Western Civ test 4

One reason for the astonishing number of slaves was the high death rate. The journey of slaves from Africa to the Americas became known as the Middle Passage, the middle leg of the triangular trade route. African slaves were closely packed into cargo ships, 300 to 500 per ship, and chained in holds without sanitary facilities or room to stand up; there they remained during the voyage to America, which took at least ________ days. Mortality rates averaged ________ percent; longer journeys due to storms or adverse winds resulted in even higher death rates

100, 10

Witchcraft was not a new phenomenon. Its practice has been part of traditional village culture for centuries, but it had came to be viewed as both sinister and dangerous when the medieval church began to connect witches to the activities of the devil, thereby transforming witchcraft into a heresy that had to be wiped out. What distinguished witchcraft in the 16th and 17th centuries from these previous developments was the increased number of trials and executions of presumed witches. Perhaps more than __________ people throughout Europe were prosecuted on charges of witchcraft.

100,000

Often referred to as the "last of the religious wars," the ____________________ (1618-1648) was a struggle between Catholicism and Calvinism, manifest in a struggle between the Protestant Union and the Catholic League of German states. The religious division was exacerbated by a constitutional issue, ultimately settled at the Peace of Westphalia by ensuring all German states (including the Calvinist ones) the freedom to determine their own religion.

30 Years' War

Unlike the Catholics or other Protestants, most ___________ believed in the complete separation of church and state. Not only was government to be excluded from the realm of religion, but also it was not even suppose to exercise political jurisdiction over real Christians. Human law had no power over those whom God saved and therefore this group refused to hold political office or bear arms, which caused them to be seen as dangerous radicals who threatened the fabric of 16th century society

Anabaptists

Historians refer to the reciprocal importation and exportation of plants and animals between Europe and the Americas as the ________________. While Europeans were bringing horses, cattle, and wheat to the New World, they were taking new agricultural products such as potatoes, chocolate, corn, tomatoes, and tobacco back to Europe.

Columbia Exchange

In 1542, Pope Paul III took the decisive step of calling for a general council of Christendom to resolve the religious differences created by the Protestant revolt. The ______________ met intermittently in three major sessions between 1545 and 1563. The final doctrinal decrees of this council reaffirmed traditional Catholic teachings in opposition to protestant beliefs such as affirming Scripture and tradition as equal authorities in religious matters; only the church could interpret Scripture. Other decrees declared both faith and good work to be necessary for salvation and upheld the seven sacraments, the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, clerical celibacy, the belief in purgatory, and the efficacy of indulgences.

Council of Trent

Many historians have viewed the _____________________ as the end of the 17th century struggle between the king and Parliament. By deposing one king and establishing another, Parliament had demolished the divine-right theory of kingship and confirmed its right to participate in government. Parliament did not have complete control of the government, but it now had an unquestioned role in affairs of the state. Over the next century, it would gradually prove to be the real authority in the English system of constitutional monarchy.

Glorious Revolution

The success of early European explorers and traders into the Far East such as areas of India, China, and the Spice Islands can be heavily attributed to:

Guns, Seamanship

The Renaissance witnessed the invention of printing, one of the most important technological innovations of Western civilization, which made an immediate impact on European intellectual life and thought. This development of printing from moveable type culminated between 1445 and 1450 and was highlighted by the completion of the ________________ bible in 1455, which was the first true book in the West produced from moveable type.

Gutenberg

Religion was the engine that drove the French civil wars of the 16th century. Concerned by the growth of Calvinism, the French kings tried to stop its spread by persecuting Calvinists but had little success. ______________, as the French Calvinists were called, came from all levels of society: artisans and shopkeepers hurt by rising prices and a ridged guild system, merchants and lawyers in provincial towns whose local privileges were tenuous, and members of the nobility

Huguenots

The Protestant reformers' attacks on the Catholic Church led to radical changes in religious practices. The Protestant Reformation abolished or severely curtailed such customary practices as:

Indulgences, The veneration of relics and saints, Pilgrimages, Monasticism, Clerical celibacy

Of the new religious orders coming out of the 16th century Catholic Reformation or Counter-Reformation, the most important was the Society of Jesus, known as the ____________. This group founded by Ignatius of Loyola was grounded on the principles of absolute obedience to the papacy, a strict hierarchical order of society, the use of education to achieve its goals, and a dedication to engage in "conflict for God." This organization came to resemble the structure of a military command

Jesuits

The English revolutions of the 17th century promoted very different responses from two English political thinkers. ___________________, author of ___________________, believed that humans lived in a natural state of equality and freedom, rather than a state of war. In this state of nature, humans had certain inalienable natural rights— to life, liberty, and property—and to ensure these rights mutually agreed to establish a government.

