World History (1500 to present)

Pastoralism in Africa

Sahel region of Africa -Moroccan conquest of Songhay in 1588 (worn out by 1630s) Ethiopia - Muslim and pagan pastoralists reverse expansion of farming by Christians in 16th century -Pastoralist invaders from the Ethiopian highlands seized lands and destroyed the monastaries that were the engines of Ethiopian frontier Southern Africa -At the extreme southern tip of Africa, herding grew in economic importance.

Syncretism

the mixing of ideas, beliefs, practices, from one source to another Ex. These Native American influences (even in their religion today) are syncretic features or pagan survivals because Christianity and paganism seem to be fused, because anxiety about survival in this world interfered with people's concern about their salvation in the next.

The Columbian Exchange

the global redistribution of life-forms, beginning in 1492 and accelerating thereafter, that accompanied the era of worldwide travel by intercontinental routes -Human relationship with fatal pathogens changed as the microorganisms chiefly responsible for the plague and such had seemed to retreat. -Humans settled new ecological frontiers: farming grasslands, felling forests, etc. -(Microbes) Plague outbreaks kept continuing, but some pathogens have become less virulent (may be due to natural selection as some disease organisms that live in hosts without killing the hosts do not reproduce). -Because of relative, less virulent forms of diseases, earth's population globally begins to grow. -Globally, certain patterns emerge of increasing human populations leading to increasing environmental interventions. -smallpox = most effective killer of natives -As long as there were plagues and diseases, there were problems of severe regional labor shortages that had to be faced. (solution in the new world = transplanting labor with slavery)' -The virulence of the Age of the Plague does not really die down until the 17th century and even increases in potency in some ways. -The new global system that was created in these centuries created a world of an increasingly connected exchange system, in which people and societies were able to receive and give certain goods that they may have not had and that they may have needed.

14th-17th Century Global Changes

weather exacerbated: -falling temperatures -heavy rainfall -less rainfall -flooding and coastal erosion -enlargening polar ice caps -impact: Mongol empire and others began to shrink due to loss in agricultural products Plague

Scientific Revolution

This revolution occurs at the same time as the Reformations and the inductive method (studying something to the specific to get to the general), empiricism (study of science using observation and reason over blind faith — tying back to epistemology which emphasizes using study and reason over blind faith), and the copernicus revolution occurs during these times. Galileo approves of Copernicus's ideas, and Copernicus became the starting point for the scientific revolution.

Missionaries of Islam

-2 great regions: Southeast Asia and Africa -means: commerce, deliberate missionary effort, holy war, dynastic links between elites -merchants & missionaries spread Islam together -West African traders often married into families of holy men. -Sufis (Muslim mystics) also helped with conversion. -In Africa, Muslim schools played great roles. -Many peaceful Muslim missionaries tended to see themselves as warriors, waging a "jihad of words." -Under the goad of competition from Christianity, the "jihad of sword" grew in importance, and the extension of the frontier of the Islamic world depended increasingly on the aggression of sultans, especially from central Java, whose dynasties, allied by intermarriage, often lined them in common enterprise. -had little appeal in Europe

Rise of Western Science

-Broadening of the horizon and rediscovery of the classical texts both gave impetus to Western science. -Voyages to Africa and Asia increase knowledge of other peoples and societies. -Discovery of the Americas forced Europeans to face new peoples, plants, animals, lands. -These new practices and traditions were eclectic/syncretic versions of the old and new. -If secularism did not displace religion to any great extent in the West, science did, in some degree, displace magic. -If Western science of the time owed a lot to magic, it gradually developed a direction of its own: toward empirical methods, rational explanations, and verifiable facts. Ex. the abandonment of the prevailing image of the universe (In 1543, Nicolaus Copernicus proposed reclassifying the Earth as one of several planets revolving around the sun. The Copernican revolution expanded the limits of the observable heavens, substituted a dynamic for a static system, and wrenched the universe into a new shape around the paths of the planets, accurately represented.) -- Copernicus's theory was a challenge to the perception of human position in the world that also challenged religious ideals. (used to be: God created the sun for humans on Earth) Now... how does this affect the human's position on Earth? --> led to new scientific thinking -Scientific reasoning grew more systematic. -Francis Bacon: prized observation above tradition; devised inductive method -René Descartes: the reality of the mind is proved by its own self-doubts (epistemology) -Isaac Newton: empiricism (reality may be observed and verified by our senses) -- gravity

Ming China

-China = the world's wealthiest state at the time; probably true into the 18C -political system: 1. Emperor in theory had unlimited powers 2.Mandarins restricted it in practice 3. Emperors tried to play other forces (buddhists) off against Mandarins but failed -Ming's Confucian ideas and policies --> Zhengde's eunuchs and monks --> revival of Confucian mandarin scholars -Decline of Ming stability: 1. (1587) Wanli emperor defied the mandarins. He proposed to asset his power by altering the rules of succession, passing over his eldest son in favor of a son by his favorite concubine. Factions resisted, and intellectual trends reflected the way power shifted. The emperor finally backed down, and the mandarins were seen as heroes, but Ming government was never fully effective after this crisis. 2. ecological disasters and civil strife (peasant rebellions) --> After intervening decisively in China's civil wars, the Manchus methodically and bloodily took over the country. The Ming Dynasty had established themselves after the fall of the Mongols. The Manchus were used as the police force by the Ming Dynasty to put down disturbances to police the frontiers. They decided that rather than working under someone else, they wanted to seize control for themselves and even proclaimed a new ideology. By 1644, they controlled the center and were expanding. -The Qing Dynasty still maintained an affection for its Manchu roots, but kept up with the Mandarin establishment in order to keep a smooth transition. If the Qing provided stability, the Mandarin provided bureaucracy. (Scholar mandarins saw Qing as guarantors of stability, Qing rulers deferred to Confucian traditions.)

