Western Civilizations) Ancient Near East) Egypt (unfinished)

Belles-lettres

"Beautiful writing" refers to Egyptian writing, especially beginning in the early 12th Dynasty.

3rd Intermediate Period of Ancient Egypt

(1069-664 BC) (21st-25th Dynasty) Following the death of Ramesses XI in 1078 BC, Smendes assumed authority over the northern part of Egypt, ruling from the city of Tanis. The south was effectively controlled by the High Priests of Amun at Thebes, who recognized Smendes in name only. During this time, Berber tribes from what was later to be called Libya had been settling in the western delta, and the chieftains of these settlers began increasing their autonomy. Libyan princes took control of the delta under Shoshenq I in 945 BC, founding the Libyan Berber, or Bubastite, dynasty that ruled for some 200 years. Shoshenq also gained control of southern Egypt by placing his family members in important priestly positions. In the mid-ninth century BC, Egypt made a failed attempt to once more gain a foothold in Western Asia. Osorkon II of Egypt, along with a large alliance of nations and peoples, including Persia, Israel, Hamath, Phoenicia/Caanan, the Arabs, Arameans, and neo Hittites among others, engaged in the Battle of Karkar against the powerful Assyrian king Shalmaneser III in 853 BC. However, this coalition of powers failed and the Neo Assyrian Empire continued to dominate Western Asia. Libyan Berber control began to erode as a rival native dynasty in the delta arose under Leontopolis. Also, the Nubians of the Kushites threatened Egypt from the lands to the south. Drawing on millennia of interaction (trade, acculturation, occupation, assimilation, and war) with Egypt, the Kushite king Piye left his Nubian capital of Napata and invaded Egypt around 727 BC. Piye easily seized control of Thebes and eventually the Nile Delta. He recorded the episode on his stela of victory. Piye set the stage for subsequent Twenty-fifth dynasty pharaohs, such as Taharqa, to reunite the "Two lands" of Northern and Southern Egypt. The Nile valley empire was as large as it had been since the New Kingdom. The Twenty-fifth dynasty ushered in a renaissance period for ancient Egypt. Religion, the arts, and architecture were restored to their glorious Old, Middle, and New Kingdom forms. Pharaohs, such as Taharqa, built or restored temples and monuments throughout the Nile valley, including at Memphis, Karnak, Kawa, Jebel Barkal, etc. It was during the Twenty-fifth dynasty that there was the first widespread construction of pyramids (many in modern Sudan) in the Nile Valley since the Middle Kingdom. Piye made various unsuccessful attempts to extend Egyptian influence in the Near East, then controlled by Assyria. In 720 BC, he sent an army in support of a rebellion against Assyria, which was taking place in Philistia and Gaza. However, Piye was defeated by Sargon II and the rebellion failed. In 711 BC, Piye again supported a revolt against Assyria by the Israelites of Ashdod and was once again defeated by the Assyrian king Sargon II. Subsequently, Piye was forced from the Near East. From the 10th century BC onwards, Assyria fought for control of the southern Levant. Frequently, cities and kingdoms of the southern Levant appealed to Egypt for aid in their struggles against the powerful Assyrian army. Taharqa enjoyed some initial success in his attempts to regain a foothold in the Near East. Taharqa aided the Judean King Hezekiah when Hezekiah and Jerusalem was besieged by the Assyrian king, Sennacherib. Scholars disagree on the primary reason for Assyria's abandonment of their siege on Jerusalem. Reasons for the Assyrian withdrawal range from conflict with the Egyptian/Kushite army to divine intervention to surrender to disease. Henry Aubin argues that the Kushite/Egyptian army saved Jerusalem from the Assyrians and prevented the Assyrians from returning to capture Jerusalem for the remainder of Sennacherib's life (20 years). Some argue that disease was the primary reason for failing to actually take the city; however, Senacherib's annals claim Judah was forced into tribute regardless. Sennacherib had been murdered by his own sons for destroying the rebellious city of Babylon, a city sacred to all Mesopotamians, the Assyrians included. In 674 BC Esarhaddon launched a preliminary incursion into Egypt; however, this attempt was repelled by Taharqa. However, in 671 BC, Esarhaddon launched a full-scale invasion. Part of his army stayed behind to deal with rebellions in Phoenicia, and Israel. The remainder went south to Rapihu, then crossed the Sinai, and entered Egypt. Esarhaddon decisively defeated Taharqa, took Memphis, Thebes and all the major cities of Egypt, and Taharqa was chased back to his Nubian homeland. Esarhaddon now called himself "king of Egypt, Patros, and Kush", and returned with rich booty from the cities of the delta; he erected a victory stele at this time, and paraded the captive Prince Ushankhuru, the son of Taharqa in Nineveh. Esarhaddon stationed a small army in northern Egypt and describes how "All Ethiopians (read Nubians/Kushites) I deported from Egypt, leaving not one left to do homage to me". He installed native Egyptian princes throughout the land to rule on his behalf. The conquest by Esarhaddon effectively marked the end of the short lived Kushite Empire. However, the native Egyptian rulers installed by Esarhaddon were unable to retain full control of the whole country for long. Two years later, Taharqa returned from Nubia and seized control of a section of southern Egypt as far north as Memphis. Esarhaddon prepared to return to Egypt and once more eject Taharqa; however, he fell ill and died in his capital, Nineveh, before he left Assyria. His successor, Ashurbanipal, sent an Assyrian general named Sha-Nabu-shu with a small, but well trained army, which conclusively defeated Taharqa at Memphis and once more drove him from Egypt. Taharqa died in Nubia two years later. His successor, Tanutamun, also made a failed attempt to regain Egypt for Nubia. He successfully defeated Necho, the native Egyptian puppet ruler installed by Ashurbanipal, taking Thebes in the process. The Assyrians then sent a large army southwards. Tantamani (Tanutamun) was heavily routed and fled back to Nubia. The Assyrian army sacked Thebes to such an extent it never truly recovered. A native ruler, Psammetichus I was placed on the throne, as a vassal of Ashurbanipal, and the Nubians were never again to pose a threat to either Assyria or Egypt.