John Locke, Two Treatises of Government

Oxford theologian ______________ (1328-1384)—whose followers came to be known as Lollards—alleged that there was no basis in Scripture for papal claims of temporal authority and advocated that the popes be stripped of their authority and their property. Believing that the bible should be a Christian's sole authority, he urged that it be made available in the vernacular languages so that every Christian could read it. Rejecting all practices not mentioned in scripture, he condemned pilgrimages, the veneration of saints, and a whole series of rituals and rites that had developed in the medieval church.

John Wyclif

The High Renaissance was dominated by the work of three artistic giants:

Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo

The Reformation's revival of religious values brought much political turmoil. Especially in Italy, the worldly enthusiasm of the Renaissance gave way to anxiety, uncertainty, and a yearning for spiritual experience. _____________________ reflected this environment in its deliberate attempt to break down the High Renaissance principles of balance, harmony, and moderation. Such art deliberately distorted the rules of proportion by portraying elongated figures that conveyed a sense of suffering and a strong emotional atmosphere filled with anxiety and confusion

Mannerism

Before Spaniards arrived in the New World, Mesoamerica (modern Mexico and central America) had already hosted a number of flourishing civilizations, including:

Maya, Aztecs, Inca

Parliament proved victorious in the first phase of the English Civil War (1642-1646). Most important to parliament's success was the creation of the _____________________, which was comprised primarily of more extreme Puritans known as Independents, who believed they were doing battle for the Lord.

New Model Army

No one gave better expression to the Renaissance preoccupation with political power than _______________, whose ideas on politics stemmed from two major sources, his knowledge of ancient Rome and his preoccupation with Italy's problems. His major concerns outlined in _____________ were the acquisition and expansion of political power as the means to restore and maintain order, which he believed could be remedied by abandoning morality as the basis for the analysis of political activity and implementing ruthless measures.

Niccolo Machiavelli, The Prince

Protestant theologian Martin Luther was greatly distressed by the sale of indulgences, certain that people who relied on these pieces of paper to assure themselves of salvation were guaranteeing their eternal damnation instead. Angered, he issued his ____________________, which were a stunning indictment of the abuses in the sale of indulgences

Ninety-Five Theses

______________ took the lead in the European age of expansion when it began to explore the coast of Africa under the sponsorship of Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460). His motives were a blend of seeking a Christian kingdom as an ally against the Muslims, airing trade opportunities for the nation, and spreading Christianity.

Portugal

Some Protestant reformers even tried to eliminate customary forms of entertainment. The ___________ (as English Calvinists were called), for example, attempted to ban drinking in taverns, dramatic performances, and dancing. Many of these Protestant attacks on popular culture were unsuccessful, however, as the importance of taverns in English social life made it impossible to eradicate them.

Puritans

Many people who lived between 1350 and 1550 believed that they had witnessed a ___________ of antiquity or Greco-Roman civilization, marking a new age called the Reformation.

Rebirth

Although the outbreak of religious war seemed unlikely in France, the collapse of the strong monarchy with the death of Henry II unleashed forces that led to a series of civil wars. The infamous ________________ occurred on August 24, 1572 when the king's guards sought out and killed some prominent Huguenot leaders. These murders soon unleashed a wave of violence that gripped the city of Paris. For three days, frenzied Catholic mobs roamed the streets of Paris, killing Huguenots in an often cruel and bloodthirsty manner.

Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre

The Renaissance popes were great patrons of Renaissance culture, and their efforts made Rome a culture leader at the beginning of the 16th century. For the warrior pope Julius II, the patronage of Renaissance culture was mostly a matter of policy as he endeavored to add to the splendor of his pontificate by tearing down the Basilica of Saint Peter, and began the construction of the greatest building in Christendom, the present _____________________.