Rise of the Ottoman Turks in 14th and 15 Centuries

-Collapse of Mongols gave rise to new competing nations. -Ottoman Turks had been Turkic nomads who adopted Islam and settled in a small principality on the border of the Christian world and on the edge of the Muslim world. Under Ertogrul, the nomads (acting as Ghazis) executed raids into the Christian world. They conquested further into the Christian world, and they were smart enough not to give independence to the lands of which they conquered. The sultan's fellow soldiers received a portion of the lands in return for their service. -Timur the Lame (Timurids) temporarily revived the steppelander methods against the rising Ottomans was successful until Timur died. Ottomans gained advantage once more, especially because the heartland of the empire was a great crossroad of trades. -As the Ottoman's conquests grew, their methods of governing became more bureaucratic and centralized and adapted well to new military technologies against formidable foes. They became a gunpowder empire. -They tolerated each religion but had no qualms about levying punitive taxes on these minorities. -Ottomans finally captured Constantinople in 1453. -In 1451, when some factions in Constantinople formed an alliance with Western Christendom against the Turks (under Mehmet II - the new sultan), Constantinople finally officially fell to complete control of the Turks (no longer with self-rule) and the Ottoman conquests tilted toward Europe.

Differences between Western and Eastern Europe

-Dividing line emerges along Elbe and upper Danube -To the West: 1. Denser urban network, town centers of trade 2. Labor scarcity, allows peasants to get better deal -To the East: 1.Less urbanization, towns military or administrative centers 2. Landlords move to tie labor to land for large‐scale grain production 3. Nobles erode position of towns, enforce elective monarchies

Global Exchange products

-From Eurasia to Americas: wheat, rice, bananas, coconut, apples, pears, peaches, plums, cherries, oranges, lemons, coffee, lemons, sheep, chickens, pigs, horses, cattle, various diseases -From Africa to Americas: yams, okra, collard greens -From Americas to the Old World: maize, potatoes, sweet potatoes, tomatoes, beans, pineapples, cacao, peanuts, tobacco -Transplantations in the opposite direction (into the New World from the Old) turned much of the Americas into farmland for food for Europe and ranch land for European livestock. -Most important = potatoes (If it is consumed in enough quantity, it contains enough of the building blocks of nutrition to keep humans alive. Potatoes being introduced into a subsistence-sustained agrarian society caused a huge population growth in these societies.) Even war spread them as peasants favored a crop that grew concealed in the group and eluded seizure by plundering troops. -Maize: Maize required less labor and could grow in eco-niches where other crops were unsuitable (China). -Sweet potato: The sweet potatoes as well impacted China as they found favor among immigrants and settlers who were obliged to occupy marginal land. Cane sugar = first transplanted product to have a major impact on world markets -frican slaves were first used for cane sugar plantations in the Caribbean and Brazil where the climate is best suitable for the sugar cane. Their labor was also needed since the Native Americans had died in response to diseases. -Brazil = largest producer -Volume of sugar created new American industries: refining sugar and distilling rum -became major cause of political conflict -increasing availability of sugar --> increase in demand for coffee (from Yemen) and tea -Control of places of production and distribution gives the controlling state power.

Incas

-Had economic security based on their effective and efficient methods of tribute systems and agriculture across their empires -Did not have political security because of unsustainable expansion and warfare -overreached limits of its potential

Martin Luther (and rise of Lutheranism)

-In response, Martin Luther - with a conviction of his own sinfulness and of his redemption by the grace that God freely offered to all humankind - rejected the collective authority of the church in favor of his own reading of scripture. (1517) -His version of Christianity was typical of its time: edging or urging Christians into sharper awareness of God and a sense of personal relationship with him, diminishing the role of priests and saints as mediators and of sacraments in bridging the gap to God. -He encouraged people to take power over the church and restore it to the simplicity of apostolic times. -teaching was spread with the printing press -Some theologians among Luther's followers could not accept his discipline (of wanting the reformed church to remain under the rule of bishops and to adhere to the orthodoxy he preached) and broke with him to found churches of their own. -Ulrich Zwingli: main dispute = doctrine (what happens at communion when Christians consecrate gifts of bread and wine) -Jean Calvin: main dispute = dogma (He insisted that logically if, as Luther believed, God had chosen some people for salvation from before time began, he must have excluded others. So some would spend eternity in hell, no matter how virtuous they were in this life.)

Sufis

-Islamic mystics, many of whom were important missionaries of Islam in conquered lands and who were revered as saints -Sufis were a religious sect of Islam operating during the 16th century which relates back to the overarching trend of mysticism that was occurring during the time.

Tokugawa Japan (17th Century)

-Japan already quite homogenous with generally accepted politic ideas -Japanese governments increasingly excluded (western) foreign cultures, but Japan's overseas commerce grew still (through Dutch and Chinese agents). Japan was big and booming enough to generate its own internal commercial revolution. -Peasants and merchants = big gainers from new prosperity -In an atmosphere of social peace, governments encouraged people to concentrate on getting rich. -Peace was, however, bleak for the traditional warrior class, the samurai, who were often reduced to the role of ronin (underemployed freelance soldiers drifting between service to different lords. -Key to stability = management of relations between the shoguns and the 260 or so daimyo who ruled Japan's provinces

Safavid Empire

-Location between Ottomans and Mughals restricted opportunities for expansionist policy -Like the Ottomans, the Safavids benefited from the growth in trade across Eurasia and drew on ancient traditions of kingship as well as Muslim political thought to legitimize their rule. (but also never built uniform bureaucracy like Ottomans) -Except in some frontier regions where they relied on accommodations with local rulers, the Safavids deployed a hereditary class of warrior horsemen of Turkic origin (Qizilbash) to enforce taxation and repress rebellion. But the Qizilbash eventually became rebels themselves. -In terms of religious policies, most of the people at the beginning were not all Shiite. The first Safavid shah (Ismail I) imposed Shiism by force. (no tolerance) -Emphasis on messianic leaders and ancient martyrs (rituals) -Rejection of nostalgia for steppelander nomad tradition -Strength of Ottomans to the west and Mughals to the east left the Safavids nowhere to expand.

