Week 9 Learning
Susan is undergoing chemotherapy, which makes her feel nauseous. Now she feels nauseous the moment she walks into the doctor's office. What is the unconditioned response in this situation?
nausea
Sven eats popcorn every time he goes to the movies. He goes to a new theatre with no concessions and finds that his mouth is watering for popcorn the entire time. In this example, what is the conditioned stimulus?
watching the movie
habituation:
when we learn not to respond to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly without change
cognitive map:
a mental picture of the layout of the maze
Which of the following is an example of a reflex?
a newborn baby knowing how to nurse
When a previously learned behavior disappears because the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus, we call it ________.
extinction
Based on the data above, were girls more likely to show verbal aggression if they had seen a male model or a female model?
female
The term "latent learning" refers to learning that ________.
learning that does not reveal itself until needed
model:
person who performs a behavior that serves as an example (in observational learning)
According to the principles of social learning theory, Claire is likely to demonstrate aggressive behavior if she
sees a character on TV get rewarded for being violent towards another character
Bandura and other researchers proposed a brand of behaviorism called social learning theory, which took
cognitive processes into account.
in classical conditioning, also known as Pavlovian conditioning,
organisms learn to associate events—or stimuli—that repeatedly happen together.
Reinforcement differs from punishment in that ________.
reinforment is any outcome that leads to an increase in a behavior and a punishment is an outcome that leads to a decrease in that behavior
conditioned response (CR):
response caused by the conditioned stimulus
spontaneous recovery:
return of a previously extinguished conditioned response
Taste aversion
is a type of conditioning in which an interval of several hours may pass between the conditioned stimulus (something ingested) and the unconditioned stimulus (nausea or illness).
Extinction occurs when ________
the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without being paired with an unconditioned stimulus
Based on the data above, were children (boys and girls) more likely to show verbal aggression if they had seen an aggressive model or a non-aggressive model?
an aggressive model
Terry keeps interrupting the teacher during spelling instruction. The teacher says he has to write each spelling word ten times for extra homework. The next day, Terry is thinking about interrupting the teacher. The extra homework is a [Select 1][Select 2] .
positive punisher
Which type of reinforcers have innate reinforcing qualities that are not learned?
primary
________ reinforcers have innate reinforcing qualities.
primary
In Watson and Rayner's experiments, Little Albert was conditioned to fear a white rat, and then he began to be afraid of other furry white objects. This demonstrates ________.
stimulus generalization
Which component of a classically conditioned behavior automatically elicits a reaction? For example, dimming the lights will cause the eyes to dilate.
unconditioned stimulus
_______ is when you take away a pleasant stimulus to stop a behavior. Multiple Choice Question
negative punishment
Based on the data above, did boys or girls on the average show more physical aggression toward the Bobo doll?
boys
janette comes home too late after her high school party. She loses her driving privileges for two weeks. A month later, Janette is at another party and she is supposed to be home in a half hour. The loss of driving privileges is a [Select 1] [Select 2] .
negative punisher
Dave has a splitting headache. He decides to go for a run and like magic the headache disappears. The next time he has a headache, he is thinking about going for a run. The disappearance of the headache is a [Select 1] [Select 2].
negative reinforcer
A light is turned on in front of a hungry dog a few seconds before it is given a small piece of meat. The first time this happens in an experiment like the one that Pavlov conducted, the light is considered to be ________.
neutral
A stimulus that does not initially elicit a response in an organism is a(n) ________.
neutral stimulus
When Rosalie falls asleep at a park next to an elementary school, the ringing bell wakes her up. She immediately jumps to her feet and starts to pack up her bag because she has been conditioned to think the ringing bell signifies the end of class and the need to go somewhere else. When Rosalie was little, before ever attending school, the sound of a bell was a
neutral stimulus
Pavlov would sound a tone (like ringing a bell) and then give the dogs the meat powder. The tone was the
neutral stimulus (NS), which is a stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response
second group rats in the maze
never received any food reward, so there was no incentive to learn to navigate the maze effectively.
Before Trial #11, the "No Food Until Trial 11" group performed more like the ________ group.
no food on any trial
Based on the data above, did boys or girls on the average show more verbal aggression toward the Bobo doll?
not a clear difference
variable ratio reinforcement schedule:
number of responses differ before a behavior is rewarded
According to Albert Bandura, ________.
Learning can occur by watching others and modeling what they do or say.
Which of the following is not an example of a primary reinforcer? The question has been evaluated. Your choice is incorrect. Multiple Choice Questionfood
Money
What is the effect of prosocial modeling and antisocial modeling?
