organizational grapevine. SOCIOGRAMS are USED to STUDY the INFORMAL CONTACTS and COMMUNICATIONS occurring among organizational members. BAIRD (1977) suggested that THREE FACTORS DETERMINE the PATTERN of communication links that FORM the GRAPEVINE: FRIENDSHIP, USAGE, and EFFICIENCY. FINALLY, the GRAPEVINE sometimes DEVELOPS because it is EASIER and more EFFICIENT for WORKERS to FOLLOW their OWN INFORMAL NETWORKS rather than the formal lines of communication. In addition to being a substitute network for formal lines of communication, the grapevine also SERVES a VITAL FUNCTION in MAINTAINING SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS among workers. Because most formal communication tends to be task-oriented, focusing on jobs and job outcomes, the grapevine helps to meet the SOCIAL COMMUNICATION needs of WORKERS. The GRAPEVINE can also help in REITERATING IMPORTANT MESSAGES that have been SENT through formal communication channels. The grapevine serves many IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS for the SMOOTH OPERATION of the ORGANIZATION, but it can also be PERCEIVED as having a somewhat NEGATIVE function: the transmission of RUMORS. Rumors involve information that is presented as fact, but may actually be either TRUE or FALSE. Rumors are based on such things as employee speculations and wishful thinking. The TRANSMISSION of FALSE RUMORS VIA the GRAPEVINE is actually relatively RARE, and estimates indicate that the grapevine is accurate at least 75% to 80% of the time. In comparison, remember that the messages sent through formal communication lines may not always be 100% accurate. A FALSE RUMOR usually RESULTS when ORGANIZATIONAL MEMBERS LACK INFORMATION about a topic that concerns them. When false rumors do occur, the BEST STRATEGY for COMBATTING them may be to PROVIDE ACCURATE INFORMATION through FORMAL CHANNELS of COMMUNICATION and through the GRAPEVINE, if management is tapped into it.

ON THE CUTTING EDGE: Communicating in a Diverse, Multicultural Work Environment 288

The workforce in most organizations is made up of people from VARIOUS CULTURAL BACKGROUNDS, many of who are NONNATIVE SPEAKERS of the DOMINANT LANGUAGE. Moreover, many COMPANIES are ENGAGED in INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS and inter- act with workers from a variety of nations and cultures. Such cultural diversity has many ADVANTAGES. DIVERSE workforces tend to be more CREATIVE, more adaptable, and more tolerant of others. As you can imagine, however, CULTURAL and LANGUAGE DIFFERENCES can PRESENT CHALLENGES to the effective FLOW of COMMUNICATION within organizations. Moreover, CULTURAL DIFFERENCES can THREATEN a common, shared COMMITMENT to ORGANIZATIONAL GOALS. CULTURALLY BASED COMMUNICATION differences can also AFFECT the ability of companies from different nations and cultures to work with one another. For example, the communication style of most North American managers tends to be direct and "confrontation-centered." The Japanese business communication style, however, tends to be indirect and "agreement-centered." Such differences can lead to serious communication breakdowns. Realizing the need to prevent cross-cultural communication breakdown, organizations have taken SEVERAL STEPS to FACILITATE intercultural organizational communi- cation.many organizations have developed multicultural awareness and training programs. In addition, many international businesses have training programs specifically designed for preparing employees for assignments in other countries. ONE MODEL of PREPARING MANAGERS for WORKING with CULTURALLY DIVERSE and multinational work groups suggests that GENERAL COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE, PROFICIENCY in other LANGUAGES, an AWARENESS of CULTURAL DIFFERENCES, and an ABILITY to NEGOTIATE with PEOPLE of DIVERSE backgrounds are the keys to success.