Mongols

-Nomads who relied on pastoralism, trade and raiding on the wealth of sedentary settlements -self-sufficient -plurality of religious practices -these factors gave rise to strong military leaders (who received the blessings of their ancestors) to conquest neighboring groups and expand through 'crane-catching' (political strategy of enticing or forcing groups into submission) which helped to bring in knowledge of war methods from the cities they captured and the expertise of new administrators from various regions -Temujin in early 1200s took the process of crane-catching to a greater extent, absorbing those captured into his own clan and uniting all tribes of different backgrounds. -named himself Genghis Khan ("ocean to ocean" king) -accomplished horsemen who adapted well to new lands and conquered new lands with the horse and bow, siege technology, and terror -tactics worked well in agrarian societies and even advanced societies -originally began to expand outside of the steppe lands of Mongolia due to population increase and environmental reasons (falling temperatures) -established Khanates in new territories where they used local elites for tax-farming while Mongol leaders feasted, hunted, and dealt with internal disputes -failed to establish their presences in Java, Egypt (Africa through Mamluk Egypt), India (Delhi Sultanate), and Japan -Russia (1240) -Persia (1260) -Yuan Dynasty in China (1270s) Effects: -movement of peoples, ideas, and trade across Eurasia -brought new people to power (rise of Turkic dominance in Middle East and new elites in Russia) -political impact (ended political rule by Arabs, checked expansion of Germanic people into Slavic lands, first foreign dynasty in China) -Western science grew more empirical, more reliant on the reality of sense perceptions, and more committed to the observation of nature. (Franciscan rehabilitated interest in nature. The Franciscans became the spearhead of the church's mission to the poor and inspired other orders of friars (clergy who combined religious vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience with work in the world).)

South Asian examples of syncretism

-On the South Asian frontier between Hindu and Muslim, a new religion of Sikhism developed by Guru Nanak as a new monotheistic religion. Guru Nanak -founder - (and with Mughal Emperor Akbar) thought it made better sense to look at what religions had in common rather than at what divided them. Sikhs developed their own society, military organization and tradition of self-defense. By the 18th century, they ruled a significant state centered in Punjab. -Akbar tried to create a syncretic, multi-state region that could bring together everyone in his realm as there were many cultural and religious differences that threatened to fuel political problems and destroy his regime. He tried to create a state religion where he was portrayed as God. He would sponsor roundtable discussions as well among those of different religions to hear them out and bring out the best efficient response to certain problems. -Later Mughal emperors felt torn between strategies of tolerance and of hostility toward non-Muslim faiths. The need to appease Hindus caused a revival of Akbar's efforts by Dara Shukoh later for a mingling of both teachings, but his brother Aurangzeb beat him to the throne and promoted Islam aggressively and executing the Sikh leader Guru Hari Rai. -Then, when a Sikh prince seized the city of Jodhpur in the 1700s, he banned Islam.

Social Change in China (17th century)

-Peasant rebellions part of turmoil of 17C conflicts: 1. Led to loosening of landlord control 2. Land transferred to smallholders, depended for credit on loan sharks 3. Poisoned relations between cities and countryside (Many landholders found themselves indebted to city loan sharks —> added an extra element of conflict and suspicion between countryside and city (countryside believing the city was trying to harm them in the country). -strengthening chinese identity: 1. Manchus generally favored adoption and spread of Chinese culture 2. Ethnic minorities increasingly took on Chinese ways through mostly the written language (Internal migrations encouraged a sense that everyone within the empire was Chinese, as minorities left their traditional homelands, in search of work or land, and lost their sense of distinctiveness.) 3. Over seas Chinese experience, thrown together with other Chinese fosters general feeling of identity instead of particular (local, clan) identity

Impact of the Protestant and Catholic Reformations

-Protestants valued education and reading as key to understanding Scripture. -Jesuits valued education as means to defend and spread the faith. -Disagreements in interpretations led to further study and intellectual debate. -Authority,whether of the Church or ancient thinkers, no longer enough - reason and observation more effective.

Aztecs

-Rapid expansion and environmental diversity -political insecurity because of poverty and warfare -Aztec system had tributary networks that linked hundreds of communities with Tenochtitlán at the summit. -same problem as Incas: fragile alliances; resentment of tributary peoples; expanded so rapidly that their reach always threatened to outrun the available manpower and technology -overreached limits of its potential

Counter-Reformation

-Reformation ties to the Counter-Reformation who used Inquisition to rid the world of heretics -Luther doesn't believe that Catholic church is right in that you can't go to heaven while just paying to go to church (churches are again taking advantage of the poor). In response to this, the Council of Trent then all sit down to define the standards and terms of Catholicism, preventing different sects from being able to do their own thing by their own standards. If you didn't follow the rules, the Inquisition showed up to burn you and torture you to return to the original, more "holy" ways. This all ends of leading to the Thirty Years War, which ends up leading to the Peace of Westphalia in the future (state system). -Religious revival going on Europe gets exported to the New World, especially with the millenarianism. Millenarianism is also a response to the many deaths that were occurring during the Black Plague (link from that time to this time).

Echoes within Orthodoxy

-Some Protestant reformers sought contacts with the Orthodox Church because of rejection of Papal supremacy and the apostolic succession. (Doctrine of Apostolic succession: that priesthood succeeds from the Apostle Peter to every priest from him in the Catholic Church. Some Protestants did come to the Orthodox Church to say in constancy with the Apostolic succession.) -Patriarch Cyril Lukaris strove to "reform" orthodoxy relying on Scripture, not tradition (possibly influenced by Calvinist traditions). (Patriarch Cyril Lukaris decided that the Orthodox Church is still governed by its patriarch, its archbishops, and its bishops. The Orthodox Church needed to reform itself by applying earlier versions and justifying its teachings using scripture and not tradition.) (1600s) -In Russia, Patriarch Nikon (1600s) tried to bring Russian practice into line with contemporary Greek churches. -The Archpriest Avvakum is a great apostle and testament to the old belief. Old believers continued to exist until modern times despite efforts by the state and church to stamp them out.

Wild Frontiers: Encroaching Settlement

-Steppeland imperialism becomes less dominant and less powerful. In the north with the Uzbeks, steppeland imperialism still remained at large until the Safavid Persians broke up the empire. -The Manchu overthrow of the Ming Dynasty and establishment of the Qing rule in China while the Qing began to extend their rules on the people in there lands exhibited the waning of steppelander method. -Disputes over Tibet provoked China into sustained war against the Mongols. Chinese emperor now was reaching onto the Mongol steppe instead of how things had used to be because of military and technological power, demographic change, and the progress of Islam and Buddhism into Central Asia which had eroded original ideologies of conquest.