3rd Intermediate Period of Ancient Egypt SHORT

(1069-664 BC) (21st-25th Dynasty) Smendes = Northern authority, Egypt Priests of Amun = Southern authority, Egypt Berber = (Bubastite) Libyan dynasty Shoshenq I = Libyan ruler who gained control of southern Egypt by placing his family in priestly positions. Osorkon II = Egyptian pharaoh who, along with a large alliance of nations/peoples, engaged (and lost) in the Battle of Karkar against the Assyrian Shalmanesar III (853 BC). Piye = Nubian king who invaded Egypt, seized Thebes and Nile Delta, setting the stage for the 25th dynasty pharaohs to reunify the "Two Lands". 25th Dynasty = Egyptian renaissance. Esarhaddon = Nubian ruler who invaded Egypt, took all major cities before being beaten back, rich in spoils. The conquest by Esarhaddon effectively marked the end of the short lived Kushite Empire. The Assyrian army sacked Thebes to such an extent it never truly recovered. A native ruler, Psammetichus I was placed on the throne, as a vassal of Ashurbanipal, and the Nubians were never again to pose a threat to either Assyria or Egypt.

New Kingdom of Ancient Egypt

(1550-1069 BC) (18th-20th Dynasty) The New Kingdom pharaohs established a period of unprecedented prosperity by securing their borders and strengthening diplomatic ties with their neighbours, including the Mitanni Empire, Assyria, and Canaan. Military campaigns waged under Tuthmosis I and his grandson Tuthmosis III extended the influence of the pharaohs to the largest empire Egypt had ever seen. Between their reigns, Hatshepsut generally promoted peace and restored trade routes lost during the Hyksos occupation, as well as expanding to new regions. When Tuthmosis III died in 1425 BC, Egypt had an empire extending from Niya in north west Syria to the fourth waterfall of the Nile in Nubia, cementing loyalties and opening access to critical imports such as bronze and wood. The New Kingdom pharaohs began a large-scale building campaign to promote the god Amun, whose growing cult was based in Karnak. They also constructed monuments to glorify their own achievements, both real and imagined. The Karnak temple is the largest Egyptian temple ever built. The pharaoh Hatshepsut used such hyperbole and grandeur during her reign of almost twenty-two years. Her reign was very successful, marked by an extended period of peace and wealth-building, trading expeditions to Punt, restoration of foreign trade networks, and great building projects, including an elegant mortuary temple that rivaled the Greek architecture of a thousand years later, a colossal pair of obelisks, and a chapel at Karnak. Despite her achievements, Amenhotep II, the heir to Hatshepsut's nephew-stepson Tuthmosis III, sought to erase her legacy near the end of his father's reign and throughout his, touting many of her accomplishments as his. He also tried to change many established traditions that had developed over the centuries, which some suggest was a futile attempt to prevent other women from becoming pharaoh and to curb their influence in the kingdom. Around 1350 BC, the stability of the New Kingdom seemed threatened further when Amenhotep IV ascended the throne and instituted a series of radical and chaotic reforms. Changing his name to Akhenaten, he touted the previously obscure sun deity Aten as the supreme deity, suppressed the worship of most other deities, and attacked the power of the temple that had become dominated by the priests of Amun in Thebes, whom he saw as corrupt. Moving the capital to the new city of Akhetaten (modern-day Amarna), Akhenaten turned a deaf ear to events in the Near East (where the Hittites, Mitanni, and Assyrians were vying for control). He was devoted to his new religion and artistic style. After his death, the cult of the Aten was quickly abandoned, the priests of Amun soon regained power and returned the capital to Thebes. Under their influence the subsequent pharaohs Tutankhamun, Ay, and Horemheb worked to erase all mention of Akhenaten's heresy, now known as the Amarna Period. Around 1279 BC, Ramesses II, also known as Ramesses the Great, ascended the throne, and went on to build more temples, erect more statues and obelisks, and sire more children than any other pharaoh in history. A bold military leader, Ramesses II led his army against the Hittites in the Battle of Kadesh (in modern Syria) and, after fighting to a stalemate, finally agreed to the first recorded peace treaty, around 1258 BC. With both the Egyptians and Hittite Empire proving unable to gain the upper hand over one another, and both powers also fearful of the expanding Middle Assyrian Empire, Egypt withdrew from much of the Near East. The Hittites were thus left to compete unsuccessfully with the powerful Assyrians and the newly arrived Phrygians. Egypt's wealth, however, made it a tempting target for invasion, particularly by the Libyan Berbers to the west, and the Sea Peoples, a conjectured confederation of seafarers from the Aegean Sea. Initially, the military was able to repel these invasions, but Egypt eventually lost control of its remaining territories in southern Caanan, much of it falling to the Assyrians. The effects of external threats were exacerbated by internal problems such as corruption, tomb robbery, and civil unrest. After regaining their power, the high priests at the temple of Amun in Thebes accumulated vast tracts of land and wealth, and their expanded power splintered the country during the Third Intermediate Period.

New Kingdom of Ancient Egypt SHORT

(1550-1069 BC) (18th-20th Dynasty) The New Kingdom saw renewed prosperity, security, and diplomacy...right up until it didn't. Tuthmosis I & III = known for their military campaigns, extended influence further than ever before. Hatshepsut = known for remarkable achievements in peace, trade, wealth, and building projects. Amenhotep II = sought to erase Hatshepsut's legacy in both history and practice. Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten) = radical pharaoh who touted the previously obscure sun deity Aten as the supreme deity(suppressing worship of the then popular Amun), and moved capital to the city of Akhenaten (Amarna). Tutankhamen, Ay, Horemheb = sought to erase all traces of the chaotic rule of Akhenaten. Pharaoh Ramesses II (the Great) = built mad temples and got mad puss, but lacked mad skill as a military strategist. (First peace treaty ever, with the Hittites.)