Saint Peter's Basilica

When Columbus reached the Caribbean island of Hispaniola in 1492, he brought more than gunpowder, horses, attack dogs, and soldiers to the shores of the New World. With no natural resistance to European diseases, the Indians of America were ravaged by numerous deadly illnesses. ______________, a highly contagious disease, was spread through droplets in the air or direct contact with contaminated objects, such as clothing. In 1518, one such epidemic erupted and quickly spread along trade routes from the Caribbean to Mesoamerica, killing a third of the Indian population.

Smallpox

While the Portuguese were seeking access to the spice trade of the Indies by sailing eastward through the Indian Ocean, the __________ were attempting to reach the same destination by sailing westward across the Atlantic. An important figure in the history of this nations' exploration was Christopher Columbus.

Spanish

With three ships, the Santa Maria, the Nina, and the Pinta and a crew of ninety men, Christopher Columbus set sail on August 3, 1492. On October 12th, he reached ____________ and then went on to explore the coastline of Cuba and the northern shores of Hispaniola (present-day Haiti and the Dominican Republic). Columbus believed that he had reached Asia, and in his reports to Queen Elizabeth and King Ferdinand upon his return to Spain, he assured them not only that he would eventually find gold but also that they had a golden opportunity to convert the natives—whom Columbus persisted in calling "Indians"—to Christianity.

The Bahamas

Both French and English colonial empires in the New World included developed plantation economies, worked by African slaves, with tobacco, cotton, coffee, and sugar, all products increasingly in demand in Europe. The "sugar factories," as the sugar plantations in ____________ were called, played an especially prominent role. By the early 18th century, sugar was Britain's main export from its American colonies.

The Caribbean

The English revolutions of the 17th century promoted very different responses from two English political thinkers. ___________________, author of ___________________, believed that humans were guided not by reason and moral ideals but by animalistic instincts. To save themselves, people gathered to form a commonwealth, which placed power into hands of sovereign authority possessing absolute power

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan

Martin Luther's greatest challenge in the mid-1520s came from the Peasant's War. Many peasant's had not been touched by the gradual economic improvement of the early 16th century and influential local lords continued to abuse their peasants. New demands for taxes and other services caused them to become entangled with religious revolt and look to Martin Luther, believing he would support them. It was not Luther, but one of his ex-followers ________________ who inflamed the peasants against their rulers, which began the first revolt by 1524 in southwest Germany.

Thomas Muntzer

During the 17th and 18th centuries, the slave trade grew dramatically and became part of the ______________ connecting Europe, Africa, and the American continents that characterized the new Atlantic economy. European manufactured goods were traded for cargo of slaves, who were shipped to the Americas and traded for raw materials that were in turn shipped back to Europe for sale and use in the manufacturing of goods.

Triangular trade

The preaching of _______________ caused such unrest in 16th c. Zurich, Switzerland that in 1523 the city council held a public disruption or debate in the town hall. The disputation became a standard method of spreading the Reformation to many cities. It gave an advantage to the reformers since they had the power of new ideas and Catholics were not used to defending their teachings. The challenged reformer won the debate and the right to promulgate evangelical reforms in Zurich backed by the city council, which swiftly moved to eliminate monasticism, pilgrimages, the veneration of saints, clerical celibacy, and the pope's authority as remnants of papal Christianity.

Ulrich Zwingli

What was the relationship between Italian Renaissance humanism and Italian Renaissance art?

answer

The Renaissance inherited its social structure from the Middle Ages. Society remained fundamentally divided into three estates, comprised of: •The First estate made up of •The Second estate made up of •The Third estate made up of

clergy, nobility, peasants and townspeople.