Prosocial modeling can prompt others to engage in helpful and healthy behaviors, while antisocial modeling can prompt others to engage in violent, aggressive, and unhealthy behaviors.
What is shaping and how would you use shaping to teach a dog to roll over?
Shaping is an operant conditioning method in which you reward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. If you want to teach your dog to roll over, you might reward him first when he sits, then when he lies down, and then when he lies down and rolls onto his back. Finally, you would reward him only when he completes the entire sequence: lying down, rolling onto his back, and then continuing to roll over to his other side.
stimulus discrimination:
ability to respond differently to similar stimuli
learning involves
acquiring knowledge and skills through experience
positive reinforcement:
adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior
secondary reinforcer
has no inherent value and only has reinforcing qualities when linked with a primary reinforcer. Praise, linked to affection, is one example of a secondary reinforcer, as when you called out "Great shot!" every time Joaquin made a goal.
Both instincts and reflexes are
innate (unlearned) behaviors that organisms are born with
instincts are
innate behaviors that are triggered by a broader range of events, such as maturation and the change of seasons.
Fixed interval Reinforcement
is delivered at predictable time intervals (e.g., after 5, 10, 15, and 20 minutes).Moderate response rate with significant pauses after reinforcement Hospital patient uses patient-controlled, doctor-timed pain relief
Variable interval Reinforcement
is delivered at unpredictable time intervals (e.g., after 5, 7, 10, and 20 minutes).Moderate yet steady response rate Checking Facebook
positive punishment
is scolding a student to get the student to stop texting in class. In this case, a stimulus (the reprimand) is added in order to decrease the behavior (texting in class).
Learning that does not reveal itself until it is needed is called
latent learning
The person who performs a behavior that serves as an example is called a ________.
model
unconditioned response (UCR):
natural (unlearned) behavior to a given stimulus
The dependent variable in this study was ________.
number of errors made while running through the maze
Jackie wants her dog to bring her the mail each day after it's dropped in through the mail slot. Instead of trying teach her dog, Dodger, all at once, she begins by giving him treats each time he goes to the mail slot. This is an example of
shaping
third group of rats in the maze
was like the second group for the first 10 days, but on the 11th day, food was now placed at the end of the maze.
punishment
always decreases a behavior
stimulus generalization:
demonstrating the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus
Two other learning processes—stimulus discrimination and stimulus generalization—are involved in
determining which stimuli will trigger learned responses.
"Eyeblink conditioning" can be used to demonstrate classical conditioning safely with a human volunteer. A puff of air aimed at your eye will naturally produce a blinking response. Using this reflex, what could we do to create a complete classical conditioning demonstration?
ring bell b4 puff until blinks to bell alone
fixed interval reinforcement
schedule is when behavior is rewarded after a set amount of time. For example, June undergoes major surgery in a hospital. D
fixed ratio reinforcement schedule
there are a set number of responses that must occur before the behavior is rewarded.
higher-order conditioning:
(also, second-order conditioning) using a conditioned stimulus to condition a neutral stimulus
________ reinforcement is giving a reinforcer every time that a behavior is displayed.
continuous
In operant conditioning, what describes adding something to decrease the likelihood of behavior?
Positive punishment
positive reinforcement
a desirable stimulus is added to increase a behavior.
Which of the following is an example of operant conditioning?
when a rabbit goes to the bathroom in the litter box, she gets a piece of carrot
negative punishment
you remove a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior. For example, when a child misbehaves, a parent can take away a favorite toy. In this case, a stimulus (the toy) is removed in order to decrease the behavior.
In the classic Pavlov experiment, the unconditioned stimulus is the [Select1] the conditioned stimulus is the [Select2] the unconditioned response is the [Select3] no salivation food tone salivation , and the conditioned response is the [Select4] food no salivation salivation tone .
1 Food 2 Tone 3 Salvation 4 Salvation
Punishment ________ the likelihood that a behavior will occur while reinforcement ________ the likelihood of a behavior.
1 decrease 2 increase
The group with food on every trial is making about ________ wrong turns on the average on Trial #6.
16
All three groups are making about ________ wrong turns on the average on Trial #1.
30
What is a Skinner box and what is its purpose?
A Skinner box is an operant conditioning chamber used to train animals such as rats and pigeons to perform certain behaviors, like pressing a lever. When the animals perform the desired behavior, they receive a reward: food or water.
law of effect
According to the law of effect, behaviors that are followed by consequences that are satisfying to the organism are more likely to be repeated, and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated (Thorndike, 1911).
Who proposed observational learning?