Mughal Empire

-The Mughals as well were committed to unsustainable war and conquest to keep their empire intact. -Mughal's idea of sovereignty derived from claim to heritage of Timur the Lame and Genghis Khan. -Their fantastic demand for revenues stimulated economic inventiveness and forced peasants to produce for urban markets. -Spending on war, buildings, and luxuries recycled wealth and stimulated an economy that high taxation might otherwise have stifled. -Outside the tight core areas,Mughals relied on sharing tribute with allies, clients, relatives. -Lack of clear succession rules led to conflicts when ruler died. -Conflicting claims of rival aristocracies provoked rebellions. (rivalries among different groups: clan of Timur, Afghan and Persian fighters, Indian chieftains) -Emperor Aurangzeb found the formula to keep the system going: constant war to keep the aristocracies occupied and continual conquests to multiply their rewards.

In the balance at the end of the 17th century

-The expansion of three major religions was remarkable, but Christianity's success in the New World gave it an edge globally. -European exploration, conquest,and missionary activity led to a reassessment of basic questions of where knowledge comes from, what religious belief is, and what it means to be human. -Western astronomy brought Western science into the East: Western adaptation of Eastern technology contributed to the surge ahead of the next centuries.

Rising power of rulers and control over their states (17th century)

-Thirty Years' War ended with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. -This enshrined the rulers' right to impose religion on realm (cuius regio, eius religio). -recognized sovereignty of Netherlands, Sweden, and France as powers -led to decline of Holy Roman Emperor -The concept of states and sovereignty came about from the Peace of Westphalia treaty which ended the Thirty Years' War that was a war about religion, politics, resistance from local people against the powerful kings, and many other issues. It involved France, Sweden, Habsburg, Ottoman Empire, and many other European states. Modern international relations began with the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648. It recognized that the ruler was able to recognize the religion of its culture. Those of other religions than the one of their kinds usually left their residing states. There would now no longer be unity of religion.

Ecological Imperialism

-This is the idea of going and physically changing the earth (digging down, digging ditches, etc.). For example, the Dutch literally drained the ocean to have more land to farm on. This differs from ecological exchange which is the exchange of diseases. Imperialism is physically changing the environment. For example, small pox going from one place to another would be an exchange, but the Europeans directly bringing blankets of small pox is an example of imperialism (changing the demography and the environment of the Native Americans). -sweeping environmental changes European imperialists introduced in regions they colonized (Ecological imperialism is the idea that the introduction of plants, animals, and diseases by Europeans to settler colonies was an underlying factor in the success of the European colonization of the New World, Australia, New Zealand, India, Siberia, and parts of Africa.) -Inca Empire in South America created a state along the spine of the Andes Mountains with ecological imperialism. Basically the Incas used the lands around them to their advantage by controlling certain techniques in different regions to get the most amount of food available and maintained a tribute system that allowed for food and other needs to be distributed well throughout the empire. -The Aztec empire expanded along ecological zones.

Silk Roads

-Traditional Silk Roads (traditionally dangerous) became secure during Mongol peace, which also aided in more traffic through the roads because of the security. -Mongols encouraged Chinese trade. -The Silk Roads geographically were still hard to travel, but Europeans still frequently made the journey.

Labor: Human Transplantation

-Virginia was first farmed mainly with forced labor from England - "indentured" poor (escapees from social exclusion at home who contracted with masters to serve for years on subsistence wages) - still never enough of them -Spanish colonies began importing slave labor from the only source near enough and demographically buoyant enough: Africa. -For the first 150 years of the colonial era, Spanish naval supremacy and Portuguese control of many sources of slaves denied adequate supplies of this resource to the British, Dutch, and French colonies -Slavery = universal method to develop the plantation crops (no other worker could adapt to the climate of subtropical South America) -The pattern of exploiting human nature and labor led a larger trend of trying to exploit human impact on the natural world.

Rise of the Russian Empire

-With the decline of the Mongol influence, Moscow (Muscovy) emerged as a new center for East Slavs. -Ivan I controlled his territory still by being a tax collector for the Mongols. Slowly, he built up his forces and influences over his territory. Ivan III became the first "Tsar." -Russia starts to move eastward through colonization, missionary work, and fur trade.

Christendom (16th and 17th centuries)

-consequences of spreading active, committed Christian awareness: new religious orders, new techniques of prayers, new fashions in devotion, increased coercion and social control -new conversion strategy of addressing the poor, the masses of growing cities, the neglected country folk, children and other civilizations through which Christianity had hardly penetrated (more general attempt by clerics to enforce their claim to a monopoly over rituals) -challenge at home (countryside): paganism (concern of church authority over "proper" ritual) -Public rituals began to affect private lives (sex). -Council of Trent (1545-1563) worked to standardize documents and aimed to cleanse ritual practices. The Council of Trent was prompted by the Protestant Information. It was a conference that convened in order to reform Catholicism —> Catholic Reformation (survival = concern of popular religion rather than salvation (pagan rituals)) -Spanish Inquisition (1478) was originally a tribunal of faith concerning Muslims and Jews who had outwardly converted. The Spanish Inquisition initially began by finding those Muslims and Jews who had converted just for the benefits, which then expanded to take on more cases just as those involving fornication or bigamy.

New Societies

-creolization -Native American survivals (allied with Spanish religious orders and mestizos) -maroons and maroon kingdoms

Rise of the Ming Dynasty (China)

-established in 1368 when Zhu Yuanzhang restored old traditions (with the implementation of Confucian scholars in administrative positions) but still kept a few Mongol practices -To please Confucian establishment, he restored ancient court ceremonies and public-service examinations. He kept the Mongols' command structure and court dress -Had many advisors of foreign countries and different religions at his court that limited the power of the Confucians (period of expansionist policies still) -Yongle Emperor continued to look outward with the Zheng He expeditions/voyages. (He replaced unacceptable rulers in Java, Sumatra, and Sri Lanka and founded a puppet state among others, basically displaying Chinese power.) -Reactions were brutal as China returned to inward-looking traditions with Hongxi Emperor

Zimbabwe

-fortified, stone-built administrative centers -Pattern of trade routes altered depending on the conquests of certain rulers and where the center of power mostly lied. -Great Zimbabwe -This was one of the best known kingdoms. In the ninth century, people began building Zimababwe out of stone which showed a complex society and well organzied society. -Kings residing at Zimbabwe controlled and taxed the region between the interior and costal regions, and profited from commercial transactions.