Contact with non-European civilizations remained limited until the end of the 15th century, when Europeans embarked on a remarkable series of overseas journeys. Three main motives for this expansion included: • Intrigue spurred on by .... of the Middle Ages. • Economics and the hopes of finding .... • Religious zeal- a Christian crusading mentality after .... from the .... in the Middle Ages.

fantasy literature, new trade routes, expelling (most) Muslims west

The Protestants in Germany were responsible for introducing the ______________, or secondary school, where the humanist emphasis on the liberal arts based on instruction in Greek and Latin was combined with religious instruction.

gymnasium

The Society of Jesus pursued three major activities: Establishing ... The propagation of .. among... Carrying the catholic banner and

highly disciplined schools, the Catholic faith among non-Christians, fighting Protestantism

The most important literary movement associated with the Renaissance was _______________, which was based on the Classical literary works of Greece and Rome and examined the studia humanities -grammar, rhetoric, poetry, moral philosophy or ethics, and history—all based on the writings of ancient Greek and Roman authors.

humanism

France during the reign of Louis XIV (1643-1715) has traditionally been regarded as the best example of the practice of absolute monarchy in the 17th century. Cardinal Richelieu, Louis XIII's chief minister from 1634 to 1642, initiated policies that eventually strengthened the power of the monarchy. To reform and strengthen the central administration, initially for financial reasons, Richelieu sent out royal officials called _________________ to the provinces to execute the orders of the central government.

intendants

The doctrine of salvation or _______________ by grace through faith alone became the primary doctrine of the protestant Reformation.

justification

In the 17th century, a set of economic tendencies that historians call ______________ came to dominate economic practices. Fundamental to this philosophy was the belief that the total volume of trade was unchangeable. Therefore, states protected their economies by following certain practices: hoarding precious metals, implementing protectionist trade policies, promoting colonial development, increasing ship-building, supporting trading companies, and encouraging the manufacturing of products to be used in trade.

mercantilism

In the 1530's, the city of Munster in northwestern Germany was the site of an Anabaptist uprising that determined the fate of Dutch Anabaptism. Munster became a haven for Anabaptists from the surrounding neighborhood, especially the more wide-eyed variety known as Melchiorites, who adhered to a vivid __________________. They believed that the end of the world was at hand and that they would usher in the kingdom of God with Munster as the New Jerusalem. By the end of February 1534, these Anabaptist had taken control of the city, driven out everyone they considered godless or unbelievers, burned all books except the Bible, and proclaimed communal ownership of all property.

millenarianism

Three developments that made New World voyages possible included: • Increased authority and resources of European ....during the Renaissance. • .... or charts made by medieval navigators and mathematicians in the 13th and 14th centuries. • Navigational techniques and innovations such as the axial rudder compass, astrolabe, and a growing knowledge of.... patterns.

monarchies, Portolani, wind

Corruption in the Catholic Church was one factor that spurred people to want reform. Increasingly, nobles or wealthy members of the bourgeoisie held the highest positions among the clergy. Moreover, to increase their revenues, high church officials took over more than one church office. This so-called ____________ led in turn to absenteeism: church office holders ignored their duties and hired underlings who sometimes lacked the proper qualifications.

pluralism

The French Wars of Religion presented a major constitutional crisis for France and temporarily halted the development of the French centralized territorial state. The claim of the state's ruling dynasty to a person's loyalties was temporarily superseded by loyalty to one's religious belief. For some people, the unity of France was less important than religious truth. But there also emerged in France a group of public figures who placed politics before religion and believed that no religious truth as worth the ravages of civil war. These _____________ ultimately prevailed, but not until both sides were exhausted by bloodshed

politiques

Of the second generation of Protestant reformers, one stands out as the systematic theologian and organizer of the Protestant movement—John Calvin (1509-1564). One of the ideas derived from his emphasis on the absolute sovereignty of God—called _______________—gave a unique cast to Calvin's teachings. This "eternal decree," as Calvin called it, meant that God predestined some people to be saved (the elect) and others to be damned (the reprobate).

predestination

The English Reformation was initiated by King Henry VIII (1509-1546), who wanted to divorce his first wife because:

she had failed to produce a male heir

The high mortality rates among the native populations resulted in a shortage of workers for the Europeans, which led them to turn to Africa for the labor needed for the _______________ mines and ______________ plantations.

silver, sugar

Four effects of the slave trade between the 16th-18th centuries were: • Untold ... • Broken • Increased ____ among African chiefs. • _______that undercut European/American wages.

suffering and death, families and tribes, warfare and violence, Cheap labor

Regarding the Lord's Supper, Martin Luther denied the Catholic doctrine of __________________, which taught that the substance of the bread and wine consumed in the rite is miraculously transformed into the body and blood of Jesus

transubstantiation