Albert Bandura
Classical Conditioning Conditioning approach: Stimulus timing:
An unconditioned stimulus (such as food) is paired with a neutral stimulus (such as a bell). The neutral stimulus eventually becomes the conditioned stimulus, which brings about the conditioned response (salivation). The stimulus occurs immediately before the response.
________ is well known for his research on animals and pigeons. He even created an operant conditioning chamber designed to reward animals for specific behaviors.
BF skinner
Emily's mouth starts to water whenever she gets ready to eat fresh baked pizza. Recently she noticed that she now salivates when she drives past her favorite pizza shop on the way to school even though she cannot see or smell the pizza from inside the car.
Classical Conditioning
Frank goes out with some friends to a new restaurant near campus. He gets fish-and-chips, but he also drinks a few too many mixed drinks and gets sick. The next time he goes to the restaurant, he avoids the fish-and-chips because the very thought of them makes him feel nauseous.
Classical Conditioning
What is the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment?
In negative reinforcement you are taking away an undesirable stimulus in order to increase the frequency of a certain behavior (e.g., buckling your seat belt stops the annoying beeping sound in your car and increases the likelihood that you will wear your seatbelt). Punishment is designed to reduce a behavior (e.g., you scold your child for running into the street in order to decrease the unsafe behavior.)
Explain how the processes of stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination are considered opposites.
In stimulus generalization, an organism responds to new stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus. For example, a dog barks when the doorbell rings. He then barks when the oven timer dings because it sounds very similar to the doorbell. On the other hand, stimulus discrimination occurs when an organism learns a response to a specific stimulus, but does not respond the same way to new stimuli that are similar. In this case, the dog would bark when he hears the doorbell, but he would not bark when he hears the oven timer ding because they sound different; the dog is able to distinguish between the two sounds
Which of the following is an example of a reflex that occurs at some point in the development of a human being?
Infant sucking on a nipple
Tabish and Frida decide to sit Aleena in time out each time she runs ahead on the hiking trail. They believe this will teach Aleena to stop this undesirable behavior. What type of operant conditioning are they using?
Negative punishment
Trenton and Dylan are playing in the snow. Dylan wants Trenton to play with him, but Trenton is building a snowman. Dylan starts yelling "Trenton, play! Trenton, play!" He continues to yell until Trenton comes over to play with him. Which type of conditioning is Dylan using to increase Trenton's time playing with him?
Negative reinforcement
Mittens the cat just happened to brush against the refrigerator when Jana, her owner, was in the kitchen. Jana said, "Oh, you want some milk!" and gave her a little bowl. Mittens started hanging out near the refrigerator more often, which meant she brushed against it more often. Jana thought it was cute, so she gave her milk every time she brushed the refrigerator. Soon, mittens learned that brushing against the refrigerator was a sure way to get some milk.
Operant Conditioning
Mia is taught to go to sleep when the light is turned off. However, for many months Mia no longer falls asleep when the light is turned off. Later, Mia begins to fall asleep when the light is turned off again. This is an example of ________.
Spontaneous recovery
At the end of the school day, Sarah received a report card from school. On the report card, Sarah saw that she made all As. When Sarah showed her parents, they congratulated her and even offered to take her out to her favorite restaurant. Sarah became happy and joyful. The next time Sarah received a good report card, she automatically became happy and joyful. What is the conditioned stimulus?
The all A report card
telling students if they fill up a jar with tokens for good behavior, then they will get a pizza party at the end of the year.
This is an example of a token economy, an operant conditioning strategy.
How does a neutral stimulus become a conditioned stimulus?
This occurs through the process of acquisition. A human or an animal learns to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus. During the acquisition phase, the neutral stimulus begins to elicit the conditioned response. The neutral stimulus is becoming the conditioned stimulus. At the end of the acquisition phase, learning has occurred and the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus capable of eliciting the conditioned response by itself.
Which of the following is an example of operant conditioning?
When a dog plays dead she gets a treat in order to encourage repeat behavior
On Trial #1, the rats in all three conditions were ________ in the number of errors they made.
about the same
In classical conditioning, organisms learn to
associate events that readily happen together
When a person or animal makes connections between stimuli or events that occur together, they are exemplifying ________ learning.
associative
Two forms of associative learning are ________ and ________.
classical conditioning and operant conditioning
In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus is presented
immediately before an unconditioned stimulus
punishment:
implementation of a consequence in order to decrease a behavior
In Bandura's Bobo doll study, when the children who watched the aggressive model were placed in a room with the doll and other toys, they ________.
kicked and threw the doll
Which of the following statements about Ivan Pavlov is true?
known for establishing conditions classical conditioning
Jeffrey always enjoyed cooking simple meals for himself. When he was preparing a meal, he would frequently read new recipes and he liked to wander around the local Whole Foods store. When his friend Marsha asked that he help her with food for a party she was having, Jeffrey amazed everyone, including himself, when he prepared a feast that looked and tasted like it was done by a professional caterer. Jeffrey's newfound skill is an example of
latent learning
operant conditioning
organisms learn to associate a behavior and its consequence (Table 1). A pleasant consequence makes that behavior more likely to be repeated in the future.