Western Thought in the East

-missionary activities from the West actually brought western thought over as well -17th Century revival of Confucianism with recovery, preservation, and re-examination of ancient texts which reinforced prejudice against "Western Barbarism" (China, Japan, Korea) -importance of astronomy to Asian court life (celestial orders harmonizing with earthly) -Chinese renaissance was comparable in kind with that of Europe (a retrieval of bygone models of culture; Confucian in the East, classical in the West) but did not achieve the same effect. (still inventors of printing and paper and paper money and gunpowder) -The Westerners were unable to convert the Chinese masses with the top-down approach (starting from influential people at the top and working their way down from there in conversions). -Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646‐1716) believed Chinese thought, in civilized values, ethics and politics, was ahead of Europe, and he brought back much of Chinese wisdom to the West. -West was ahead in mathematics and physics but not in much else. -Began a period in which balance of technology, and eventually power and wealth, would shift to Europe

Black Death

-possibly a combination of several diseases with a link to domestic animals (a strong pathogen may have been from the Bubonic Plague which was spread by rodents and fleas) and indifferent to weather except for in hot, moist regions -route mostly from China and India through Silk Roads -populations dramatically fell -beneficiaries of plague (women and peasants) -social, moral, economic, and political effects (China, Europe, and Islamic World) -millenarianism -rise in anti-Semitism -places of isolation: Eastern Europe, Southeast Asia, Japan, Sub-Saharan Africa, Americas, Pacific Islands

Impact of the Renaissance

-rediscovery of classical culture of Greece and Rome -affected art, architecture, thought, and religion (Royal courts became centers for spreading new art forms (Tudors in England, Habsburgs in Netherlands and Central Europe, Jagiellonians in Poland); poets and artists, but also churchmen, turned to classical models; neoplatonic and Stoic influences - a kind of syncretism with classical sources.) -The discoveries of explorers challenged European notions of what is means to be human, as encounters unfolded with a previously unsuspected range of cultures and civilization. Ex. Columbus remained undecided between rival perceptions of the Native Americans. Were they fully human with rational souls? Their desire for sacrifice and cannibalism counteracted this opinion.

Varieties of Black Religious Life in the Americas

-strong aspects of syncretism -imperfections in the "Spiritual Conquest" of Spanish America by Catholic missionaries Ex. Brazil -In colonial times, black artistic vocations and religious devotion were centered on the cult images of charitable associations called confraternities, which paralleled similar organizations among whites. -confraternities: helped to meld the culturally uprooted with coherent communities; helped black brotherhoods who seethed with social unrest -Confraternities' choices of patron saints were often self-assertive and defiant. (ex. St. Elesbaan (warrior-avenger), St. Benedict of Palermo (became a hermit to escape taunts about his skin color), Cult of St. Iphigenia (black virgin who resisted spells of suitor's magicians)) -Black catholicism was an excitement. Rather than playing the role commonly assigned to religion (keeping believers in their place), it inspired hopes of betterment in this world.

Land-based Empires

1. Russia -Conquest of Kazan in 1552 gave Russia command of the entire length of the Volga River, the great corridor of commerce at the western edge of Asia, and eliminated Russia's rival for control of Siberia's fur trade. -The conquest of Siberia and the control of fur production in 1558 as Czar Ivan IV cut a deal for financing the conquest with a big dynasty of fur dealers, the Stroganoffs. -(Third Rome) Russian claim to be successor state to Roman and Byzantine empires; based in part on continuity of Orthodox church in Russia following fall of Constantinople in 1453. 2. China -Treaty of Nerchinsk drew a Russo-Chinese border across the region, formalizing Chinese claims to vast unexplored lands of doubtful extent in NE Asia. -Chinese imperialism was of an intensive kind, dedicated not merely to economic exploitation and trade but also to colonization and to spreading Chinese ways among native peoples. -Outer Mongolia (north) -Xinjiang frontier (west) -Manchuria (northeast) -Sichuan (south) 3. Mughal India -conquest state that left local structures intact and exploited them for tribute -Babur dreamed of recreating Timur's empire and desired to bring most of South Asia under his control. He conquered Delhi in 1526 to subdue India. -Mughal Empire was like a business, run for profit (an investment in power and majesty, with rich returns in the form of tribute and taxes. -Ethnic and religious differences and economic jealousies divided the elite. -Agreed upon rules of secession were unknown. -Akbar established a system that would bring riches to the main rule by requiring tributes for the Hindu rulers in the lands 4. Ottomans -inherited 3 universalist traditions (steppelander, Islam, ancient Rome) -They got control of most continental transit points between Asia and Europe: Silk Roads, Persian Gulf, Red Sea, main ports of Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean seaboard. -diversity in peoples, languages, and religions

Maritime Empires (-became arenas of exchange and cooperation - at sea, by seizing ports or patrolling routes, people can obtain a stranglehold on trade in some commodities --> race for technological improvement ... The discovery of the Gulf Stream in 1513 (major element of the wind and current system of the Atlantic) outward bound with easterly trade winds (toward Americas), then northward with the Gulf Stream to region of westerlies back to Europe.)

1. Portugal -After dividing up zones of navigation by agreement with Spain, Portugal took off to establish direct access to India, islands off Southeast Asia, Thailand, China, and Japan. -They were the first to sail around the Cape of Good Hope and access the Indian Ocean, which brought lots of wealth and opportunities (especially because they came into the seas firsthand) for the Portuguese to gain power and influence. They ended up in facilitating trade/exchanges that occurred within those oceans and within their routes. -focus on wealth of indies -Held interaction with local inhabitants through trade and missionary work and intermarriage 2. Japan -Toyotomi Hideyoshi began aggressive imperialist policy but was forced to abandon it. -Korea (with their turtle ships - reinforced hulls and ship-killing cannons), Chinese fleets, and typhoon-lashed seas made Japan abort their campaigns on mainland of Asia, but still expanded to Okinawa and Ryukyu Islands. -Most Japanese migration was like that of the Chinese (economically motivated), although some (Christians) were fleeing from religious persecution. (1600s) 3. Dutch -Dutch established dominance as carriers of Europe's Asian trade in the 1600s, effectively replacing the Portuguese while keeping ahead of other European rivals and (in combination with political instability in Central Asia) helping to deflect trade from the Silk Roads. -privileged position Dutch established in trade with Japan - only Europeans allowed in Japan after the success of Catholic missionaries in Japan that threatened traditions because Dutch merchants participated in an annual Japanese rite -In the 1650s, the Dutch began a relentless war, first of coercion, then of conquest. The Dutch even drove the English out of the Spice Islands and defeated them in the seas around England itself.

