Western Civilization since 1500 (book) (20-29)

British and French leaders in the 1930s hoped to avoid another war in Europe through diplomatic negotiation with Hitler. What led to the "appeasement" policy in the cases in China, Ethiopia, Spain, Austria, and Czechoslovakia?

- 3 widely held assumptions: 1) doing anything to provoke another war is unthinkable 2) many people in Britain and the US thought Germany was mistreated by Versailles and deserved grievances 3) many appeasers were anticommunists

Decolonization and the Cold War reinforced a sense that Europe's place in the world needed to be rethought. How did intellectuals, writers, and artists react to the loss of European influence in the world?

- African descent people should retain a sense of black identity - Colonialism hurt colonizers as much as colonies - debate about peace and violence needs - Europeans reevaluated the universal claims of their culture when thinking about their own culture in colonialism primarily

The subjugated peoples of European colonies faced a choice between resistance and accommodation, though these choices were rarely exclusive of one another. What examples of resistance to colonialism can you identify? Of accommodation?

- China is perhaps the greatest example of resistance to imperialism. A millenary empire and extremely developed civilization, the Chinese were closed to European products, until the British Empire managed to create a market for its Indian Opium, leading to the opium wars and forcing China to open its markets to the British and other nations that followed. - One good example of accommodation is Ghana. Ghana was receptive of British colonizers, and received big investments, even having a local educated elite, in exchange.

Since the end of the Second World War, conflicts and events in the Middle East have taken on a global significance far beyond the region's borders. What are the crucial conflicts that occupied the attention of other nations, and what events have proved to be crucial turning points in the emergence of the Middle East as a region that drives developments elsewhere?

- Globalization in the Middle East grabbed other countries' attention - the Arab-Israeli Conflict- peace but high tensions between Israelis and Palestinians today - OPEC (US invades Iraq when Iraq invades Kuwait) - Political Islam - Terrorism (9/11)

Globalization in the second half of the twentieth century was not new. What does globalization mean, and what was similar or different about the most recent phase of globalization in human history?

- Globalization means the development of global communication, media, international relations, new alliances, markets and communities-integration - creating a rising number of networks- political, social, economic, cultural - can be independent of national control- trade, politics, and cultural exchange -similarities: global enterprises, global networks supply raw materials, markets and labor - differences: migration has greatly decreased today

The Nazi regime and its allies eventually collapsed after costly defeats in both eastern and western Europe. Where and when did the major defeats take place and what was their human cost?

- Jan 1943 German commander defiantly surrenders after years of war, spreading German army too thin in the winter in Russia at Stalingrad, huge (millions) human cost - June 6, 1944 D-Day: US breaks into North Europe on Normandy coast of France - April 30, 2945 Hitler kills himself - May 7, 1945 German surrender

The Japanese government surrendered in August 1945 after the United States dropped two atomic bombs, on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. What events led to the decision to drop these bombs, and what were their consequences?

- July 26, 1945 China and the US tell Japan to surrender or be destroyed - US was already killing civilians by dropping bombs - caused new terrifying relationship between science and political power - cancer victims for decades - there now existed a weapon that could kill humanity itself

In the 1980s Mikhail Gorbachev proposed reforms for the Soviet Union that failed to prevent the collapse of the Soviet bloc in Eastern Europe. What combination of events led to this collapse?

- Mikhail Gorbachev's wave of reforms to make freer, more prosperous Soviet Union -glasnost: intelectual openness - perestroika: economic restructuring - reforms were a little too late; Ethnic unrest (imperialism legacy), threatened to split Soviet Union apart, Poland liberated in 1989, followed by Czechs and Hungary, unification of Germany and fall of communism, unproductive economy - Gorbachev canceled his 500 day Economic reform plan and put in prison in summer, coup leaders out in prison & Gorbachev put back in power - Dec 8 1991: presidents of the republics of Russia dissolve USSR

The Western Front was seen by all sides as a crucial theater of the conflict. What technologies led to a stalemate on the Western Front, and how did military leaders hope to achieve a breakthrough?

- Stalemate developed on the Western Front because the tactics of offensive warfare had not developed while the technology of defensive warfare had. The invention of the machine gun had made it so that headlong charges of masses of soldiers were suicidal. But the heads of armies had not figured out any ways to attack that did not involve frontal assaults, so they were bogged down in trenches with no way around or through the enemy.

Postwar economic growth was accompanied by greater economic integration among Western Europe nations. What were the goals of those who sought to create the unified European market, and which nations played key roles in its development?

- The US enacted the Marshall Plan which gave aid to European nations and let them how to figure out how to use it; brought Europe economic unity - NATO provided alliance of West powers militarily

The success of economic rebuilding after the Second World War produced a new prosperity in Western Europe. What contributed to this success, and what were its effects on daily life and mass culture in Europe?