In operant conditioning,
organisms learn, again, to associate events—a behavior and its consequence (reinforcement or punishment). A pleasant consequence encourages more of that behavior in the future, whereas a punishment deters the behavior
In Tolman's study, the independent variable was ________.
presence of food at the end
Sean wants to teach his dog to turn the light on. What would be the best way to train his dog, utilizing the idea of shaping? What might he do that using the concept of shaping?
reward the dog when the dog looks at the light switch, when she touches the light switch, when she pushes it, and when she turns it on by command
continuous reinforcement:
rewarding a behavior every time it occurs
In the study with Little Albert, he was conditioned to fear a rabbit because it was paired with a frightening loud sound. In this example, what was the unconditioned stimulus?
the loud sound
variable ratio reinforcement schedule
the number of responses needed for a reward varies.
variable interval reinforcement schedule
the person or animal gets the reinforcement based on varying amounts of time, which are unpredictable.
observational learning:
type of learning that occurs by watching others
classical conditioning is a process by which
we learn to associate stimuli and, consequently, to anticipate events.
Miguel used to love eating pizza, and would salivate at even the thought of a warm, cheesy, slice. Sadly, one night he became violently ill after eating some restaurant pizza that was improperly cooked, and now he feels sick just thinking about eating pizza again. Try to identify each of the "parts" of Miquel's classically conditioned situation: Fill in the missing words. Before conditioning: Food Poisoning (UCS) →_______(1)This is the automatic, unconditioned response to getting food poisoning (UCR) During conditioning: (NS)____(2) + (UCS)_______(3) → (UCR)_____(4) After conditioning: (CS)_____(5) → (CR)_______(6)
(1)sickness/sick/vomit/nausea (2) blank? since neutral- wouldn't cause sickness? 3)Food Poisoning/food poisoning 4)Sickness/sick/vomit/nausea 5)Pizza 6)Sickness/sick/vomit/nausea
Charlie used to smoke on his lunch break at work. He smoked in a particular area at work each lunch break. Even though he quit smoking, Charlie still finds himself craving a cigarette whenever he goes back to his old smoking area. What should Charlie do to avoid this trigger?
Avoid the old smoking area entirely
Dylan and Trenton's parents are happy that their children are playing together. They want to increase the likelihood that Dylan and Trenton will play together in the future. Which types of operant conditioning could Dylan and Trenton's parents use to increase the amount of time their children play together?
Negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement
Pavlov paired the tone with the meat powder over and over again, the previously neutral stimulus (the tone) also began to elicit salivation from the dogs. Thus, the neutral stimulus became the
conditioned stimulus (CS), which is a stimulus that elicits a response after repeatedly being paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
Erma sells hotdogs for one dollar each in the stands at the local professional baseball stadium. For every hotdog she sells, she puts 25 cents in her pocket and 75 cents in her boss's change purse.
continuous
When an organism receives a reinforcer each time it displays a behavior, it is called continuous reinforcement
continuous reinforcement This reinforcement schedule is the quickest way to teach someone a behavior, and it is especially effective in training a new behavior.
Pavlov conditions a dog to salivate when he rings a bell. Now he changes the bell to one with a much deeper tone and the dog salivates, even though the bell is clearly different from the original one. Responding to a new stimulus as if it were the original CS is ________.
generalization
What do you think is going to happen on Trial #12 for the "no food until Trial 11" group?
graph c
primary reinforcer:
has innate reinforcing qualities (e.g., food, water, shelter, sex)
secondary reinforcer:
has no inherent value unto itself and only has reinforcing qualities when linked with something else (e.g., money, gold stars, poker chips)
Ivan Pavlov's experiments show
how stimulus-response bonds are formed
Fixed ratio Reinforcement
is delivered after a predictable number of responses (e.g., after 2, 4, 6, and 8 responses).High response rate with pauses after reinforcement Piecework—factory worker getting paid for every x number of items manufactured
Variable ratio Reinforcement
is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g., after 1, 4, 5, and 9 responses).High and steady response rate Gambling
What was the most important takeaway from Ivan Pavlov's experiment with dogs?
