Women & Sport Midterm Ch. 1, 3, 4, & 5
Female Athletes & Injuries
1. Concussions Higher incident rate of concussions reported in female athletes (particularly in High school) Soccer accounted for most of these concussion experience symptoms longer & to greater severity due to neck muscles not being as well developed or as large as males. estrogen & flow of blood to brain may contribute to more severe symptoms core strength 2. ACL Injuries More common in female athletes than male athletes Female soccer & basketball players 2-8x's more likely to have an ACL injury Reasons Neuromuscular & hormonal differences The onset of puberty brings changes in hormone levels, which lead to growth spurts & differences in muscle development, which results in change of center of gravity Less control of knee motion because female athletes rely more on quads than hamstrings Asymmetry in muscular strength - one leg becomes stronger than the other creating an imbalancing and straining the ACL Less core strength - shifts away from center of support Girls have different mechanisms of landing and rely on their quads to stabilize & balance whereas males use their hamstrings
What is the 3 prong test?
1. Female sports participation should be proportionate to female enrollment 2. shows history of expanding sport offerings to women 3. The interest and abilities have been fully accommodated
Education attainment & sports participation
1. Studies conducted found their is a positive association between high school sport participation and different educational outcomes 2. Girls (who participate in sports programs) may realize an educational advantage when compared to boys. Researchers have also found a connection between female athletic participation and their academic success in what has previously been viewed as male dominant areas such as math and science 3. sports may have a favorable influence on girls' aspirations to go to college and to compete an undergraduate degree. 4. Female athletes exhibit slightly higher graduation rates than male athletes and nonathletic peers (is a racial dimension however) pg 60
Explanations for why female athletes engage in less risky behaviors
1. adolescent female athletes may have more inner resources for handling sexual situation (i.e. greater self-esteem, coping skills, self empowerment, and physical strength) 2. adolescent female athlete have an incentive to avoid risky sexual behaviors (don't want anything to interfere with training and opportunity to play) 3 Adolescent female athletes simply have fewer opportunities to confront issues of sexual experimentation because they have less time after school as a result of their participation in sport. protective effects lessen as they move on to college - connections between drinking, athletics, and unsafe sex (more at risk than nonathletic peers due in context of heavy drinking).
Female Athlete Paradox
A circumstance where being an athlete and being a women are thought to be a contradiction to each other. Skylar Diggins is an example of this (i.e. beauty and the beast mentality).
Corset
A garment associated primarily with women that created an hour glass figure. It was a controversial clothing item.
optimism
A general expectancy that good things will happen ("In uncertain times, I usually expect the best")
Bicycle Face
A medical condition identified in the 1800's by physicians who believe that the strain of balancing on a bicycle was too much for a woman. The condition was characterized by tension around the eyes and a general expression of weariness.
orthorexia nervosa
An obsession or fixation with healthy eating habits
Female apologetic
Any behavior by female athletes that emphasizes a female athlete's femininity. This behavior is in response to the masculine or lesbian stereotypes associated with female sports participation Ex: apologizing when tripping or running into another player
Depression in female athletes
Athletic culture can present challenges that make one feel overwhelmed, especially in other areas of the athletes life (i.e. family & relationships, and school). This can create difficulties for athletes; other triggers include the stress of competing overtime, their playing time, pressure of disappointing coaches & family, injuries, and the expectation to succeed and win. Collegiate female athletes 2x's as likely to express feelings consistent with depression than graduated athletes. Suicide is third leading cause of death
Bloomers
Baggy trousers or pants that were associated with the women's rights movement of the 1850's. It was controversial because the belief that men should wear the pants in the family.
Mental Toughness
Being mentally tough includes having hope, optimism, perseverance, resilience. Athletes are believed to have these qualities in abundant measures compared to non athletes. Sports can provide psychological benefits that acts as a buffer against stressors physical activity leads to a sense of self-worth
Female Warrior Paradox
Dominating, fighting, unyielding athlete. An example is Rhonda Rousey.
Charles Elliot
Elliot was president of Harvard from 1869 to 1909, predicted an array of social disappointment that would befall women who subscribed to impractical theories (i.e. believing they could support themselves economically and forgo the necessity of marriage)
Gender Inequality
Gender inequality is the unequal treatment or perceptions of individuals based on their gender.