Social Structure of Early Modern Europe

1. hierarchical - there were distinctions between high and low, but not the only or most important 2. corporate - bodies with specific bonds uniting them, often vertically, not horizontally 3. privileged - corporate bodies had specific privileges confirmed by custom or superior - concept of "rights" pertaining to all was alien -Today's societies are horizontal, defined according to wealth or income. -The classes in these centuries were intersected with other structures in a vertical structure. -Divided by: Interest groups, professions, trades, the entourages and clients of powerful noblemen and officials, social orders such as the nobility or the peasantry, religious sects, clans Ex. Nobles and clerics (corporate bodies) did not constitute the typical class. They were communities of privilege uniting people of hugely different degrees of wealth, from top to bottom, whose tax privileges and legal advantages marked them out from the rest of society. --> Cities (and towns = other corporate bodies) formed communities of a similar kind, fortified in their civic identities by the enjoyment of economic "liberties." (such as the right to hold markets or fairs or levy tolls on travelers or merchandise. -A vast, slow process eroded this vertically ordered way of organizing a society as families were redefined as an ever-smaller knot of close kin. Families grew in important (especially in Protestantism) because so many other structures of life (religious brotherhoods, guilds, monasteries) were abolished. -Women's status also began to transform. Women had significant influence over devotion as they could determine whether household would be Catholic or Protestant. Women who married according to the clergies' new rules could be better protected against male predators and more secure in keeping their property when their husbands died (widowhood being the best option).

Renaissance

A period of intense artistic and intellectual activity, said to be "rebirth" of Greco-Roman culture. Usually divided into an Italian Renaissance, from roughly the mid-14th to mid-15th century, and a Northern (trans-Alpine) Renaissance, from roughly the early 15th to early 17th century.

Impact of Slavery on Africa

African states: 1. Dahomey (rises early 17th century) -warrior society -Not economically dependent on slave trade, but actively participated -Correlation of slave economy and levels of violence 2. Akwamu and Kongo -Akwamu, ruler used charges of adultery to imprison and sell his own subjects -Proceeds of slave trade could help rulers consolidate power, defend independence 3. Ashanti -Gold, not slaves, source of its wealth -Even Ashanti relied more on slaving in 18C to supplement gold

Secularization of the world?

Arguments for increasing secularization: -expanding of contacts among religions and civilizations made people more aware of other beliefs (learning tolerance) -Renaissance era; focus on humankind; more secular art (Art used to be religious as long ago, only certain groups of people will buy certain subjects/themes of paintings (secular trend). Art consumption came from different sources.) -However, there still existed religious conflicts.

Asian Traders in the Indian Ocean

Because of restrictive Chinese and Japanese policies, traders were largely Omani, Indian, and Armeni. -especially important = Gujarat (Northern India) which linked ocean-borne Indian trade with land-based network of Indian and Armenian traders throughout central Eurasia and Middle East.

Inward Missionaries of Buddhism

China -In 16th century China, Zhu Hong and Han Shan presented Buddhism afresh as a religion people could practice at home with the same rituals as monks. -There was emphasis on direct religious experience (Peng Shaosheng), similar to that in Europe. Japan -re-examined ancient texts to purify both Buddhism and native religion (just like in Christianity) -suppression of Christianity helps Buddhism Mongols -Atlan Khan used Buddhism to unify his kingdom and spread faith into Manchuria with the help of Dalai Lama. -As with Catholic missions in the New World, political conquests and violence shadowed Buddhist missions in northern Asia. -grew mainly in Central Asia

Fading Dreams of European Reunification

Events of the 16th and 17th centuries enshrined the existing state system in Europe and made the political reunification of Western Europe unthinkable for centuries, because: -The prospect of reviving the Roman Empire glimmered delusively as Charles V of Habsburg, who was set to be king of Spain and its overseas dominions and even the "Holy Roman Emperor," was contested and resisted by most other states or tried to claim the role for their own ruler. He failed in his attempt to preserve and impose religious unity in his possessions as Protestant Reformation could not be un-done and as states defended their independence and controlled their populations better. (Charles V failed to eradicate Protestants within the Holy Roman Empire and more effective armies against Charles had risen. Charles were forced to accept the status quo of many religions. Even though that status quo was tested, it was never undone and religious uniformity never again existed.) -Individual European states accumulated power against rivals and over their own citizens. -France could not enforce regional unity because of aristocratic civil wars. -England could not enforce regional unity because of low tax revenue and internal religious divisions. -Germany could not enforce regional unity since the Holy Roman Empire was only a loose union with little cooperation. -Poland could not enforce regional unity because it was geographically huge but politically weakened with insecure frontiers and growing neighbors. -Italy was divided. -Swedens and Netherlands lacked permanent power. -Spain, the only power capable of imposing unity on Europe, failed. Spain had 4 advantages: privileged access to the mines of Mexico and Peru (wealth); close collaboration of crown and aristocracy; while religious conflicts divided other states, Spain's Jews, Muslims, and Protestants were converted or persecuted (unity); opportunities from dynastic accidents

Tsar

From Latin for caesar, this Russian title for a monarch was first used in reference to a Russian ruler by Ivan III.

Pastoralism in Americas

In the Americas, the arrival of the Europeans encouraged pastoralism to prosper (with the imported horses, sheep, and cattle). -Because of the arrival of the horses, in the 19th century, we see a short-lived pastoral empire of the Native Americans in the Great Plains. -Main trend: new forms of exploitation (especially arable farming) onto lands where it had never before been practiced

Mongol Peace

Inside the Mongol community in the steppe lands, there was peace and obedience. A previously inaccessible road through the steppes opened across Eurasia north of the Silk Roads, and the Mongols became its highway police as travelers came once they had learned the benefits of peace along this road. They maintained order and control and security among the cities they maintained and the roads they preserved. The army provided security and did not tolerate crime. It was a period of peace and stability.

