week 8
Autobiographical memory forms the core of an individual's:
1) personal identity
Faulty eyewitness testimony has been implicated in at least ______ of DNA exoneration cases.
75%
Which of the following best describes a flashbulb memory?
A person will have greater memory of some momentous and emotional event
Stimulus-control techniques have gained popularity in laboratory research. Now, scientists interested in perception have studied "higher" cognitive processes in pigeons such as whether or not they know how to categorize. This higher cognitive process can also be described as which of the following?
Ability to sort or arrange different items into classes
The "law of effect" states:
Any behavior that leads to a positive state is likely to be repeated.
Which of the following questions might be the most effective for examining the phenomenon of false memory?
Asking a participant where on the Pepsi machine they saw the button to select a can of Sprite (which is actually a Coke product, not a Pepsi product).
The researchers most closely associated with operant conditioning are:
B.F. Skinner and Edward Thorndike
In which of these scenarios has extinction occurred?
Connor has quit smoking and no longer feels excited when he sees a cigarette.
_________ is a process that occurs after encoding that is believed to stabilize memory traces.
Consolidation
A man named Ronald Cotton was imprisoned after being identified as the person who committed a rape. After more than 10 years, he was exonerated of the crime and released. What led to this reversal of his conviction?
DNA evidence
Participants were given a word list with the following words: table, restaurant, food, silverware, plate, service, and waiter. Later, when asked to recall the words, many participants accidentally included the word dinner, even though it was not on the list. This phenomena is referred to as:
Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) effect
Which of the following would be an example of a 'false memory'?
Gina remembers getting lost in a shopping mall when she was a child because her sister often tells her that this event occurred, even though it never really happened.
Judge Martinez is presiding over a murder trial, and is getting ready to explain to the jury what their role will be as they hear the case. If he wants to reduce the problems associated with memory and the legal system, which of the following should he do based on recommendations offer in the text?
Give the jury proper education about eyewitness memory and testimony.
Which of the following is an important difference between classical and operant conditioning?
In classical conditioning, the behavior is involuntary, whereas in operant conditioning it is voluntary.
In what way are classical and operant conditioning distinct?
In operant conditioning, the strength of learning is usually measured by emitted responses, whereas in classical conditioning it is usually measured by elicited responses.
Mr. Sampson's mouth always waters when he sees a donut. He nearly always orders a coffee when he has a donut. One day, he orders a coffee and a chocolate donut. He is served the coffee right away, but told that the donuts are still being made and he will have to wait a few minutes. He takes a seat while he is waiting and takes a deep sniff of his coffee. As he does so, he begins salivating. In terms of classical conditioning, why did this happen?
It happened because the coffee is acting as a conditioned stimulus.
A memory template created through repeated exposure to a particular class of objects or events is known as a schema. What is the best example of a schema below?
Jessica knows that when going to a restaurant it is typical to be seated, given menus, time to order, and she will be expected to pay the bill after she finishes eating.
Which of the following best captures how memory works?
Memories are reconstructions of the event, which makes them susceptible to inaccuracy
Dr. Loftus has used a false feedback manipulation to persuade subjects to falsely remember having a variety of childhood experiences. Which of the following best describes this experimental technique?
Participants are deceived to believe a computer system has analyzed questionnaires they previously completed and concluded they had particular experiences years earlier.
According to Lofts' research on eyewitness testimony which of the following would you most likely expect to happen when a person witnesses a car accident?
People will often offer biased reports of the event because they are susceptible to misinformation and other recall problems.
The finding that an animal will stop performing an instrumental response that once led to a reinforcer if the reinforcer is separately made aversive or undesirable is known as what?
Reinforcer devaluation effect
Emily naturally blinks whenever her sister pretends she's going to poke her in the eye. Her sister, a psychology major, then decides to have a little fun. She pairs the word "psychology" (conditioned stimulus) with pretending to poke Emily in the eye (unconditioned stimulus). Soon, Emily blinks as soon as she hears the word "psychology." According to the concept of blocking, what would happen in this scenario if Emily's sister also started snapping her fingers when she said the word psychology?