2nd Intermediate Period of Ancient Egypt

(1650-1550 BC) (15th-17th Dynasty) Around 1785 BC, as the power of the Middle Kingdom pharaohs weakened, a Western Asian people called the Hyksos had already settled in the Eastern Delta town of Avaris, seized control of Egypt, and forced the central government to retreat to Thebes. The pharaoh was treated as a vassal and expected to pay tribute. The Hyksos ("foreign rulers") retained Egyptian models of government and identified as pharaohs, thus integrating Egyptian elements into their culture. They and other invaders introduced new tools of warfare into Egypt, most notably the composite bow and the horse-drawn chariot. After their retreat, the native Theban kings found themselves trapped between the Canaanite Hyksos ruling the north and the Hyksos' Nubian allies, the Kushites, to the south of Egypt. After years of vassalage, Thebes gathered enough strength to challenge the Hyksos in a conflict that lasted more than 30 years, until 1555 BC. The pharaohs Seqenenre Tao II and Kamose were ultimately able to defeat the Nubians to the south of Egypt, but failed to defeat the Hyksos. That task fell to Kamose's successor, Ahmose I, who successfully waged a series of campaigns that permanently eradicated the Hyksos' presence in Egypt. He established a new dynasty. In the New Kingdom that followed, the military became a central priority for the pharaohs seeking to expand Egypt's borders and attempting to gain mastery of the Near East.

2nd Intermediate Period of Ancient Egypt SHORT

(1650-1550 BC) (15th-17th Dynasty) After the Western-Asian Hyksos settled into their hard-won Eastern Delta, the now vassal pharaoh retreated into Thebes, where he found himself caught between the Hyksos and their Nubian ally, the Kushites. While the Hyksos retained Egyptian models of government and culture, even calling themselves pharaohs, they also introduced new tools of warfare, such as the composite bow and the chariot. After many years of vassalage, Thebes gathered enough strength to challenge the Hyksos and Kushites. Pharaohs Seqenenre Tao II and Kamose were able to defeat the Kushites, while Pharaoh Ahmose I eradicated the Hyksos' presence in Egypt, and established the New Kingdom, whose military was prioritized.

Middle Kingdom of Ancient Egypt

(2055-1650 BC) (11th-14th Dynasty) The pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom restored the country's prosperity and stability, thereby stimulating a resurgence of art, literature, and monumental building projects. Mentuhotep II and his Eleventh Dynasty successors ruled from Thebes, but the vizier Amenemhat I, upon assuming kingship at the beginning of the Twelfth Dynasty around 1985 BC, shifted the nation's capital to the city of Itjtawy, located in Faiyum. From Itjtawy, the pharaohs of the Twelfth Dynasty undertook a far-sighted land reclamation and irrigation scheme to increase agricultural output in the region. Moreover, the military reconquered territory in Nubia that was rich in quarries and gold mines, while laborers built a defensive structure in the Eastern Delta, called the "Walls-of-the-Ruler", to defend against foreign attack. With the pharaohs' having secured military and political security and vast agricultural and mineral wealth, the nation's population, arts, and religion flourished. In contrast to elitist Old Kingdom attitudes towards the gods, the Middle Kingdom experienced an increase in expressions of personal piety and what could be called a democratization of the afterlife, in which all people possessed a soul and could be welcomed into the company of the gods after death. Middle Kingdom literature featured sophisticated themes and characters written in a confident, eloquent style. The relief and portrait sculpture of the period captured subtle, individual details that reached new heights of technical perfection. The last great ruler of the Middle Kingdom, Amenemhat III, allowed Semitic-speaking Canaanite settlers from the Near East into the delta region to provide a sufficient labour force for his especially active mining and building campaigns. These ambitious building and mining activities, however, combined with severe Nile floods later in his reign, strained the economy and precipitated the slow decline into the Second Intermediate Period during the later Thirteenth and Fourteenth dynasties. During this decline, the Canaanite settlers began to seize control of the delta region, eventually coming to power in Egypt as the Hyksos.

Middle Kingdom of Ancient Egypt SHORT

(2055-1650 BC) (11th-14th Dynasty) The Middle Kingdom saw prosperity and security, and thereby a resurgence of art, literature, religion, and monumental building projects, as well as a boom in population and agriculture. The ruling city shifted from Thebes to Itjtawy, Faiyum. Egyptian military reconquered territory in Nubia and built the "Walls of the Ruler" to defend against foreign attack. In contrast to elitist Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom experienced a democratization of the afterlife, in which all people possessed a soul and could be welcomed into the company of the gods after death. The last great ruler of the Middle Kingdom, Amenemhat III, allowed Canaanite settlers from the Near East into the delta region to provide labor, and they later began to seize control of the delta region and eventually came to power in Egypt as the Hyksos, after the ambitious building and mining and Nile floods depleted the Egyptian economy.

1st Intermediate Period of Ancient Egypt

(2181-2055 BC) (7th-11th Dynasty) After Egypt's central government collapsed at the end of the Old Kingdom, the administration could no longer support or stabilize the country's economy. Regional governors could not rely on the king for help in times of crisis, and the ensuing food shortages and political disputes escalated into famines and small-scale civil wars. Yet despite difficult problems, local leaders, owing no tribute to the pharaoh, used their new-found independence to establish a thriving culture in the provinces. Once in control of their own resources, the provinces became economically richer—which was demonstrated by larger and better burials among all social classes. In bursts of creativity, provincial artisans adopted and adapted cultural motifs formerly restricted to the royalty of the Old Kingdom, and scribes developed literary styles that expressed the optimism and originality of the period. Free from their loyalties to the pharaoh, local rulers began competing with each other for territorial control and political power. By 2160 BC, rulers in Herakleopolis controlled Lower Egypt in the north, while a rival clan based in Thebes, the Intef family, took control of Upper Egypt in the south. As the Intefs grew in power and expanded their control northward, a clash between the two rival dynasties became inevitable. Around 2055 BC the northern Theban forces under Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II finally defeated the Herakleopolitan rulers, reuniting the Two Lands. They inaugurated a period of economic and cultural renaissance known as the Middle Kingdom.