Mali

Kingdom was founded in West Africa by a hero named Sundiata. The mansas of Mali (kings) are able to take year-long pilgrimages to Mecca, which shows how stable the state must have been. The gold of West Africa, specifically from Mali, inspired European efforts to get to its source as parts of Western Europe produced silver, but not enough of it to redress the adverse trade balance with more productive Silk-Road economies. As Mali's reputation grew (especially with Mansa Musa's generosity of giving away gold to many of his subjects and those he encountered on his pilgrimages), so did the quest to find African gold. Mali starts to decline in the 15th century and is broken up into various states in West Africa while the Songhay rises, who benefited from the link between Niger river valley and Mediterranean coast.

Il-Khans

Mongol rulers of Persia who gradually took on the hues of the culture they conquered but still tried to retain a distinct identity by remaining in the north where lands were suitable for their herds from the steppes and entrusting power to local dynasties in the south by securing their loyalty through marriages with ruling families. Eventually, however, Persia slowly started to become a separate state because of the religious and cultural conflicts. In the late 1200s, Persia finally made the choice for Islam (Shiism).

Stranger Effect

Much European and Christian influence transmitted "stranger effect" which accepts the judgement of a stranger because the stranger does not have a bias in the community. Europeans would utilize this stranger effect as arbiters among Native American tribes.

Globalized World and Missionary Activity

North America -In the British and Dutch colonies, where plantations were inaccessible to Catholic religious orders, the lack of missionary activity was even more marked. (As a result, African religions persisted and syncretism happened.) -In GENERAL, missionary activity to convert natives was difficult due to lack of resources and sustained effort. (tried with bottom-up strategies in Spanish America but there was fear of apostasy - renunciation of these faiths and returning back to pagan/former religions and traditions) -Refugees form religious persecution in Europe formed or infiltrated colonies. (Catholics and radical Protestants in British North America; Jews (New Christians) in Spanish and Portuguese colonies). -- Most religious migrants were sectarians who were fleeing from some kind of suppression or persecution. Pennsylvania = Quakers; New England = Catholics from Protestants -motivated by millenarianism (Most of the early missionaries came from a few so-called Spiritual Franciscan communities (who introduced Christian millenarianism to the New World) in southern Spain, where friars nurtured obsessions with the coming end of the world.) -Because millenarianism was generally considered heretical or was associated with heresies, it became common in North America, driven there by persecution, nourished there by tolerance. (ex. The founders of Massachusetts saw the colony as a refuge for those God intended "to save out of general destruction".) Roman Catholic Activity Outside of Spanish direct rule -Philippines -Japan: For a while, Franciscans and Jesuits in Japan encountered amazing success by targeting lords whose conversions were catalysts for the conversions of their followers. Successive central governments in Japan had been suspicious of the new religion as a source of subversive political ideas, foreign influence, and encouragement to local lords to usurp central authority. -China: China could not be converted simply as it was a relatively centralized state with no intermediate lords to serve as local flashpoints of Christian illumination. Conversion failed for 3 reasons: most Chinese were more interested in the Jesuits' scientific learning and technical skills than in their religious teaching; the revolutions of Chinese politics worked against long-term conversion strategy; the church lost confidence in the Jesuits' methods, in a conflict that began with the founder of the China mission (Matteo Ricci - thought the best way to proceed was to permit Chinese converts to continue rites of reverence for their ancestors, which missionaries split over when Pope Clement XI ruled against veneration of ancestors). -rejected in most of China and India and Japan

Mandate of Heaven

Order of the heavens to rule

Franciscans

Order stressed vows of poverty and gentleness to all creatures

Russia Transformed

Peter the Great of Russia tried to transform Russia to be more like Western Europe. -Determined to modernize Russia for military reasons -Admired Dutch, Western technology in general (navy) -Capital of Moscow --> St. Petersburg (along with northward shift of Europe's center of gravity with newly arising powers) SYMBOLIZES opening to maritime Atlantic world -Reforms affected society, aimed at increasing state power (took women out of seclusion; sent young nobles abroad to study technical subjects; enforced state service on nobility; decreed that nobles would dress in Western styles and cut off their beards)

Empire and Settlement in Europe and Asia

Russia -In Russia, having been expanded by fur trader exploits and missionaries into the northern areas, Russia begins to move into western Siberia with peasant settlements, especially with the development of "black earth" (chernozem) or plowable earth. England -English and lowland Scots waged wars to seize land from Ireland to the Highlands and islands of Scotland. (natives vs Japanese and other similar clashes throughout Eurasia) China -large scale movements of people and increase in agriculture -Manchu conquest of Sichuan in southern China was exceptionally savage, eliminating ¾ of the people and penning rebellious native tribes in reservations while militarized agricultural colonies grew crops and kept natives obedient. Schools brought Chinese language and values to the tribes. -In the borderlands of Mongolia and Manchuria, colonization proceeded on a different basis as the emperor there tried to maintain values of the Manchus and Mongols and keep the lands as recruiting ground for soldiers. (fails to preserve) -Immigration into Taiwan preceded Chinese seizure of political culture from Dutch. India -uprooted jungle to increase farming -1/3 in production of tax to state (The tax system was based on the conquest model and there was no specific method of a tributary system or taxation. --> There were also many ways to avoid taxation by escaping to the jungles or beyond.) -There was the spread of Islam by granting land (jungles). -Culture wars that self-styled civilization waged against so-called savagery. -Economically-inspired wars fought to convert pastoral land to arable.

Impact of Slavery on America

Slavers were gathered by raids and warfare from West Africa, the Congo basin, or Angola. The demand for slaves remained high, except in British North American colonies where slave communities did not reproduce themselves. -Black people rarely came to form a majority in the Spanish colonies, but by the end of the 17th century, they formed a large majority over England's Caribbean colonies. -The slaves practiced their own religions, maintained their own household patterns, and ate their own food as well as created their own languages. -Even in tightly controlled plantations, slave communities often created autonomous institutions. -Independent states established by runaway "maroons" sometimes in collaboration with Native Americans. Colonial authorities were forced to recognize the most successful maroon kingdoms as it was easier to establish a working relationship than run the risks of war. (ex. Jamaica)

International Law

Sovereignstatesconductingpoliciesalong Machiavelli's lines needed some "rules of the game". -Thomas Aquinas distinguished between the laws of states and law of nations but no clear explanation. -In the Netherlands in 1625, Hugo Grotius worked out the system that prevailed until the late 20th century: -Natural law obliged states to respect each other's sovereignty. Treaties were contracts, enforceable by war. -System worked regardless of religion and was valid even if God did not exist.