learning can occur when a conditioned stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus
Brad and Angie fell in love one summer when Brad used to bring his golden retriever to play in the park where Angie liked to jog. The sight of a golden retriever always makes her think about Brad. But today, as Angie ran in the park, she saw a Labrador retriever, and she immediately thought about Brad. What happened?
stimulus generilazation
neutral stimulus (NS:)
stimulus that does not initially elicit a response
unconditioned stimulus (UCS):
stimulus that elicits a reflexive response
conditioned stimulus (CS):
stimulus that elicits a response due to its being paired with an unconditioned stimulus
negative punishment:
taking away a pleasant stimulus to decrease or stop a behavior
negative reinforcement:
taking away an undesirable stimulus to increase a behavior
Which of the following is an example of a fixed interval reinforcement schedule?
taking your dog to the dog park at 4pm every day
Skinner believed that behavior is motivated by
the consequences we receive for the behavior: the reinforcements and punishments. His idea that learning is the result of consequences is based on the law of effect,
Tolman argued about latent learning that
the rats had formed a "cognitive map" of the maze but did not demonstrate this knowledge until they received reinforcement.
You are trying to enter a prize drawing at the radio station but the lines are busy. You continue to call every 1-5 minutes hoping to get on the air. Which reinforcement schedule is this?
variable interval Correct. You don't know when the winning prize is going to come, so you keep calling at random intervals to hope you call at the right time.
law of effect:
behavior that is followed by consequences satisfying to the organism will be repeated and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences will be discouraged
Cara is 17 years old. Cara's mother and father both drink alcohol every night. They tell Cara that drinking is bad and she shouldn't do it. Cara goes to a party where beer is being served. What do you think Cara will do? Why?
Cara is more likely to drink at the party because she has observed her parents drinking regularly. Children tend to follow what a parent does rather than what they say.
If the experimenter says one of the following statements, which do you think is most likely to make the child feel frustrated?
These are the very best toys but we dont let just anyone play with them we have decided to use the best toys for the other children
Which one of the following is not true of latent learning?
behaviors are present innately without experience
Tabish and Frida are taking their child, Aleena, on a hiking trip to the montains. To their dismay, Aleena has a bad habit of running ahead of them. They would like to devise a plan to teach Aleena to stop running ahead on the hiking trails. Using operant conditioning, which of the following principles could be applied?
Positive punishment . Negative punishment
Which of the following is an example of a reflex: an unlearned, automatic response by an organism to a stimulus in the environment?
The pupil of your eye contracting in the presence of a bright light
Aleena has been in time out three times today for runnning on the hiking trails. Her parents decide to pop her hand each time she runs ahead of them on the trails. They hope that adding this adverse stimulus will teach her to stop running ahead. What form of operant conditioning are they using?
Positive punishment
fixed interval reinforcement schedule:
behavior is rewarded after a set amount of time
Both reflexes and instincts help an organism
adapt to its environment and do not have to be learned.
positive punishment:
adding an undesirable stimulus to stop or decrease a behavior
associative learning is central to
all three basic learning processes discussed in this module; classical conditioning tends to involve unconscious processes, operant conditioning tends to involve conscious processes, and observational learning adds social and cognitive layers to all the basic associative processes, both conscious and unconscious
partial reinforcement
also referred to as intermittent reinforcement, the person or animal does not get reinforced every time they perform the desired behavior.
first group of rats in the maze
always received a food reward at the end of the maze, so the payoff for learning the maze was real and immediate. T
Based on the data above, were children (boys and girls) more likely to show physical aggression if they had seen an aggressive model or a non-aggressive model?
an aggressive model
Associative learning occurs when
an organism makes connections between stimuli or events that occur together in the environment
n negative reinforcement,
an undesirable stimulus is removed to increase a behavior
Matthias watched his older brother get arrested for selling drugs. He followed the steps of the modeling process to know that he doesn't want to get involved with selling drugs himself. These steps are:
attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation
Which is the correct order of steps in the modeling process?
attention, retention, reproduction, motivation
variable interval reinforcement schedule:
behavior is rewarded after unpredictable amounts of time have passed
, when an organism demonstrates the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the condition stimulus, it is
called stimulus generalization,
The behavior caused by the conditioned stimulus is called the
conditioned response (CR). In the case of Pavlov's dogs, they had learned to associate the tone (CS) with being fed, and they began to salivate (CR) in anticipation of food.