Snapping her fingers will not have any additional effects because it is not adding any surprise to predict the unconditioned stimulus
Three years ago, Nasim ate a burger and was violently sick a few hours afterwards. Even though it was the only time up to that point that he had had this reaction to burgers, he cannot even look at a burger without feeling sick. Why is his conditioned taste aversion puzzling from the perspective of the general principles of classical conditioning?
The association that Nasim made between eating the burger and feeling sick required only a single US-CS pairing.
Which of the following examples is consistent with the Law of Effect?
The more you win at soccer, the more likely you will continue to play soccer.
Which of the following best captures the idea of cue overload?
To be effective, a retrieval cue has to be unique.
Vera and Xavier are both eyewitnesses to a robbery at a convenience store. The police ask them to come to the station to get their versions of the event. According to research by Garry, French, Kinzett, & Mori (2008), what would be most likely to decrease the accuracy of Vera and Xavier's recounting of the crime?
Vera and Xavier are left in the witness room alone together for 20 minutes and they discuss what they saw.
Jaspreet has been nagged by his parents to make his bed.
When Jaspreet makes his bed and the nagging stops, he is negatively reinforced
Which of the following accurately reflects the influence of group discussion on recall accuracy?
When groups discuss an event, it reduces individual recall accuracy.
Forgetting is one type of error, where you cannot recall information. Misremembering is another type of error. Which of the following would be an example of misremembering?
You falsely recognize a definition term on an exam, remembering the word but not the concept
In a 1978 study by Loftus, Miller, & Burns, participants were asked what they saw during a slideshow depicting which of the following events?
a car driving and hitting a pedestrian
Which of the following is a primary reinforcer?
a glass of water
The encoding specificity principle is a hypothesis that states:
a retrieval cue will be effective to the extent that information encoded from the cue overlaps or matches information in the engram/memory trace.
A Pavlovian conditioned response elicits:
a whole system of responses in which some are more easily measured or observed
In a follow-up study to the original Bobo Doll experiment, Badura observed the process of vicarious reinforcement, where children behaved less aggressively when:
aggressive models were punished
Fear conditioning can play a role in creating __________ in humans.
anxiety disorders
The technical definition of a reinforcer is:
any consequence of a behavior that strengthens the behavior or increases the likelihood that it will be performed again
At which stage does memory failure typically occur?
any stage
Which is the correct order of the four parts of learning theorized by Bandura?
attention, retention, initiation, motivation
Episodic memory is the memory system that holds what kind of information?
autobiographical knowledge
Social models are an important part of observational learning. Which group is NOT necessarily a good social model for learning?
best friends
Which groups would memory researchers likely say would be the most susceptible to misinformation?
children and older adults
In Bandura's famous experiment children observed either an aggressive or a non-aggressive model in a room of toys and a Bobo Doll. When allowed to play with Bobo, researchers observed that children who observed the aggressive model were more aggressive in their own interactions. Research concluded that:
children used their observation of adult models to determine that aggressive behavior was acceptable
Sidney Crosby, a famous hockey player, is paid $10 million to wear Reebok ice-skates. Reebok hopes this will increase sales of their skates due to:
classical conditioning
Andre grew up in New Orleans and was present when Hurricane Katrina occurred. His family, his community, and Andre share a ________ memory of this event.
collective
When Nora goes into a cupcake bakery, she is surrounded by cues associated with cupcakes. Her response elicited by these cues is to expect a very delicious dessert. When she waits until she gets home to eat the cupcake, that's exactly what she experiences. However, when she eats the cupcake at the bakery it is not as delicious as she predicted. Which concept can explain this phenomenon of cues reducing the strength of the unconditioned response (i.e. enjoyment of the cupcake)?
conditioned compensatory responses
Simon's rabbit gets a treat every night. The treats come in a plastic bag that makes a crinkling sound. When the rabbit hears the bag he runs to the door of his cage to await the treat. One night Simon when Simon is eating chips the rabbit hears the sound of the bag and runs to his cage door. The sound of the bag is the:
conditioned stimulus
In Pavlov's experiments, what type of stimulus was the bell, generally?
conditioned.