- The creation of the Common Market and migration, state sponsored programs of machinery, new technology led to prosperity - skills became more specialized - effects: increased purchasing power, mass consumption, cars increased, annual vacation, decreased workweek hours, increased standard of living, more leisure time and mass culture

The Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union began as the Second World War ended. How did these two nations seek to influence the postwar political order in Europe?

- Two military powers, two sets of foreign policy, capitalism vs communism - soviets sought to keep control of Nazi lands that had given them so many wartime losses; wanted complete political, economic, and military power over lands, seeking to establish dictatorships sympathetic to Moscow - US sought to prevent communist expansion

Between the late 1940s and the mid-1960s, almost all the European colonies in Asia and Africa demanded and received their independence, either peacefully or through armed conflict. What combination of events made Europeans less able to defend their colonial empires against the claims of nationalists who sought independence from Europe?

- WWI oppositions to colonial war forced renegotiation and during WW2 older forms of empire became unattainable untenable - colonies went on strike, refused to pay taxes, boycott imports - wars based on religion or ethnicity

The Versailles Peace Treaty blamed the Germans for the war. Who were the most important participants in the peace conference, and who shaped the terms of the treaty the most?

- Woodrow Wilson's prominent role marked the emergence of the US as a world power. - The conference was largely controlled by the so-called Big Four: US (Woodrow Wilson), Britain (David Lloyd George), France (Georges Clemenceau), Italy (Vittorio Orlando). - these four all had conflicting ambitions and interests

The postwar decades witnessed an important shift in attitudes about women and their place in society. What caused this shift and what were its consequences for European women?

- caused by the social changes, especially the less... - women going to work during WWII consequences: - discontent with rising expectations, generation of feminists who demanded reproductive rights

The burden of the colonial past continued to weigh heavily on many former colonies after the 1960s. What accounts for the success of some former colonies in the global economy and the continued social and political challenges facing others?

- former colonizers or their allies retained so much power in colonies that formal independence meant nothing, and other times ethnic wars broke out (apartheid in South Africa) - Nelson Mandela was able to rally both whites and blacks in South Africa and in subsaharan Africa to create political reforms, ending one-party/one-rule governments; Mandela found success through negotiations - Pacific Rim/East China found industrial success and were able to mass manufacture and establish commercial ties with West in 1970s - governments became more capitalist

In Europe and the United States, significant movements of social and political protest emerged in the 1960s. What were the goals of these movements and what did they accomplish?

- goals: desegregation, voting rights, anti Vietnam war/peace, anti-authoritarianism - accomplished: withdrew from Vietnam, foreshadowed end to Cold War, feminism, new political parties in US and Europe, environmental support

The postwar economic boom ended in the 1970s, leading to a prolonged period of economic contraction. What were the consequences of this recession for governments and populations in Europe?

- populations: interest rates and oil rose, heavy industry stopped growing - governments: high unemployment, radical politics, EU established in 1991 with central European bank and the same currency

The mass murder of European Jews, homosexuals, and Roma reached a climax during the invasion of the Soviet Union, though the victims came from every corner of Europe. What efforts did this enormous project entail, and how did it come about?

- stemmed from Nazis seeing the war as a racial war - resettled Germans from Slavic states to West Prussia - exterminated "undesirables" and potential resistance -establishing camps and imprisoning "difficult" people or "undesirables"

Russia was devastated by the war, and the population lost confidence in the tsar's government. What circumstances allowed the Bolsheviks to seize power in 1917 and what were their goals?

- the small Bolshevik splinter party survived under the leadership of Lenin - the Bolshevik's dedication to the singular goal of revolution and their tight, almost conspiratorial organization gave them tactical advantages over larger and more loosely organized opposition parties - through 1917, the Bolsheviks consistently demanded an end to the war, improvement in working and living conditions for workers, and redistribution of aristocratic land to the peasantry. They had support from workers, soldiers, and peasants. - In October 1917, Lenin led the Bolsheviks to take over the Winter Palace, the seat of the provisional government and rapidly consolidated their position by 1) moving against all political competition/expelling parties that disagreed with their actions and 2) approved the spontaneous redistribution of the nobles' land to peasants without compensation to former owners and nationalized banks and gave workers control of factories 3) sought to take Russia out of the War and surrendered vast Russian territories

The causes of the Second World War can be found in the political and economic crises of the 1930s. What caused the war?

1. The punishing terms of Versailles Peace Treaty to Germany 2. Failure to guarantee peace and security internationally past 1918 3. the successive economic crises of interwar period 4. violent forms of nationalism that emerged in Europe in the 1930s

Liberalism and nationalism were changed by the advent of mass politics. How did the expansion of the electorate change political life across Europe?