In Pavlov's work with dogs, the "psychic secretions" were ________.
conditioned responses
How could you design an experiment around the social learning theory?
determine how long it takes for someone to master a complex yoga move by looking at someone else
Prior to conditioning, the dogs
did not salivate when they just heard the tone because the tone had no association for the dogs.
3-year-old Lacy always gets her favorite juice in her Scooby-Doo cup, so she drinks readily. But now the Scooby-Doo cup is in the dishwasher, so mom puts her juice in the Dora the Explorer cup that is identical to the Scooby-Doo cup except for the decorations. Lacy refuses to drink because she ________.
discriminates between the cups
John got terribly sick after eating a burger at a local fast-food chain. He cannot even drive past that restaurant without feeling nauseous. Oddly enough, he can eat at and pass several other fast food burger joints and not feel ill. What is most likely happening here?
discrimination
Gus receives a paycheck every week. Which reinforcement schedule is this?
fixed interval
Monthly paychecks are an example of which type of reinforcement schedule?
fixed interval
Napoleon's regular salary is likely on a
fixed interval schedule
Ben has a job with a landscape service. He works about 35 hours each week. He is always paid on Friday afternoon, and his salary is always the same.
fixed intraval
Sue makes simple fabric dolls for a local craft store. The store only takes the dolls in sets of 25. For every 25 dolls she delivers, the store pays her $10.
fixed ratio
After Trial #11, the "No Food Until Trial 11" group performed more like the ________ group.
food on every trial
Which group seems to have reached the dotted reference line most quickly?
food on every trial
operant conditioning... :
form of learning in which the stimulus/experience happens after the behavior is demonstrated
operant conditioning:
form of learning in which the stimulus/experience happens after the behavior is demonstrated
A CS and UCS are associated so the CS now produces a CR without presentation of the UCS. If a new stimulus that is similar to the CS also produces the CR, we have an example of ________.
generalization
A light and a shock are associated so the light now produces a fear response without presentation of the shock. If a new light that is similar to, but not identical to the original light produces the fear response, we have an example of ________.
generalization
John B. Watson used the principles of classical conditioning in the study of
human emotion.
reinforcement:
implementation of a consequence in order to increase a behavior
Based on changes in the weather, bears typically hibernate for half the year. This is an example of an innate behavior, known as a
instinct
Marissa's mom is a hairdresser and Marissa spent countless hours after school just hanging out in the salon, but never learned how to cut or style hair. Later, when Marissa's friend mentions she is looking for someone to do her hair for a wedding, Marissa says she can play with it a bit. Marissa surprises even herself by how wonderful the updo looks. This is an example of
latent learning
________ broke the constraints of ________, which emphasized that learning was the direct consequence of conditioning to stimuli.
latent learning; behaviorism
The basic idea behind observational learning is that
learning can occur by watching others and modeling what they do or say
Latent learning is a form of
learning that is not immediately expressed in an overt response. It occurs without any obvious reinforcement of the behavior or associations that are learned
Based on the data above, were boys more likely to show physical aggression if they had seen a male model or a female model?
male
Based on the data above, were boys more likely to show verbal aggression if they had seen a male model or a female model?
male
Based on the data above, were girls more likely to show physical aggression if they had seen a male model or a female model?
male
Learning is best defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior that
occurs as a result of experience
Classical conditioning involves pairing a behavior and a consequence (reinforcements and punishments).
operant conditioning
Gillian's kids struggle to get out the door in the morning for school, so she creates a sticker chart where they can put on a sticker each time they are ready to go before 7 a.m. Once they fill they chart, they'll get a new bunk bed. This is an example of ________.
operant conditioning
Hideki tells a lie and is grounded. He does this several times, finally learning that his behavior (lying) is associated with a consequence (being grounded). Which kind of learning is this?
operant conditioning
While he is at a meeting, Rubin tells a joke, and everybody laughs. Now he is at another meeting, and is thinking about telling another joke he heard. Everybody laughing at his joke at the first party is a [Select 1] [Select 2] .
positive reinforcer
Shelter, sex, and touch are examples of
primary reinforcers
vicarious punishment:
process where the observer sees the model punished, making the observer less likely to imitate the model's behavior
vicarious reinforcement:
process where the observer sees the model rewarded, making the observer more likely to imitate the model's behavior
Strict behaviorists like Watson and Skinner focused exclusively on studying behavior rather than cognition (such as thoughts and expectations). In fact, Skinner was such a staunch believer that cognition didn't matter that his ideas were considered
radical behaviorism.