1st Intermediate Period of Ancient Egypt SHORT

(2181-2055 BC) (7th-11th Dynasty) The Old Kingdom had collapsed, leading to famine and small-scale civil wars. Despite the difficulties, locals embraced their new-found independence, becoming both economically and culturally richer. Local rulers, now free from their loyalties to the pharaoh, began competing with each other for territorial control and political power. The Herakleopolis of Lower Egypt were eventually conqured by the Intef of Upper Egypt reuniting the Two Lands, and inaugurating an economic and cultural renaissance known as the Middle Kingdom.

Old Kingdom of Ancient Egypt

(2686-2181 BC) (3rd-6th Dynasty) Major advances in architecture, art, and technology were made during the Old Kingdom, fueled by the increased agricultural productivity and resulting population, made possible by a well-developed central administration. Some of ancient Egypt's crowning achievements, the Giza pyramids and Great Sphinx, were constructed during the Old Kingdom. Under the direction of the vizier, state officials collected taxes, coordinated irrigation projects to improve crop yield, drafted peasants to work on construction projects, and established a justice system to maintain peace and order. Along with the rising importance of a central administration arose a new class of educated scribes and officials who were granted estates by the pharaoh in payment for their services. Pharaohs also made land grants to their mortuary cults and local temples, to ensure that these institutions had the resources to worship the pharaoh after his death. Scholars believe that five centuries of these practices slowly eroded the economic power of the pharaoh, and that the economy could no longer afford to support a large centralized administration. As the power of the pharaoh diminished, regional governors called nomarchs began to challenge the supremacy of the pharaoh. This, coupled with severe droughts between 2200 and 2150 BC,[31] is assumed to have caused the country to enter the 140-year period of famine and strife known as the First Intermediate Period.

Old Kingdom of Ancient Egypt SHORT

(2686-2181 BC) (3rd-6th Dynasty) The Giza pyramids and Great Sphinx. The Old Kingdom saw architectural, artistic, and technological advancements, increased agricultural productivity, a boom in population, and new forms of central government (most notably the establishment of a justice system, although taxation, labour drafts, land grants, and irrigation projects were enacted as well). It is believed that five centuries of these practices slowly eroded the economic power of the pharaoh, and that the economy could no longer afford to support a large centralized administration. As the power of the pharaoh diminished, regional governors called nomarchs began to challenge the supremacy of the pharaoh. This, coupled with severe droughts is assumed to have caused the country to enter the 140-year period of famine and strife known as the First Intermediate Period.

Early Dynastic Period of Ancient Egypt SHORT

(3100-2686 BC) (1st-2nd Dynasty) First of the Dynastic pharaohs solidified control over Lower Egypt with Memphis, from which he controlled labour, agriculture, and trade routes. 3rd century priest Manetho, grouped past pharaohs into 30 dynasties beginning with the near-mythical Menes, who it is believed may have been the pharaoh Narmer.

Early Dynastic Period of Ancient Egypt

(3100-2686 BC) (1st-2nd Dynasty) In the Early Dynastic Period (~3150 BC), the first of the Dynastic pharaohs solidified control over Lower Egypt by establishing a capital at Memphis, from which he could control the labour force and agriculture of the fertile delta region, as well as the lucrative and critical trade routes to the Levant. The increasing power and wealth of the pharaohs during the early dynastic period was reflected in their elaborate mastaba tombs and mortuary cult structures at Abydos, which were used to celebrate the deified pharaoh after his death. The strong institution of kingship developed by the pharaohs served to legitimize state control over the land, labour, and resources that were essential to the survival and growth of ancient Egyptian civilization. The Early Dynastic Period was approximately contemporary to the early Sumerian-Akkadian civilization of Mesopotamia and of ancient Elam. The third-century BC Egyptian priest Manetho grouped the long line of pharaohs from Menes to his own time into 30 dynasties, a system still used today. He chose to begin his official history with the king named "Meni" (or Menes in Greek) who was believed to have united the two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt (around 3100 BC). The transition to a unified state happened more gradually than ancient Egyptian writers represented, and there is no contemporary record of Menes. Some scholars now believe, however, that the mythical Menes may have been the pharaoh Narmer, who is depicted wearing royal regalia on the ceremonial Narmer Palette, in a symbolic act of unification.

Late Period of Ancient Egypt (inc. Achaemenid Egypt)

(664-332 BC)[(525-332 BC)] (26th-31st Dynasty) With no permanent plans for conquest, the Assyrians left control of Egypt to a series of vassals who became known as the Saite kings of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty. By 653 BC, the Saite king Psamtik I (taking advantage of the fact that Assyria was involved in a fierce war conquering Elam and that few Assyrian troops were stationed in Egypt) was able to free Egypt relatively peacefully from Assyrian vassalage with the help of Lydian and Greek mercenaries, the latter of whom were recruited to form Egypt's first navy. Psamtik and his successors however were careful to maintain peaceful relations with Assyria. Greek influence expanded greatly as the city of Naukratis became the home of Greeks in the delta. In 609 BC Necho II went to war with Babylonia, the Chaldeans, the Medians and the Scythians in an attempt to save Assyria, which after a brutal civil war was being overrun by this coalition of powers. However, the attempt to save Egypt's former masters failed. The Egyptians delayed intervening too long, and Nineveh had already fallen and King Sin-shar-ishkun was dead by the time Necho II sent his armies northwards. However, Necho easily brushed aside the Israelite army under King Josiah but he and the Assyrians then lost a battle at Harran to the Babylonians, Medes and Scythians. Necho II and Ashur-uballit II of Assyria were finally defeated at Carchemish in Aramea (modern Syria) in 605 BC. The Egyptians remained in the area for some decades, struggling with the Babylonian kings Nabopolassar and Nebuchadnezzar II for control of portions of the former Assyrian Empire in The Levant. However, they were eventually driven back into Egypt, and Nebuchadnezzar II even briefly invaded Egypt itself in 567 BC. The Saite kings based in the new capital of Sais witnessed a brief but spirited resurgence in the economy and culture, but in 525 BC, the powerful Persians, led by Cambyses II, began their conquest of Egypt, eventually capturing the pharaoh Psamtik III at the battle of Pelusium. Cambyses II then assumed the formal title of pharaoh, but ruled Egypt from his home of Susa in Persia (modern Iran), leaving Egypt under the control of a satrapy. A few temporarily successful revolts against the Persians marked the fifth century BC, but Egypt was never able to permanently overthrow the Persians. Following its annexation by Persia, Egypt was joined with Cyprus and Phoenicia (modern Lebanon) in the sixth satrapy of the Achaemenid Persian Empire. This first period of Persian rule over Egypt, also known as the Twenty-seventh dynasty, ended after more than one-hundred years in 402 BC, and from 380-343 BC the Thirtieth Dynasty ruled as the last native royal house of dynastic Egypt, which ended with the kingship of Nectanebo II. A brief restoration of Persian rule, sometimes known as the Thirty-first Dynasty, began in 343 BC, but shortly after, in 332 BC, the Persian ruler Mazaces handed Egypt over to the Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great without a fight.

Late Period of Ancient Egypt (inc. Achaemenid Egypt) SHORT

(664-332 BC)[(525-332 BC)] (26th-31st Dynasty) 26th Dynasty = the Saite Kings, Assyrian vassals Psamtik I = Saite king who freed Egypt from Assyrian vassalage with help from Lydian & Greek mercenaries. Naukratis = Home of the Greek mercenaries, who were recruited for Egypt's first navy, in the delta. Necho II = went to war with Babylonia, Chaldeans, Medians, and Scythians in an attempt to save Assyria. Waited too long to be effective, eventually driven back to Egypt. Psamtik III = pharaoh captured in Battle of Pelusium by the Persian Cambyses II in his conquest of Egypt. Cambyses II = Persian pharaoh, conquered Egypt, ruled from (Modern Iran), leaving Egypt under control of a satrapy (Egypt was joined with Cyprus and Phoenicia (modern Lebanon) in the sixth satrapy of the Achaemenid Persian Empire). 27th Dynasty = first period of Persian rule 30th Dynasty = Last native royal house of dynastic Egypt, ending with Nectanebo II. 31st Dynasty = brief restoration of Persian rule, which was followed by the Persian ruler Mazaces handing Egypt over to the Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great without a fight.

Prehistoric Egypt

(pre-3100 BC) AKA the Predynastic Period. Predynastic Egyptian climate was much less arid, with treed savannas and grazing herds, both flora and fauna were prolific. While hunting was common, this was also the period in which many animals were first domesticated. By ~5500BC, tribes living in the Nile Valley had developed a series of cultures, the largest of which being the Badari of Upper Egypt (Southern). The Badari were followed by the Amratian (Naqada I) and Gerzah (Naqada II) cultures, who ushered a number of technological improvements. Over a period of about 1,000 years, the Naqada culture developed into a powerful civilization whose leaders were in complete control of the people and resources of the Nile valley. With Hierakonpolis as their established power center, followed by Abydos, Naqada III leaders expanded along the Nile. The Naqada culture is known also for its diverse material goods including combs, statuary, pottery, stone craft, cosmetics, and opulent gold, lapis, and ivory jewelry. They also developed a ceramic glaze called faience which was widely used even among other cultures, particularly Romans. Most notably, the Naqada created written symbols that eventually developed into a full system of hieroglyphs.

Prehistoric Egypt SHORT

(pre-3100 BC) AKA the Predynastic Period. Animals first domesticated. ~5500BC, largest culture was the Badari of Upper Egypt (Southern). The Badari were followed by the Naqada, who over ~1,000 years, developed into a powerful civilization with Hierakonpolis as their established power center. The Naqada culture is known for its diverse material goods, but more notably, their creation of hieroglyphs.

Egypt reached the pinnacle of its power during...

...the New Kingdom, during the Ramesside period, where it rivaled the Hittite Empire, Assyrian Empire and Mitanni Empire, after which it entered a period of slow decline. Egypt was invaded or conquered by a succession of foreign powers, such as the Canaanites/Hyksos, Libyans, the Nubians, the Assyrians, Babylonians, the Achaemenid Persians, and the Macedonians in the Third Intermediate Period and the Late Period of Egypt. In the aftermath of Alexander the Great's death, one of his generals, Ptolemy Soter, established himself as the new ruler of Egypt. This Greek Ptolemaic Kingdom ruled Egypt until 30 BC, when, under Cleopatra, it fell to the Roman Empire and became a Roman province.

The many achievements of the ancient Egyptians include...

...the quarrying, surveying and construction techniques that supported the building of monumental pyramids, temples, and obelisks; a system of mathematics, a practical and effective system of medicine, irrigation systems and agricultural production techniques, the first known planked boats, Egyptian faience and glass technology, new forms of literature, and the earliest known peace treaty, made with the Hittites. Egypt's art and architecture were widely copied, and its antiquities carried off to far corners of the world. Its monumental ruins have inspired the imaginations of travelers and writers for centuries.

The Great Sphinx

189-foot-long monument to the god Harmachis and guardian of Necropolis (city of dead) aka the Giza Pyramids; off of the West Bank of the Nile River in Cairo, Egypt. Lime/sandstone. Guards Necropolis (city of dead) aka the Pyramids. (Old Kingdom, Dynasty 4) 2500 BCE.

Den

1st Dynasty; First pharaoh depicted wearing the double crown of Egypt.

Narmer

1st Dynasty; c 3100 BC; Believed to be Menes, who unified Upper and Lower Egypt.

Manetho

300 bc Egyptian priest and advisor who began keeping records of the ancient Egyptian kings, grouping them into 30 dynasties beginning with the near-mythical Menes, credited to have unified Lower and Upper Egypt and who it is believed may have been the pharaoh Narmer.