An expanding franchise and rising expectations brought newcomers to the political stage. Trade unions, socialists, and feminists all challenged Europe's governing classes by demanding that political participation be open to all. Governments responded, in turn, with a mix of conciliatory and repressive measures. Democrats, socialists, and feminists threatened violence, strikes, and revolution.

Conservatives, liberals, and republicans differed from one another about the lessons to be learned from the French Revolution, while socialists sought to address the inequalities produced by the Industrial Revolution. What were the core principles of conservatism, liberalism, republicanism, and socialism?

Conservatism: aimed to make legitimate both the monarchy's authority and the hierarchical social order undermined by the French Revolution. Believed that change had to be slow, incremental, and managed so as to strengthen rather than weaken the structures of authority. Wanted to conserve the past and cultivate tradition. Liberalism: Liberalism's core was a commitment to individual liberties or rights. The most important function of government was to protect liberties. 3 components: called for equality before the law, government needed to be based on political rights and consent of the governed, individuals should be free to engage in economic activities without interference from the state or community. Republicanism: demanded a government by the people, an expanded franchise, and democratic participation in politics. Distinguished from liberals in their criteria for defining citizenship. Republicans were committed to political equality and advocated more open definitions of citizenship Socialism: problems of industrial society had to be fixed by redistribution of economic and political power, collective ownership of industrial establishments, and new methods for organizing everyday life.

Mussolini's Fascist party offered an alternative to Italian voters disappointed with their government in the aftermath of the First World War. What was fascism and how did Mussolini come to power?

Fascism was idealistic nationalists favoring statism and driven aggressive determination; authoritarian nationalism. As the regime weakened, Mussolini's aggressive coercive politics made him look like the solution. He changed electoral laws to favor his party in parliament and made the fascist party part of the constitution.

European governments intervened in extraordinary ways in the economy to ensure the production of material for the war effort and to remedy the social crisis caused by mobilization. How did governments intervene in the economy?

Governments had to borrow money or print more of it. Beset by inflation, debt, and the difficult task of industrial rebuilding, Europe found itself displaced from the center of the world economy. The war had accelerated the decentralization of money and markets.

Imperialism also shaped cultural developments within Europe in the nineteenth century. How did imperialism change the lives of Europeans and their sense of their place in the world?

Imperialism was thoroughly anchored in the culture of late-nineteenth century Europe and the US. Images of empire were everywhere. A sense of high moral purpose. Imperial culture gave new prominence to racial thinking.

Slavery persisted long after the French Revolution. What accounts for the development of an abolition movement, and why did it persist in the United States and in Latin America, especially Cuba?

In England and the US, religious revivals supplied much of the energy for the abolitionist movement. Slave rebellions and conspiracies to rebel also shook opinion, especially after the success of the Haitian revolution. In Latin America, slavery's fate was determined by demographics, economics, and the politics of breaking away from the Spanish and Portuguese empires. In Cuba, a combination of slave rebellion and liberal revolution in Spain brought about abolition.

The second industrial revolution was made possible by technological innovations that stimulated the production of steel and new energy sources. What were the consequences of this era of rapid growth for the economy and for European society?

Industrial expansion, relative abundance, and rising literacy produced a political climate of rising expectations. Although the advances in technology and industry encouraged a sense of self-confidence about European society and progress, other scientific and cultural movements expressed doubt or anxiety about the effects of rapid modernization on European culture.

Liberal revolutionaries in the German-speaking lands of central Europe in 1848 were forced to reckon with Austrian and Prussian states in their bid for national unification. What did they want, and why did they fail?

Liberal Germans wanted a ruler who would abide by a constitution, allow for greater press freedoms, and accept some form of representative government. Unlike France, the German liberals also needed to establish national unification. Failed because:

Artists, writers, and other intellectuals in the interwar period could not help by reflect the atmosphere of social and political crisis in their work. How did artists and writers react to the crisis of the interwar period?

Loss of faith- The Sun Also Rises/ Lost Generation Intense boredom and hollowness of modern life Rejected tradition in architecture and science (Einstein)

The first world war lead European nations to mobilize people and resources from their colonies. How did colonial subjects participate in the war effort, and what did many of them expect in return?

Many Asian, African, and South American nations benefitted financially as their economies became less dependent on Europe, and they were better able to profit from Europe's need for their natural resources.

At the end of the nineteenth century, militant agitation in favor of women's suffrage increased. What obstacles faced women who demanded the vote?

Men showed a general aversion to granting women full citizenship, which was observed all over the political spectrum. Many opposed the emancipation of women arguing it would mean the dissolution of the traditional family, others were against equality, saying it made women "half-men"

Expanded electorates meant that more people were participating in politics, especially among the working classes. What parties and movements emerged to represent European workers, and what were their goals?

New political parties on the right and the left engaged in partisan struggles to win the support of these new constituencies. Labor unions provided a framework for a new type of political movement: the socialist mass party. Called for workers everywhere to ally with one another to create an independent political force, secure civil liberties, expand conceptions of citizenship, build a welfare state, gender equality.