Latent learning is learning that is not
reinforced and not demonstrated until there is motivation to do so
shaping:
rewarding successive approximations toward a target behavior
Stickers on a sticker chart are an example of which type of reinforcer?
seconadary
Money is an example of which type of reinforcer?
secondary
fixed ratio reinforcement schedule:
set number of responses must occur before a behavior is rewarded
Jarren wants his dog to play dead when he says "bang, bang!" so he begins by giving him a treat each time that he crouches down after giving the command. Eventually he'll get him to roll over and then to lay on his back with his legs outstretched. This is an example of
shaping
Rewarding successive approximations toward a target behavior is ________.
shaping
Rewarding successive approximations towards a target behavior is known as
shaping
Richard is teaching his son, Cody, to throw darts. At first, he gives Cody a piece of candy each time the dart hits the dartboard. As time progresses, Richard starts only rewarding Cody when the dart hits one of the inner rings of the dartboard. Finally, Richard only rewards Cody when he hits the bullseye. This example best illustrates the concept of ________.
shaping
Dave has been working with a therapist to give up smoking. He has learned to stop having cravings when he sees someone about to light up a cigarette and thinks he is free. Then he goes to a party, sees a guy about to light up, and experiences strong cravings. What is going on?
spontaneous recovery
one of Tolman's classic experiments, he observed the behavior of
three groups of hungry rats that were learning to navigate mazes.
Don does remodeling for the strange old guy who lives in the big house. He has been working there for eight months, and always puts in 25 hours a week. He is never sure when he is going to get paid. Sometimes the old guy pays him twice in a single week and other times he doesn't give him anything for three weeks. On the average, he gets paid about every 10 days.
variable intraval
Read the situation and decide which schedule of reinforcement best fits the person's system of receiving income. Myron is a waiter in a college restaurant. Sometimes he gets a tip and sometimes the students leave nothing. Whether the night is busy (Friday) or dead (Tuesday), on the average he gets a real tip from about 50% of his customers, but some nights everyone is generous and other nights everyone is stingy.
variable ratio
Slot machines reward gamblers with money according to which reinforcement schedule?
variable ratio
In observational learning
we learn by watching others and then imitating, or modeling, what they do or say.
Instead of rewarding only the target behavior, in shaping
we reward successive approximations of a target behavior.
Acquiring knowledge and skills through experience is called ________.
learning
classical conditioning:
learning in which the stimulus or experience occurs before the behavior and then gets paired or associated with the behavior
latent learning:
learning that occurs, but it may not be evident until there is a reason to demonstrate it
Tiyanna was in her dorm room taking a hot shower, when someone came in to use the restroom. They flushed the toilet and the water instantly turned freezing cold. It made Tiyanna jump to the side to avoid the cold water, as she stood there shivering and waiting. The same thing happened again a few more times during the next week. Later, when Tiyanna was brushing her teeth in the bathroom, someone else flushed the toilet, and she felt her body shiver. Try to identify each of the "parts" of Tiyanna's classically conditioned situation: Fill in the missing words. Before conditioning: (UCS)_______1 → ________2(UCR) During conditioning: (NS)________ 3+ (UCS)______4 → (UCR)_____5 After conditioning: (CS)_______6 → (CR)________7
1 Cold water 2 Shiver/shivering/being cold 3 Toilet flushing/toilet flush 4 Cold water/cold 5 Shiver/shivering/being cold 6 Toilet flushing/toilet flush 7 Shiver/shivering/being cold
A researcher is testing young children to see if they can learn to associate a red circle with an event that the child enjoys. She sets up an experiment where a toy bear dances. The infants predictably love the toy bear and stare at it when it makes noise and dances. She then trains the child by showing a big red circle on a screen in front of the child and, immediately after that, the bear appears and dances off to the side. The bear is only visible right after the red circle appears and the child must turn his or her head to see the bear. In this study, the unconditioned stimulus is [Select 1] baby does not turn head baby turns head dancing bear red circle , the unconditioned response is the [Select 2] dancing bear baby does not turn head red circle baby turns head , the conditioned stimulus is the [Select 3] dancing bear baby turns head baby does not turn head red circle , and the conditioned response is the [Select 4] baby does not turn head red circle dancing bear baby turns head . The neutral stimulus is the [Select 5] baby turns head dancing bear red circle baby does not turn head and the response to the neutral stimulus is the 6_______
1 Dancing bear 2 Turns head 3 red circle 4 baby turns head 5 red circle 6 baby does no turn head
The purpose of___________1 is to decrease a behavior. The purpose of ______2 is to increase a behavior. Positive punishment works by _____3 an adverse stimulus in order to _________4 a behavior. Negative reinforcement works by _________5 an adverse stimulus in order to ________6 a behavior. Positive _________7 works by ________8 a stimulus in order to increase a behavior. ______________9 punishment works by taking ________10 a stimulus in order to decrease a behavior.