As learning occurs over repeated conditioning trials, the conditioned stimulus increasingly predicts the unconditioned stimulus, and prediction error __________.
declines
The stimulus controlling the operant response is called a __________ stimulus. For example, students do not learn simply when material is set in front of them. Instead, the material sets the occasion for learning to occur.
discriminative
Which principle describes when an unusual event, typically in the context of similar events, will be recalled and recognized better than uniform events?
distinctiveness
Your drive to school each day is pretty standard - you start your car, take the same route, and park in the same spot (or close to the same spot). One day, you are sitting at a red light when you witness a high speed car chase - complete with cops, a helicopter, and news vans. Even years later, you can recall lots of details from that drive. Which memory concept is associated with why you will remember that particular drive to school?
distinctiveness
In classical conditioning, the response is ________ by a stimulus that comes ________it
elicited; before
During the lecture Wayne is busy texting on his cell phone, while kind of half paying attention to what the professor is saying. A few minutes after making a point the professor gives an pop quiz on the material. Wayne can't retrieve the information the prof gave in the lecture and does poorly on the test. A likely factor in Wayne's not being able to retrieve the information is:
encoding failure
It is critical to use good interviewing techniques with eyewitnesses after an event because good interviewing techniques can:
enhance the quality and quantity of information obtained from an eyewitness
When Carla was discussing the party with one of her friends, she was trying to remember a conversation she'd had. Carla was trying to access her:
episodic memory
According to research evidence, __________ is the most persuasive form of evidence presented in court.
eyewitness testimony
A(n) _________ memory is a memory of an event that never actually occurred. It is implanted by experimental manipulation or other means.
false
Imagine that you are a memory researcher and want to learn about memory errors. You decide to meet with participants and ask them about the time they went camping with their family (even though they have never camped in their lives). At first, the participants are hesitant, not really remembering the camping trip (because it never happened!). However, after you show them a few Photoshopped images of them in a sleeping bag and in the forest, they begin to remember details about the trip - how the family went berry picking or that an animal tried to get into the food supply. This phenomenon is referred to as:
false memory
Marcela can clearly remember the moment she learned about the events of Sept. 11, 2001. She vividly recalls when her teacher walked in and turned on the news - the face of the firefighter she saw is permanently etched in her brain. She remembers who was sitting next to her and what she was wearing. This scenario describes what phenomenon?
flashbulb memory
When Gerard flipped through photographs trying to find the perpetrator of a crime he witnessed, he did not see the suspect. Instead, all the members of the lineup were _________.
foils
Scientists do not believe that instrumental learning is simply a stimulus-response pattern. Instead, reinforcers are said to lead to behavior that is __________, or influenced by the current value of its associated goal.
goal-directed
When a goal-directed action becomes automated and routine it is called a:
habit
Which of the following describes a situation where a person goes beyond available evidence to form a conclusion that is likely to be true? For example, Romeo might infer from his smart older sister that when she said, "I finished the test" that meant that she passed the test.
making a pragmatic inference
Some people have amazing and elaborate memory processes that allow them to remember a large amount of information in a short amount of time. Often, these individuals are said to use ______________, or elaborate scenes with discrete places, to help them encode and recall information at a rapid rate.
memory palaces
Our experiences that directly impact our brain though neural processes are referred to as:
memory traces/engrams
A memory error caused by exposure to incorrect data between the original event and a subsequent memory test of that event is called the __________ effect.
misinformation
In a study, researchers asked one group of participants to watch a video about two friends in an unpleasant argument. They asked another group of participants to watch the same video, but told participants that it was a video of two friends enjoying a lively discussion. Afterwards, the researchers notice that participants who were told the discussion was an argument were more likely to falsely report that the people in the video were yelling, frowning, and getting angry. This is an example of:
misinformation effect
"Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally" (PEMDAS) is a popular way for math teachers to help their students remember the order of operations (Parentheses, Exponents, Multiplication and Division, Addition and Subtraction). This is an example of:
mnemonic devices
Dr. Rjinteck is interested in false eyewitness reports. She is conducting a study to see if a participant's judgment can be influenced if he/she is making decisions in a group of people versus alone. However, the other group members are not participants. Instead, they are research assistants who are "in on the study" and simply acting or playing the part of witnesses in the study. These pretend research subjects are known as _____________ in a study.
mock witnesses
If Jack confiscates his son Joshua's video game console to stop him from misbehaving, what technique is Jack using to modify Joshua's behavior?
negative punishment.