Herihor

3rd Intermediate; 21st Dynasty; c. 1080 BC Theban High Priest of Amun First High Priest of Amun to claim to be Pharaoh. He ruled the South from Thebes while Ramesses XI ruled the North from Pi-Ramesses.

Usermaatre Piye

3rd Intermediate; 25th Dynasty; c. 752 BC Nubian King

Giza Pyramids

After life temples for leaders; off of the West Bank of the Nile River, adjacent to the Great Sphinx, in Cairo, Egypt. Consists of the Pyramid of Cheops/Khufu, the Pyramid of Khafre, the Pyramid of Menkaure and smaller sattelite edefices nkown as queen's pyramids, causeways and valley pyramids. Only one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World still standing. (Old Kingdom, Dynasty 4) 2500 BCE.

The Heretic King refers to...

Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV )

Overview of Ptolemaic Egypt SHORT

Alexander the Great = "conquered" Egypt from Persians, welcomed by Egyptians as a deliverer. Macedonian Ptolemaic Kingdom = based on Egyptian model and based in Alexandria. Alexandria = Ptolemaic capital, home of the Library of Alexandria. Seat of learning and Hellenistic culture. Hellenistic culture did not supplant native Egyptian culture, as the Ptolemies supported and encouraged time-honored traditions in an effort to secure the loyalty of the populace. They built new temples in Egyptian style, supported traditional cults, and portrayed themselves as pharaohs. Some traditions merged, as Greek and Egyptian gods were syncretized into composite deities, such as Serapis, and classical Greek forms of sculpture influenced traditional Egyptian motifs. Despite their efforts to appease the Egyptians, the Ptolemies were challenged by native rebellion, bitter family rivalries, and the powerful mob of Alexandria that formed after the death of Ptolemy IV. Continued Egyptian revolts, ambitious politicians, and powerful Syriac opponents from the Near East made this situation unstable, leading Rome to send forces to secure the country as a province of its empire.

Menes (Meni)

An Ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the early dynastic period, credited by classical tradition with having united Upper and Lower Egypt, and as the founder of the first dynasty (Dynasty I). The identity of Menes is the subject of ongoing debate, although mainstream Egyptological consensus identifies Menes with the protodynastic pharaoh Narmer (most likely) or perhaps first dynasty Hor-Aha. Both pharaohs have been credited with the unification of Egypt, to different degrees by various authorities.

Ancient Egypt

An ancient civilization concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River, divided into the Nile Delta Lower Egypt, and Upper Egypt. (upper Egypt is south of lower Egypt) Its history occurred in a series of stable Kingdoms, separated by periods of relative instability known as Intermediate Periods: the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, and New Kingdom. This early civilization established hieroglyphic writing system, had a basic agricultural system and polytheistic belief, and a culture dependent on the annual flooding of the Nile as the basis for a sustained economy. pre-3100 BC - 332 BC

3rd Intermediate AND Late Period {3 words or less}

Broken & Warring

Walls of the Ruler

Built by Amenemhat I in Lower Egypt to protect the eastern approaches to Egypt. It is assumed that the "walls of the ruler" was a fortification, or possibly a whole string of them, with small outposts of soldiers stationed along its cours. New Kingdom depictions show forts which had a secured supply of water and were surrounded by crocodile-infested ditches or canals which were spanned by bridges.

Hellenistic Period {3 words or less}

CLEOPATRA

1st Intermediate Period {3 words or less}

Chaos

Great kings of the Egyptian Old Kingdom who built the largest pyramids at Giza.

Cheops / Khufu Khafre Menkaure

Nomarchs

During the 1st Intermediate Period: Pharoahs decentralized power by letting nobles administrate local nomes.

Mastabas

Early pyramids that were rectangular flat-topped funerary mounds, with battered sides, covering a burial chamber below ground. First type of Egyptian Tomb. Developed from small and inconspicuous to huge imposing.

Royal Nubian burials at Qustul produced artifacts bearing the oldest-known examples of what dynasty's symbols, such as the white crown of ______ and falcon.

Egypt

Quick Overview of Roman Egypt SHORT

Egypt became a Roman province after the defeat of Marc Antony/Cleopatra by Octavian (later Emperor Augustus) in the Battle of Actium. Romans were hostile than the Greeks, and were not so supportive of tradition. When Christianity took root in Egypt, it was seen as just another cult that could be easily tolerated. However, its uncompromising nature led to persecutions of Christian converts, culminating in the great purges of Diocletian. Christianity won out despite this. Christian emperor Theodosius banned pagan rites and closed temples. Alexandria became the epicenter of anti-pagan riots wherein Egyptian religious imagery was destroyed wherever it was found. As Egypt's native cultures diminished, so did their ability to read their hieroglyphic writing as well as their temple priests/priestesses and their respective temples, which were either destroyed, abandoned, or refashioned into Christian churches.

Quick Overview of Roman Egypt

Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire in 30 BC, following the defeat of Marc Antony and Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra VII by Octavian (later Emperor Augustus) in the Battle of Actium. The Romans relied heavily on grain shipments from Egypt, and the Roman army, under the control of a prefect appointed by the Emperor, quelled rebellions, strictly enforced the collection of heavy taxes, and prevented attacks by bandits, which had become a notorious problem during the period. Alexandria became an increasingly important center on the trade route with the orient, as exotic luxuries were in high demand in Rome. Although the Romans had a more hostile attitude than the Greeks towards the Egyptians, some traditions such as mummification and worship of the traditional gods continued. The art of mummy portraiture flourished, and some Roman emperors had themselves depicted as pharaohs, though not to the extent that the Ptolemies had. The former lived outside Egypt and did not perform the ceremonial functions of Egyptian kingship. Local administration became Roman in style and closed to native Egyptians. From the mid-first century AD, Christianity took root in Egypt and it was originally seen as another cult that could be accepted. However, it was an uncompromising religion that sought to win converts from Egyptian Religion and Greco-Roman religion and threatened popular religious traditions. This led to the persecution of converts to Christianity, culminating in the great purges of Diocletian starting in 303, but eventually Christianity won out. In 391 the Christian Emperor Theodosius introduced legislation that banned pagan rites and closed temples. Alexandria became the scene of great anti-pagan riots with public and private religious imagery destroyed. As a consequence, Egypt's native religious culture was continually in decline. While the native population certainly continued to speak their language, the ability to read hieroglyphic writing slowly disappeared as the role of the Egyptian temple priests and priestesses diminished. The temples themselves were sometimes converted to churches or abandoned to the desert.

Book of the Dead

Egyptian book of prayers and spells concerned with the afterlife.

New Kingdom {3 words or less}

Empirical status

The "Golden Age of Egypt" includes some of the most famous pharaohs, including...

Hatshepsut, Amenhotep, Tiye, Akhenaton, Tutankhamen, Ramesses II, and Nefertiti.

Alexander the Great

Hellenistic; Argead Dynasty; c. 332 BC Macedon conquers Persia & Egpyt.

Cleopatra II

Hellenistic; Ptolemaic Dynasty; c. 163 BC Married then revolted against Ptolemy VIII, becoming sole ruler of Egypt.

Cleopatra VII

Hellenistic; Ptolemaic Dynasty; c. 51 BC Ruled jointly with her father Ptolemy XII, her brother Ptolemy XIII, her brother-husband Ptolemy XIV, and her son Ptolemy XV. Had affairs with Roman Dictator Julius Caesar and Roman General Mark Antony, but it was not until after her suicide (after Marc Antony was defeated by Octavian, who would later be Emperor Augustus) that Egypt became a province of Rome in 30 BC. Subsequent Roman Emperors were accorded the title of Pharaoh, although exclusively while in Egypt. One Egyptian king-list lists the Roman Emperors as Pharaohs up to and including Decius.

Achievements of Ancient Egypt SHORT

Hieroglyphs, art, ARCHITECTURE. Pyramids, Sphinx, temples, obelisks, and the construction techniques utilized to create them. Maths, medicines, agriculture, boats, glass. first peace treaty (Hittites).

2nd Intermediate Period {3 words or less}

Hyksos "invasion"

Overview of Ptolemaic Egypt

In 332 BC, Alexander the Great conquered Egypt with little resistance from the Persians and was welcomed by the Egyptians as a deliverer. The administration established by Alexander's successors, the Macedonian Ptolemaic Kingdom, was based on an Egyptian model and based in the new capital city of Alexandria. The city showcased the power and prestige of Hellenistic rule, and became a seat of learning and culture, centered at the famous Library of Alexandria. The Lighthouse of Alexandria lit the way for the many ships that kept trade flowing through the city—as the Ptolemies made commerce and revenue-generating enterprises, such as papyrus manufacturing, their top priority. Hellenistic culture did not supplant native Egyptian culture, as the Ptolemies supported time-honored traditions in an effort to secure the loyalty of the populace. They built new temples in Egyptian style, supported traditional cults, and portrayed themselves as pharaohs. Some traditions merged, as Greek and Egyptian gods were syncretized into composite deities, such as Serapis, and classical Greek forms of sculpture influenced traditional Egyptian motifs. Despite their efforts to appease the Egyptians, the Ptolemies were challenged by native rebellion, bitter family rivalries, and the powerful mob of Alexandria that formed after the death of Ptolemy IV. In addition, as Rome relied more heavily on imports of grain from Egypt, the Romans took great interest in the political situation in the country. Continued Egyptian revolts, ambitious politicians, and powerful Syriac opponents from the Near East made this situation unstable, leading Rome to send forces to secure the country as a province of its empire.

Heracleopolotian Kings

Kings who ruled Lower Egypt during the 9/10th dynasties (1st Intermediate) in their capital of Memphis.

Theban Kings

Kings who ruled Upper Egypt during the 11/12th dynasties (1st Int./Middle) in their capital of Thebes.

Cambyses II

Late (1st Persian); 27th Dynasty; c. 525 BC Defeated Psamtik III at the Battle of Pelusium.

Nectanebo II

Late (1st Persian); 30th Dynasty; c. 360 BC Last native ruler of Egypt.

Artaxerxes III

Late (2nd Persian); 31th Dynasty; c. 343 BC

Psammetichus III

Late; 26th Dynasty; c. 526 BC Defeated by Persians in Battle of Pelusium.

Amasis II

Late; 26th Dynasty; c. 570 BC Last great ruler before Persian Conquest.

Psammetichus I

Late; 26th Dynasty; c. 664 BC Reunified Egypt.

Nomes

Local districts in Egypt.

The [must know] Female Pharaohs

MERYT-NEITH (1st Dynasty c.3000 BC) [1st female pharaoh, known for funerary monuments] HATSHEPSUT (18th Dynasty c.1473 BC) [ruled during Golden Age, known for remarkable achievements in peace, trade, wealth, and building projects.] NEFERTITI (18th Dynasty c.1336 BC) [POSSIBLE pharaoh, wife of Akhenaten, known for her beauty] CLEOPATRA (Ptolemaic Dynasty c. 51 BC) [Lover of Julius Caesar and Marc Antony, attempted unity between Egypt and Rome, committed suicide after Antony's defeat by Octavian, which incidentally marked Egypt's becoming a Roman province.]

Syncretism

Making two different gods into the same being - such as Amon-Ra.

Mentuhotep II

Middle Kingdom; 11th Dynasty; c. 2060 BC Regained all of Egypt c. 2015 BC, beginning the Middle Kingdom.

Sobekneferu

Middle Kingdom; 12th Dynasty; c. 1806 BC 1st female pharaoh of Egypt Middle king ended with her death.

Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV)

New Kingdom; 18th Dynasty; c. 1352 BC Founder of the Amarna Period; changed state religion polytheistic Ancient Egyptian religion to Monotheistic Atenism, which centered around the worship of the sun diety Aten. Changed his name from Amenhotep (Amun is pleased) to Akhenaten to reflect his religious shift.

Amenhotep III The Magnificent King

New Kingdom; 18th Dynasty; c. 1390 BC Son of Thutmose IV, father of Akhenaten and grandfather to Tutankhamun.

Thutmose III

New Kingdom; 18th Dynasty; c. 1458 BC Under this reign, Egypt was at its greatest extent. Expanded into Levant and Nubia. Son of Thutmose II. May have ruled jointly with aunt/step-mother Hatshepsut, whom he later erased in name and image.

Hatshepsut

New Kingdom; 18th Dynasty; c. 1479 BC Second known female ruler of Egypt. Daughter of Thutmose I. Wife of her brother Thutmose II. May have ruled jointly with nephew Thutmose III.

Ahmose I

New Kingdom; 18th Dynasty; c. 1550 BC Conquered Northern Egypt from the Hyksos. Brother of Kamose.

Ramesses II the Great

New Kingdom; 19th Dynasty; c. 1279 BC Expanded Egyptian territory until he reached a stalemate with the Hittite Empire at the Battle of Kadesh in 1275 BC, after which the famous Egyptian-Hittite peace treaty was signed in 1258 BC.

Ramesses XI

New Kingdom; 20th Dynasty; c. 1107 BC During the second half of his reign, High Priest of Amun Herihor ruled over the south from Thebes, limiting his power to Lower (Northern) Egypt. He was succeeded in the north by Smendes.

Hyksos

Nomadic invaders from southwest Asia who ruled Egypt from 1640 to 1570 B.C., having conquered Egypt from the inside with their better technology. Ended the Middle kingdom, began the 2nd intermediate. The Egyptians paid the Mycenaean Greeks to fight them off. They later invaded Nubia.

Hierokonpolis

Now Nekhen, Hierokonpolis was the religious and political capital of Upper Egypt at the end of the Predynastic period, and probably also during the Early Dynastic Period.

Djoser

Old Kingdom; 3rd Dynasty; c.2670 BC Commissioned first pyramid, created by architect/scribe Imhotep.

Khafre

Old Kingdom; 4th Dynasty; c. 2558 BC His pyramid is second largest in Giza. Some prefer him for the creation of Great Sphinx of Giza.

Khufu

Old Kingdom; 4th Dynasty; c. 2589 BC Built the Great pyramid of Giza.

Sneferu

Old Kingdom; 4th Dynasty; c. 2613 BC Built ****-ton of pyramids.

Menkaure

Old Kingdom; 4th Dynasty; c.2532 BC His is the third and smallest pyramid in Giza.

Djederfre

Old Kingdom; 4th Dynasty; c.2566 BC Some believe he created Great Sphinx of Giza.

Abydos

One of the oldest cities of ancient Egypt, and also of the eighth nome in Upper Egypt, of which it was the capital city. Considered one of the most important archaeological sites in Egypt, the sacred city of Abydos was the site of many ancient temples, including Umm el-Qa'ab, a royal necropolis where early pharaohs were entombed. These tombs began to be seen as extremely significant burials and in later times it became desirable to be buried in the area, leading to the growth of the town's importance as a cult site. Today, Abydos is notable for the mortuary temple of Seti I, which contains an inscription from the nineteenth dynasty known to the modern world as the Abydos King List. It is a chronological list showing cartouches of most dynastic pharaohs of Egypt from Menes until Seti I's father, Ramesses I. The Great Temple and most of the ancient town are buried under the modern buildings to the north of the Seti temple. Many of the original structures and the artifacts within them are considered irretrievable and lost; many may have been destroyed by the new construction.

Sea Peoples

Peoples responsible for invading and destroying the Egyptian and Hittite kingdoms in the 13th century (3rd Int.).

Ramesside Period

Period during New Kingdom in which there were twelve pharaohs named Ramesses.

Amarna Period

Period in which the Egyptian capital was in Amarna and Akhenaton was king; artistic style was realistic.

Ancient Egyptian Periods SHORT

Prehistoric Ancient: Early Dynasty Old 1st Middle 2nd New 3rd Late Ptolemaic Roman

Ancient Egyptian periods

Prehistoric Egypt (pre-3100 BC) Ancient Egypt (3100 - 332 BC) *Early Dynastic Period (3100-2686 BC) *Old Kingdom (2686-2181 BC) *1st Intermediate Period (2181-2055 BC) *Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 BC) *2nd Intermediate Period (1650-1550 BC) *New Kingdom (1550-1069 BC) *3rd Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC) *Late Period (664-332 BC) *Achaemenid Egypt (525-332 BC)* *included in the late period followed by the Ptolemaic and Roman periods.

Old Kingdom {3 words or less}

Pyramids & Sphinx

Middle Kingdom {3 words or less}

Recovery and Stability

Naqada

The Amratian (Naqada I) and Gerzah (Naqada II) cultures, ushered a number of technological improvements. Over a period of about 1,000 years, the Naqada culture developed into a powerful civilization whose leaders were in complete control of the people and resources of the Nile valley. With Hierakonpolis as their established power center, followed by Abydos, Naqada III leaders expanded along the Nile. The Naqada culture is known for its diverse material goods including combs, statuary, pottery, stone craft, cosmetics, and opulent gold, lapis, and ivory jewelry. They also developed a ceramic glaze called faience which was widely used even among other cultures, particularly Romans. Most notably, the Naqada created written symbols that eventually developed into a full system of hieroglyphs.

Badari

This Predynastic Egyptian culture established agricultural systems, wrote pictorially, built ships from reed, developed irrigation, and had a strong interest in the afterlife. The Badari buried their dead in pits away from their small villages, where they lived in elevated huts. The Badari left behind stone art, red colored ceramics with black borders, stone vases in various shapes, domestic implements, and figurines of the dead.

Prehistoric Period {3 words or less}

Unification of Egypt