Differences between pubescent boys' and girls' development related to their fitness levels and abilities
Many differences unlike prepubescent; aerobic power - after the age of 14 their (girls) aerobic power is significantly lower than their male counterparts (15%). They plateau at the age 14, while males can increase until 18 (highly individualized). Reason: Growth - girls tend to have growth spurt approx. 2 years prior to boys and reach their adult height much faster & boys are still experiencing growth factors (i.e. larger levers, which affect mechanics and efficiency of aerobic activities, into later teen years. Elite runners have higher maximal oxygen consumption Muscle weight - up to age 12 girls tend to be muscularly stronger than boys. However, due to increase in testosterone being higher in puberty in boys than girls boys become stronger at a more rapid rate, and ultimately develop greater muscular strength Speed - Boys increase velocity from 5-16; girls from 5-14. The development happens in two phases. reasons: development of the nervous system and improved coordination of arm and leg muscles. Another increase happens around 12 yrs for girls & 12 to 15 years for boys. Reason: because the increase in body size with age along with the increase in muscular strength, power, and endurance. Boys have slightly higher performance after puberty.
Setbacks for men because of Title IX
Men lost funding for their programs, and lost opportunities to travel farther, receive new uniforms and had less funding for scholarships
What was education & employment like for women prior to Title IX?
Men were encouraged to be doctors & lawyers. Higher education was encouraged whereas women were housewives or if they pursued the idea of college, were directed to become teachers.
Benefits of Title IX for women
More women were able to receive bachelor's degrees, and take classes such as math, science, and physics, women were able play organized and competitive sports, and even after awhile receive scholarships for athletics.
Gladys Palmer
Palmer argued that baseball offers the same lessons for girls and women as it does for males in a book she wrote. This was a time when social norms became more relaxed, but medical opinions still influenced the general understanding about the capabilities of women to participate in sport.
Suspect science of female weakness
Popular medical opinions in the late 19th century suggested that women were both with limited vital energy & that the reproductive functions of puberty, menstruation,and especially childbirth required a significant amount of this energy reserve. Because motherhood was considered the primary function she needed to conserve this energy to fulfill her reproductive destiny. These ideas were brought about by very real health risks such as poor nutrition, air pollution, bad sanitation, overcrowded living condition, and unsafe work environments led to a rise in life-threatening illnesses. Medical opinions about women's health were based on part on social practices that gravely limited women's choices of behavior and avenues for self-protection.
Project Play
Project play is an initiative that reimagines youth sports in America. The purpose of the meeting was to focus on barriers faced by populations with the lowest sport participation in the US and to develop strategies to address the need of those populations. One of these populations were girls.
What factors enforced Title IX?
Supreme Court forced this change because they ruled that places were now financially responsible for violations of title IX. This happened when female athletes threatened to sue.
resilience
The ability to adapt to changes in the environment ("I do not dwell on things that I can't do anything about")
Female Apologetic vs. Unapologetic
The female apologetic recognized the place of female athletes in society around the time title IX was passed. A women athleticism was not easily reconciled with societies ideas of femininity. Therefore female athletes felt as though they needed to apologize for being too aggressive(softball players) whereas the female unapologetic has been regarded as the new femininity, a disruption of dominant notions of gender, sexuality, and identity. In other words, females don't feel the need to apologize for being strong and aggressive (rugby).
Elizabeth Blackwell
The first female doctor in the US. She believed firmly in the value of physical activity for girls & women.
Hope
The unshakeable self-belief in one's ability to achieve competition goals (I can think of many ways to get out of a jam)
Benefits of Title IX for men
Their female counterparts became stronger and more capable.
Setbacks for women because of Title IX
Their male counterparts viewed them with hostility because funding for their (women) programs took away from their established programs. They had no fans/spectators. Old uniforms from male teams.
Differences & similarities in prepubescent girls & boys related to development and training of athletes
There is little evidence that suggests there are much difference between boys and girls at this age (slight differences in weight, height, and fitness) or skill. Skill shown at this age for both boys and girls is not an indicator in predicting post pubescent abilities. Psychologically boys are pushed into sports earlier and socialized to be tough and competitive whereas girls are taught sports are just meant to be for fun and aren't taught to have such a competitive spirit or to be too tough
Suffrage Movement's impact on women in sport & education
This movement gave women the right to vote. Ground rules would start to be established that would be used to shape sport for girls and women and to rationalize the involvement of girls and women in some forms of physical activity.
What year was title IX established? What does it state?
Title IX was established June 23rd, 1972. It is an equal opportunities act and states: no person in the United States shall on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving federal funding. It was enacted by Nixon.
Industrial Revolution & Education
Women of the upper and middle class had more support to become educated. while the Civil War naturally saw a decline in male enrollment, state universities started to accept women starting in 1870 in order to keep up numbers. While some all girls colleges started to pop up, the schools were mostly in the form of seminaries, which some critics argued against, mainly because of the limited subjects and training. Because of this, and the influence of the anti-slavery movement, a progression toward strengthening women's higher education started to grow.
suffrage movement
a movement to gain women the right to vote. Supporters of the movement were known as suffragist
Paradox
a situation, person, or thing that combines contradictory features or qualities. There are three paradoxes; female athlete warrior, strong female athlete who feels like they need to apologize, and femininity and muscularity. The point of paradoxes is to explain how women's involvement in sport is continually effected by gendered expectations.
perseverance
consistency in achieving ones goals and not giving up easily when facing adversity of difficulties ("I am often so determined that I continue working long after other people have given up")
what are some physical health benefits of sports participation?
development of physical strength, 17% lower risk of cancer, reduce risk of heart disease, high blood pressure, diabetes, and obesity. Moderate physical exercise has been associated with helping women retain mental acuity and maintain strong bones, alleviating symptoms associated with dementia, maintaining body weight, and core muscle strength that affect balance and movement.
anorexia athletica
eating just enough to keep going but not enough to keep up with the amount of energy expended as a result of training
Iceberg profile
meaning they possess high levels of vigor along with low levels of anger and depression, tension, fatigue, and confusion
Sexual Assault
one study found female athlete were less likely to be victimized whereas a different study reported that female athletes reported higher incidents of rape and attempted rape. The combination of socializing with males (athletic and non) and heavy drinking leads to situations where sexual assault is more likely.
Female athletes & substance abuse
relationship between athletics and alcohol consumption is complex long standing gender gap is narrowing High school & collegiate female athletes are more likely to engage in problem drinking such as binge drinking, while other research shows they actually may engage in drinking less than non-athletes, some says sports has no effect. Sports related subculture & identities may contribute to the complexity female athletes may be drinking in excess (19%) more alcohol & experience greater consequences than their non athletic peers self medicate to handle stressors (coping mechanism) exaggerate perceptions of teammates use (breaking training rules, exaggeration, heavy episodic drinking) not as likely to smoke or use hard drugs
female athlete triad
some female athletes may experience one or more serious medical conditions as a result of training and nutrition. The three interrelated conditions that make up the female triad include, in their most severe forms, eating disorders (starving, binging, or purging), amenorrhea (a disruption or loss of menstrual cycle), and osteoporosis (loss of bone mass that weakens bones). While this things can occur in isolation, an inadequate diet for the amount of physical activity occurring usually starts a cycle in which all three occur in sequence.
sexual risk prevention
sometimes linked to a reduction in risky sexual behaviors (early initiation, multiple partners, or unprotected sex) study of middle & high schoolers - more likely to engage in oral sex than non-athletic peers sexually active athletes more likely to practice safe sex (condom use, discuss histories with partners, & seek out information and services related to sex)
theory for why female athletes excel in math and science
sports presents a unique cultural environment where girls learn non stereotypical assumptions about femininity; become accustomed to challenging common views about what they can and cannot do
Post pubertal physiological & structural differences between men and women that influence athletic performance
testosterone & estrogen plays a factor (testosterone helps increase protein synthesis within muscles & inhibits protein breakdown). These functions help facilitate muscle growth & hypertrophy. Sex-specific differences include differences in joint laxity and fat deposits throughout the body and the relatively greater accumulation of fat in women compared to men are thought to be related to significantly higher levels of estrogen and lower testosterone levels in women. Women also have additional fat deposits in the pelvic, buttock, and thigh regions as well as lower essential limit body fat (12% vs mens 3%) Bone mass - Men have greater bone diameter and cortical thickness than women, circulating estrogen contributes to quicker bone loss. Women tend to be shorter than men and have a greater torso length compared to their legs and wider hips & higher percentage body fat which may lead to decrease in efficiency when running or jumping (women have better flexibility & agility)
2 important safety concerns for children & intensive training.
there has been concern about physical and psychological effects on children who participate in competitive & intensive sports at a younger age. Ex: training so much/becoming so strong effects growth plates & psychologically stress is created as they are trying to be competitors