Kelly is grounded by her father, until she sits down and completes an important homework assignment. Which technique has her father used to try to alter her behavior?
negative reinforcement.
A child who learns to play kickball by sitting back and watching is engaged in:
observational learning
When trying to remember a list of words, a person may choose a word to which they "hang" their memories on. This type of mnemonic device is called the ___________ __________ technique.
peg word
A __________ involves giving a selection of normally small pictures of faces to eyewitnesses for the purpose of identifying a perpetrator.
photo spread
Mary Claire was witness to a robbery. The police would like her to identify the robber. Instead of bringing suspects in and having Mary Claire look at them through a one-way mirror, the police have her flip through a selection of photographs of faces, also known as a ___________.
photo spread
Kurt's mom was so upset when she overheard him swearing that she made him clean his room! This is an example of:
positive punishment
Richard, an institutionalized schizophrenic patient has poor personal hygiene. He is given a token each time he completes a personal hygiene behavior (e.g., brush their teeth in the morning). At the end of the week Richard can exchange these tokens for his favorite snack. The token acts as a:
positive reinforcement
Humans are much more likely to associate snakes with danger than flowers and danger. This is due to our evolutionary tendency called __________.
preparedness
At your old apartment, you had to take out the trash every Friday. However, at your new apartment, the trash comes on Wednesdays. Now, you can never seem to remember to take the trash out in time (you keep thinking it needs to be taken out on Friday). This is an example of what type of forgetting?
proactive interference
Dianne is learning to play tennis. She is quite an accomplished badminton player. She is having a difficult time adjusting her stroke to account for the weight of the racquet and ball in tennis. This is an example of:
proactive interference
If old experiences disrupt recall of new experiences, this is referred to as:
proactive interference.
According to the _________ law of effect, David is less likely to turn to drugs, sex, or alcohol for reinforcement since he has plenty of other sources of reinforcement such as good grades, soccer team wins, and parental praise.
quantitative
Imagine that you are trying to teach your friend a new language. In order to make sure they are learning the vocabulary, you have them write down, from memory, every word they can think of that has to do with clothes (i.e., you have them write down words like dress, pants, shoes, shorts, t-shirt, etc.). This type of memory performance is referred to as:
recall test
When Chloe was trying to learn about the stages of memory, she used a personal example to help her transform the information as it was given into something that made sense to her. This process is known as what?
recoding
Cues that work best to evoke retrieval are those that recreate the event or name to be remembered and sometimes the target itself. However, sometimes these cues do not work and people are unsuccessful in identifying the correct answer. For example, if I am trying to cue someone to think of their home-phone, I might give the cue "phone". However, this could also prompt the individual to recall words like work-phone or cell-phone, thus failing to recall home-phone. Which phenomenon describes this failure?
recognition failure of recallable words
Effects that increase behaviors are __________;effects that decrease them are ____________.
reinforcers; punishers
What phenomenon describes the possibility of an extinguished response being activated again in a new context?
renewal effect
The testing effect refers to:
repeated self-testing as a way to enhance retention of information
The act of retrieval can have both positive and negative outcomes. On one hand, it improves the information just retrieved and increases the likelihood it will be retrieved again, a phenomenon called the _______________. On the other hand, it harms related information causing a person to forget such related information, a phenomenon called _____________.
retrieval practice effect; retrieval-induced forgetting
If new experiences disrupt recall of old experiences, this is referred to as:
retroactive interference.
When exposed to adults who say one thing and do another, children will tend to:
say the same things and do what they observed the adults did
A(n) __________ is a memory template that is formed through repeated exposure to a particular class of objects or events.
schema
Bryan is chatting with a friend and tells the friend that the capital of China is Beijing, but in the past had been called Peking. His friend remarks that this is fascinating, and asks when Bryan learned that. Bryan thinks for a moment and then says, "I don't really know." The information about Beijing/Peking was likely retrieved from Bryan's:
semantic memory
Memory that is not embedded in a context is called:
semantic memory
Social Learning Theory requires ___________ in order for learning to take place.
social models
Ronaldo's dog, Mickey, used to be classically conditioned to bark every time he heard the doorbell because he knew people would be arriving and he wanted to say hello. While Mickey's owner did a good job of extinguishing Mickey's association of these stimuli, a doorbell can still sometimes evoke some responding again of Mickey barking. It is likely that Mikey is showing what aspect of conditioning?
spontaneous recovery
Pin-ya raises her hand when she wants to speak in the classroom; however, she does not need to do so at home. This is because at school, her operant behavior is under _________ control.
stimulus
In classical conditioning, the animal behaves as if it has learned to associate a ________with a significant event. In operant conditioning, the animal behaves as if it has learned to associate a ________with a significant event.
stimulus; behavior
When you were 10 years old, you were REALLY into Pokémon. You knew all the characters, their families, and their evolutionary history. However, you quit playing Pokémon when you got to junior high because your friends made fun of you. Now, you can still remember some of the characters, but you can't remember all the details. This is an example of
storage decay
When you were 10 years old, you were REALLY into Pokémon. You knew all the characters, their families, and their evolutionary history. However, you quit playing Pokémon when you got to junior high because your friends made fun of you. Now, you can still remember some of the characters, but you can't remember all the details. This is an example of:
storage decay
Rick has been working hard to make the Dean's list this semester. At midterms he finds he has two exams on the same day. He studies for both exams the night before. If Rick wants to minimize the amount of retroactive interference he should:
study for the afternoon exam first, then the morning exam
When Carla was a child, she ate too much cotton candy at the fair and got very sick. For many years she avoided cotton candy and even the smell of it made her feel sick. This example demonstrates:
taste aversion
In classical conditioning the unconditioned response is:
the biological response triggered by the unconditioned stimulus
When Leanne was classically conditioned, she was in a room that had a waterfall painted on one wall. Now, when she goes hiking and sees an actual waterfall, she produces a conditioned response. This change in environment that can cause renewal effects is also known as what?
the change in context
Every time you eat cotton candy, you are reminded of the time you went to a carnival with your best friend and ate cotton candy until you were sick. In this scenario, the cotton candy represents:
the retrieval cue
In the real world Classical and Operant Conditioning occur together. The stimulus - response - outcome framework can explain many behaviors. Occasion setting is defined in the most complex link. Occasion setting is when:
the stimulus signals the response-outcome relationship is in effect
If a tone is sometimes preceded by a light, and always followed by a shock, an animal will likely learn to fear:
the tone, but not the light
The failure to retrieve a word from memory, combined with partial recall and the feeling that retrieval is imminent is known by psychologists as the _____________ effect.
tip-of-the-tongue
When you feel that you know the name of a famous actor—you can even imagine her face and think of movies she has starred in—but you cannot quite remember her name this is an example of the _____________ effect.
tip-of-the-tongue
In a "Skinner box" experiments with rats the rats can learn:
to press a lever when reinforced with a food pellet
Jessy was speeding on his motorcycle when he saw another person pulled over by the police. This made Jessy slow down because he was reminded through watching another person what the punishment of his behavior would be. What is this specific process of observational learning called?
vicarious reinforcement
According to eyewitness testimony research, which of the following increases the likelihood of identification errors?
when eye-witnesses are asked to identify a perpetrator from a race other than their own
Levi met a cute girl on the street. The girl gave Levi her number and Levi is trying to remember the digits until he can write it down when he finds a paper and pencil. Levi is using what type of memory to remember the girl's phone number?
working memory