Romanticism was a cultural movement defined in opposition to the Enlightenment. Who were the Romantics and what did they believe?

Romanticism stressed emotion, freedom, and imagination. Considered intuition and emotion to be better guides to truth and human happiness than reason and logic. Developed first in England and Germany as a reaction against the Enlightenment.

The Weimar Republic failed in its attempt to establish a stable democracy in Germany, while other democracies in France, Britain, and the United States underwent severe strain. What challenges did democratic regimes face during the interwar period?

Strikes and class conflict due to government caused deflation. The Great Depression and its effects for the next decade and how to deal with it. agricultural countries bought less from Europe, damaging industrialization.

Hitler came to power legally in 1933 through the German electoral system. What did he stand for, and why did so many Germans support his cause?

Support: there was unprecedented unemployment and a lack of faith in traditional parties to fix the crisis caused support for aggressive nationalism and targeting of enemies by Hitler. Stood for: communists and Jews weakened Germany and can't run the country, weakness of parliament, poor previous culture, anti AQWF type media, Aryan state

European imperialism in the nineteenth century differed from earlier phases of colonial expansion. How was it different, and which parts of the globe were singled out for special attention by European imperial powers?

The combination of the development of mass politics and spread of consumer culture made colonies and the power to control them an important part of national identity for many people in Europe. Fierce competition among nations upset the balance of power, so it was an expression of European strength, but it was also profoundly destabilizing. Industrialization produced greater demand for raw materials from distant locations. IT was driven by the rising economic needs of the industrial West; by territorial conflict; and by nationalism, which by the late nineteenth century linked nationhood to empire. Africa, South and East Asia, and Central and South America.

After 1917 the Bolsheviks in Russia debated how fast the should move to reorganize society along the lines demanded by their revolutionary ideology. What circumstances determined the outcome of this debate and what were the consequences of Stalin's revolution from above in the 1930s?

The effects of communism on peasants and farming led to 1921 large scale farming, killing 5 million. The Civil War also made urban workers move to the country side and forced Bolsheviks to quickly implement radical NEP. Consequences of Stalin's revolution: urban populations, annual 20% growth rates, rapid industrialization, mass incarceration for prison labor, in the long run it was an economic disaster of intense shortages and surpluses, conservative social reform

Revolutions broke out in 1848 in almost every capital of Europe except for London and St. Petersburg. What accounts for this wave of simultaneous revolutionary movements?

The roots of revolution lay in economic crisis, social antagonisms, and political grievances. These revolutions were also shaped decisively by nationalism, and revolutionaries had liberal goals.

The First World War broke out as a result of conflicts in the Balkans. Why?

The system of alliances. Austria's determination to punish Serbia, Germany's unwillingness to restrain their Austrian allies, and Russia's desire to use Serbia as an excuse to extend their influence in the Balkans all played a part in making the war more likely. Diplomats were constrained by the strategic thinking and rigid timetables set by military leaders, and all sides clearly felt that it was important to make a show of force during the period of negotiation that preceded the outbreak of war. The lure of a bold, successful strike against one's enemies, and the fear that too much was at stake to risk losing the advantage, created a rolling tide of a military mobilization that carried Europe into battle.

The European leaders who met at the Congress of Vienna possessed a conservative vision for post-Napoleonic Europe. What were their goals and what challenges did their political system face between 1815 and 1848?

They aimed for a balance of forces between European powers so that no single ruler could dominate Europe. In order to balance power so no country should be powerful enough to destabilize international relations, their goal was to build a barrier against renewed French expansion. The Congress sought to restore order by insisting that Europe's dynastic rulers were the only legitimate political authority. Challenges:

Technological innovations and scientific ideas about human nature and modern society changed the way that people thought about their place in the world, stimulating artists and writers to new and revolutionary forms of creative expression. What were these scientific ideas and why were they so controversial at the end of the nineteenth century?

Western science, literature, and the arts explored new perspectives on the individual, undermining some of the cherished beliefs of nineteenth century liberals. The competition and violence central to Darwin's theory of evolution, the subconscious urges that Freud found in human behavior, and the rebellion against representation in the arts all pointed in new and baffling directions.

The populations of nations occupied by the Germans faced a difficult set of choices. What were the consequences of occupation for European nations, and what possibilities existed for resistance?

consequences: deportation, imprisonment, execution resistance: initially took form of fleeing from German invasion, which often led to death from bombs above

Colonial control took a variety of forms. What are the differences between direct rule, indirect rule, and informal colonialism?

direct rule: soldiers and officials sent to administer the colonies directly - example: France in West Africa indirect rule: used local rulers, chiefs, and sultans to rule for them - example: Great Britain in India informal colonialism: