What is Memory?
The Modality Effect is a bigger recency effect for _____________ info vs. ____________ info
auditory ; visual
What is echoic memory? How long does it last?
auditory sensory memory (5-10 seconds)
What did Clive Wearing suffer from?
chronic anterograde and retrograde amnesia
What is the phonological similarity effect?
confusion of letters or words that sound similar
What is explicit memory also known as?
declarative memory
If you add an irrelevant stimulus just after the list, the modality effect ___________ (visual and auditory memory the same for the end of the list), which explains the __________ __________
disappears; suffix effect
When researching memory, what is the problem with intentional encoding?
dont have true control over what people are doing
What are the three phases of memory experiments?
encoding, retention, and retrieval
What are the two sub categories of explicit memory?
episodic and semantic memory
What are the 2 Components of Long Term Memory (1992)
explicit and implicit memory
What are the two categories of memory tests?
explicit or implicit
What is semantic memory?
facts and general knowledge
What kind of task would this represent? "Which did you see?"
forced choice
What are the 4 types of explicit memory tests
free recall, cued recall, recognition, forced choice
What are the components of sensory memory?
iconic and echoic
What is implicit memory also called?
indirect memory
What is episodic memory?
information about events we have personally experienced Everything you'd write in diary? Personal/particular episodes of life
What are the two types of encoding?
intentional and incidental
Before Hermann Ebbinghaus' contribution, what was used?
introspection
priming that is mediated by the perceptual rep system appears to be ?
less affected by long retention intervals than is priming based on conceptual processes
What is retention?
maintaining information over time
In Mitchel, Priming in perceptual tasks is theorized to be ?
mediated by a perceptual representation system
What is cued recall task?
method to test memory by providing significant hints about the material - cues are provided. You are given a hint, a cue to help you remember. Ex:) "A piece of furniture"
What memory does implicit tests tap?
nondeclarative
What is implicit memory also referred to as
nondeclaritive, unconscious or automatic memory
According to a study done, recognition memory is very good for what kinds of tasks?
pictures
When asked to freely recall a studied list of items, what trends are you likely to see in the results
primacy and recency effect clustering of items semantically related intrusions
What is retrival?
recovering information from storage the ability to access information when you need it
What is implicit memory?
refers to the information that we do not store purposely and is unintentionally memorized; we cannot consciously bring that memory into awareness
Ebbinghaus was the first to determine how memory is affected by _____________
repetition
The saying associated with the learning curve goes as follows: ________ as a function of repetition
retention
Errors in STM tend to be __________ stimuli (e.g. confusing "V and B)
rhyming
Modal Model of Memory
sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory
The faster you learn something the __________ the learning curve
steeper
What is a unitary theory of memory?/ is memory unitary?
that memory is a single system (or store) without any subsystems no
In Mitchel, Priming is measured by?
the difference in performance on trials with previously encountered stimuli and trials with novel stimuli, and is typically assessed without asking individuals to engage in recollection
What is encoding?
the processing of information into the memory system the initial learning of information/ The event is initially experienced
What is the retention interval?
time between learning and testing milliseconds to half century? Experimenters can manipulate what happens between encoding and retrieval
In Mitchel, what was priming unrelated to?
to conscious recollection
Ebbinghaus believed that most memory is encoded how?
unconsciously/indirectly/implicitly
What is iconic memory and how long does it last?
visual sensory memory (1/4 second)
What is auditory masking?
when one sound stops us from hearing another sound Auditory sensory memory is longer lasting then visual sensory memory
What is methodological scientific inquiry?
"How to study it?"
You can describe Ebbinghaus's curve as either
"Monotonic" or Negatively accelerating fast at first, then slows as more time passes
What is empirical scientific inquiry?
"What are the results?"
What is theoretical scientific inquiry?
"Why did these results occur?"
What is the learning curve formula?
(initial learning time - relearning time) / initial learning x 100
In Mitchel, priming is reliable after ___ years
17
Most people can hold/recall about ______numbers (but the real magic number is ___ for STM)
7; 4
What is a free recall task?
A memory task in which a list of items is presented one at a time and then the participant is free to recall them in any order "Tell me everything that you remember in any order"
What is a recognition task?
A memory task in which one must identify correct information among irrelevant information or incorrect statements. "Did you see this before→ Montana? Wyoming?..."
memory span task
A memory task in which the participant is given a series of items one at a time and then has to recall the items in the order in which they were presented
What is an implicit memory test?
A task that does not directly refer to the past, but which may be influenced by past experiences
Who was the philosopher associated with the mere exposure effect?
Ajonic (1968)
Why is the modality effect a thing?
Auditory sensory memory is longer in duration than visual sensory memory
What is the difference between autobiographical and procedural memory?
Autobiographical: explicit/direct memory for events that are experienced Procedural: implicit/indirect traces of memory which facilitate learning skills outside of consciousness
What is Ebbinghaus' learning curve?
Basically how well you learn something... After time, curve becomes gradual Steep curve when starting out
Why is retrieval another encoding of the information
Because when you rethink about something, you are almost reinstating it in your memory
What did Hermann Ebbinghaus believe?
Believed that most experiences are concealed from consciousness but end up impacting our behavior
What were Hermann Ebbinghaus' contributions?
Came up with a way to scientifically study memory
What are the approaches to studying memory?
Cognitive, Neuroscience, Neurophysical, and Cognitive Neuroscience
What are the types of memory span tasks
Digit Span ? Letter Span?
The Modal (Most Common) Model
Environment → Sensory Memory → Short Term Mem → Long Term Mem
What is the early proposed structure of memory? (1966)
Environment → Sensory Memory → Short Term Memory → Long Term Memory
What is an example of acoustic coding
Ex:) Cat vs Hat, Cat vs Kitten
What is intentional encoding?