1 punishment 2 reinforcement 3 adding 4 decrease/reduce 5 removing/taking away 6 increase 7 reinforcement 8 adding 9 Negative 10 away/removing
What is the difference between a reflex and a learned behavior?
A reflex is a behavior that humans are born knowing how to do, such as sucking or blushing; these behaviors happen automatically in response to stimuli in the environment. Learned behaviors are things that humans are not born knowing how to do, such as swimming and surfing. Learned behaviors are not automatic; they occur as a result of practice or repeated experience in a situation.
Compare and contrast classical and operant conditioning. How are they alike? How do they differ?
Both classical and operant conditioning involve learning by association. In classical conditioning, responses are involuntary and automatic; however, responses are voluntary and learned in operant conditioning. In classical conditioning, the event that drives the behavior (the stimulus) comes before the behavior; in operant conditioning, the event that drives the behavior (the consequence) comes after the behavior. Also, whereas classical conditioning involves an organism forming an association between an involuntary (reflexive) response and a stimulus, operant conditioning involves an organism forming an association between a voluntary behavior and a consequence.
Last week, little Jack got a bag of cookies from the cabinet and ate them all. When his mother found out, she didn't let him watch television that evening as punishment. The next day, Jack thinks about having cookies, but decides that it is not a great idea.
Operant Conditioning
n Pavlov's experiments, the dogs salivated each time meat powder was presented to them. The dogs' salivation was an
The dogs' salivation was an unconditioned response (UCR): a natural (unlearned) reaction to a given stimulus. Before conditioning, think of the dogs' stimulus and response like this
If the sound of your toaster popping up toast causes your mouth to water, what are the UCS, CS, and CR?
The food being toasted is the UCS; the sound of the toaster popping up is the CS; salivating to the sound of the toaster is the CR.
Operant Conditioning Conditioning approach: Stimulus timing:
The target behavior is followed by reinforcement or punishment to either strengthen or weaken it, so that the learner is more likely to exhibit the desired behavior in the future. The stimulus (either reinforcement or punishment) occurs soon after the response.
primary reinforcers
These kinds of reinforcers are not learned. Water, food, sleep, shelter, sex, and touch, among others, are Pleasure is also a primary reinforcer. Organisms do not lose their drive for these things
Negative punishment refers to a situation where ________.
a behavior decreased because something desirable was eliminated through engaging in the behavior That's correct. "Punishment" means that a behavior decreases due to its consequences and "negative" means that something has been taken away. Negative punishment occurs when something desirable is taken away, leading to a decrease in the behavior that led to the loss of the desirable thing or situation.
Reflexes are
a motor or neural reaction to a specific stimulus in the environment. They tend to be simpler than instincts, involve the activity of specific body parts and systems (e.g., the knee-jerk reflex and the contraction of the pupil in bright light), and involve more primitive centers of the central nervous system (e.g., the spinal cord and the medulla).
In ________ the stimulus or experience occurs before the behavior and then gets paired with the behavior.
classical conditioning
extinction:
decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus
Ivan Pavlov
established the principles of classical conditioning through the experiments with dogs
observational learning
extends the effective range of both classical and operant conditioning. In contrast to classical and operant conditioning, in which learning occurs only through direct experience, observational learning is the process of watching others and then imitating what they do.
Sea turtles moving toward the ocean immediately after birth, and joeys moving to the mother's pouch immediately after birth are examples of ________.
instincts Correct. These responses to environmental stimuli are innate.
acquisition:
period of initial learning in classical conditioning in which a human or an animal begins to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus will begin to elicit the conditioned response
When an organism learns to respond differently to various stimuli that are similar, it is called
stimulus discrimination
acquisition
the neutral stimulus begins to elicit the conditioned response, and eventually the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus capable of eliciting the conditioned response by itself. Timing is important for conditioning to occur. (5 sec)
In Pavlov's experiments, the dogs salivated each time meat powder was presented to them. The meat powder in this situation was an
unconditioned stimulus (UCS): a stimulus that elicits a reflexive response in an organism.
Henry is observing beetles for his biology project. They return to their nest at unpredictable intervals all day long, so Henry keeps a close watch all day. Which reinforcement schedule is this?
variable interval Correct. Henry can't predict when the beetles will return to their nest, so they are returning at a variable interval which Henry must observe all day.