Focused on learning, a person tries to commit something to memory Situation in which you consciously try to commit something to memory
What kind of task would this represent? "Tell me everything that you remember in any order"
Free Recall
What is the goal when studying modular memory?
Goal is to enumerate the systems and investigate the principles of each system
What does monotonic mean?
Goes in one direction (gets worse)
When it comes to overcoming the limits of STM, what is chunkings/recording?
Grouping items in some meaningful way, then remembering the groups of the items Often involves LTM Chase & Ericson study
_____________ _________________ was credited as the first to study memory scientifically
Hermann Ebbinghaus
What is object priming?
Identification of old pictures is easier to do than new ones? Even with less info you can complete an image even in a less favorable condition Real World Ex:) familiar song will pop out more than a non familiar song at the same low level in a restaurant
In Mitchel, priming was found despite substantial changes in context because
Implicit memory tasks appear to be unaffected by changes in environmental context
What are the processes of sensory memory?
Large Capacity Short Duration Raw Sensory Coding Decay or Displacement Loss
What was the study design of savings?
Learned the list perfectly, in order (recorded # of trials to learn) Tried to reproduce the list of CVC trigrams(in order). If failed or hesitated, restudied the list until could recall it perfectly Recorded the amount of time for relearning the list
What is the design of a Perceptual ("Priming") Identification Task
Meausre performance on some other task, and performance may be difficult... Basically reading really fast words flashing on screen with a similar repeating old word patterns On the test, Ss. Simply have to try to read words that are presented quickly Dependant variable is proportion of word identified Encoding phase is not referred to Memory test does not require Ss. to think back to encoding phase
What is "savings" in relearning and what is the equation
Memorize list, takes less time to relearn same thing after each time ((Time needed to learn) - (Time needed to relearn)/ (Number of trials to learn) ) x 100 E.g. [ (60 min- 30 min)/60 min x 100 ]
A ___________ ___________ task is used to test STM
Memory Span Task
What is the role of sleep in consolidation?
Memory becomes more solidified over time, sleep aids with what is left
What is the Ebbinghaus forgetting curve?
Memory fades quickly, but then the speed at which it fades levels out Ebbinghaus noticed that if he learned his word list to perfection, after testing for a minute it was perfect, but after more time past he forgot it more
What is explicit memory?
Memory for personal experiences, facts, consciously aware of thinking back to the past memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"
What were Hermann Ebbinghaus' methodological & empirical contributions
Methodological: Developed a method to study memory that we still use today Empirical: Developed a body of reliable findings about memory
What were the drawbacks of utilizing introspection to evaluate memory?
No way to test accuracy
The modality effect occurs with what type of memory test?
Occurs on free recall, does not occur w serial recall, unless lists are very short
Why does the modality effect only show up at the end of a list?
Only shows up at the end of the list b/c it is the only part now affected by auditory masking
What are the 2 types of indirect tests
Perceptual ("Priming") Identification Task Object Priming
How does an explicit memory test start?
Person is asked to retrieve something from memory or base their judgement on memory. Direct tests refer to the past. Taps "Declaritive" memory
What are some reasons for errors in STM
Phonological similarity effect, Word length effect
What is the suffix effect?
Poorer memory for a series of items if there is an additional sound at the end of the list The suffix effect is the selective impairment in recall of the final items of a spoken list when the list is followed by a nominally irrelevant speech item, or suffix
What kind of task would this represent? "Did you see this before→ Montana? Wyoming?..."
Recognition
In STM, what is acoustic coding?
Remembering something by storing the sound of its verbal expression rather than its meaning or the physical movements required to articulate it Misplacement in words that sound similar vs words that hold similar meaning Ex:) Cat vs Hat, Cat vs Kitten
Destination Memory
Remembering to whom you told something Ex:) Finding yourself repeating the same stories to friends It is more difficult to remember who you told something to than to remember who told you something
What is the basis of STM?
Repetition & Elaboration
How did Ebbinghaus test and measure memory?
Savings
What is short-term memory (STM)?
Short- term memory is our working memory in that it is relevant at the moment and something we pay attention to The limited capacity memory component for temporary information storage and maniuplation
What is incidental encoding in research?
Situation in which you do not consciously try to commit something to memory (but remember it anyway) some other "cover task" is used by the experimenter; Simulates real world experiences
What is a forced choice task?
Subjects asked to identify a stimulus using a restricted set of responses "Which did you see?"
What is the modality effect?
Superior recall of the end of a list when the items are presented aurally rather than visually
What is memory?
The ability to acquire, retain and then retrieve information Any behavior change due to experience is evidence of memory
What are the findings of Jacoby & Dallas, (1981)
The faster, easier, processing of repeated stimuli is called repetition priming or perceptual priming
T/F Forgetting = not having effective retrieval cues
True
T/F Most of the things we remember through living life are not intentional
True
T/F People who have severe memory impairments have a hard time projecting themselves in the future
True
T/F You want a steep learning curve
True
What is source memory?
Trying to trace the source of familiarity Ex:) Remembering who told you something, where you did you read it? In a lab: Information is delivered via two sources; On the test, participants are questioned about the source
In long term memory, the store has what features?
Unlimited capacity, Difficult Retrieval Long Duration Meaning Coding Lack of Effective "Retrival Cues" Primacy effect, recency effect & modality effect
In implcit memory what are you asking?
You are not asking them to think back to the past, you are asking them to do stuff in the present → however, the past experience can impact the present answer mere exposure effect test → ask which you like better, youre more likely to choose which one you've seen
What is a modular theory of memory?
a theory of the human mind in which the various components of cognition are characterized as independent modules, each with its own specific domain and particular properties Separate memory systems that have different principles/ different rules
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one's past