New Empires in the New World

Spanish created new routes to and from different gold and silver sources. Massive new amount of silver injected into the European economy provided Europe with what was necessary to participate in trade with Asia much more dramatically than before (since China did not trade much with Europe in the past because of no silver). This ultimately changed Europe's position in the global trading network.

Land Exploitation in the Americas

Spanish-America -created a city-based system with Native American foundations and a multi-ethnic class structure -Hispaniola: First island in Carribean settled by Spaniards; settlement founded by Columbus on second voyage to the New World Brazil -economic exploitation -rivalry with Spain over control of Amazon -gold and diamonds (incentive for Portugal to go further inland) Britain in North America -New England: rich from trade (slaves, rum, manufactures, East India trade) -Virginia & southward: cash crops using slave labor (tobacco)

Songhay

Successor state to Mali; dominated middle reaches of Niger valley; formed as independent kingdom under a Berber dynasty; capital at Gao; reached imperial status under Sunni Ali

New Politics in America

The "modern state" began to emerge in the 16th century when Europe started to colonize other parts of the world and in which authority of the aristocracy shrank to insignificance, the crown enforced an effective monopoly of government jurisdiction, the independence of towns withered, the churches submitted to royal control, and sovereignty became increasingly identified with supreme legislative power. Ex. Spanish America -Limited by distance to Spain; administrators in peripheries could ignore commands -bureaucratic state ruled by law -brought new social effects (!) --> creole consciousness of which pride in mixed ancestry was one sure sign of creole self-assertion

Orthodox Church

The Orthodox Church is the eastern Christian church which differs from Catholicism. While the Counter-Reformation is occurring in western Europe, the Orthodox Church is being independent in the East (mainly Russia). The tsar named himself tsar and called Russia the Third Rome, because they're carrying and maintaining the orthodox religion that was found in the Byzantine empire (naming themselves the next Rome).

Ottoman Empire

The Ottomans were heirs to three traditions: the steppe, Islam, and the Roman Empire. -Other empires of nomadic origins failed to keep up with advances in the technology of war, but the Ottomans could stay afloat and get ahead. (Modernization of the army influenced social change.) -The Sultan made and unmade laws at will and he controlled the power structure of Sunni Islam themselves with no need of reformation to curb the power of the clergy. -Administrators were not slaves and were drawn from every class and every part of the empire. (religious tolerance) -Suleiman the Magnificent regulated the feeds courts charged to litigants and practiced restraint in taxation and exploitation as part of the ideology of the state, but rational exploitation of subjects' wealth was the aim of the rulers of the empire. -The system could perhaps best be characterized as centralization tempered by chaos (chaos because of rivalries between governors). -lack of clear succession -The sultan derived his authority from religious principles, but these could be emphasized in different ways to suit different communities. -End of Ottoman expansion: 1. siege of Vienna in 1683 turned back 2. population stagnated, trend worsened in 18C

Manila Galleon

They were Spanish trading ships that made round-trip sailing voyages once or twice per year across the Pacific Ocean from the port of Acapulco in New Spain to Manila in the Spanish East Indies.

Dutch East India Company

This company was given a charter by the Dutch government giving them a trade monopoly and the right to wage war and govern conquered people./As part of these efforts, the Dutch used force to gain a monopoly on some spices by seizing control of some spice producing islands and replacing the native populations with Dutch settlers.

English (British) East India Company

This company was given a charter by the English government giving them a trade monopoly and the right to wage war and govern conquered people./Due to their military might, the British and Dutch were able to overtake the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean trade arena.

East India Trading Company

This is the same as the Dutch East India Trading Company (and the later English East India Trading Company after the Dutch) who landed in the East Indies (first) at the end of the 16th century and became involved in the Indian Ocean trading routes for the infamous spices from India. This symbolizes Europe breaking out of its bubble. The manilla galleon were the fleet of bloats that were able to do through the seas, both the Atlantic and the Pacific (more specifically a large trade route from Manila to Mexico). European technology now is able to travel across the ocean rather than remaining hugged to the coast of Africa.

Trading Post Empire

This is the type of empire established by the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean trading arena./The Portuguese sought to control the commerce in the area and did not want to control large areas of land.

Military Revolution

This ties into the same time period of exploring the New World with new technologies such as guns, gun cannons, gun powder, steel power (other than the bow and arrow). This gives rise to the idea of state-funded armies/militaries, especially with monarchs which differed from how it used to be when nobles had their own armies (who could become so powerful they could overthrow their kinds). This emphasizes the centralization of state power and state armies, defending its power both internally and externally.

Joint-Stock Company

W. European financial company with capital from investors, used to make a profit - precursor to corporation

Chinese Board of Astronomy

When Europeans came with their new technologies (telescopes and others), Ricci and others were able to get through to the Chinese with their science. They created this board of astronomy mostly consisted of Europeans. This signified the meeting of east and west cultures and the intermingling of a more globalized world. In trying to convert China, the missionaries wanted to try a top-down process, which did not work. In the New World, it was a bottom-up process (mass conversions), and in Japan, it was also a more bottom-up process that failed quickly as it was beginning to cause social unrest and the social elites squashed the process immediately.

Western Political Thought

With the growth of the power of the state, the way people thought about politics changed. -Jean Bodin formulated the doctrine of sovereignty in 1576, stating that states had the sole right to make laws and administer justice within its borders. -Peace of Westphalia assumed a world of sovereign states in relations with each other. -Classical thinking had insisted that sovereignty and the state had to serve a moral purpose, virtue or/and happiness. -Niccoló Machiavelli challenged this thinking in "The Prince". -The purpose of the state should be in only maintaining the state and maintaining the ruler's power. In order to do so, the ruler should pretend to be virtuous or however in order to keep his power (in other words to go in accordance with religious and moral ideals). -two lasting influences: 1. Realpolitik (realistic politics) - state serves only itself and is not subject to moral law 2. The claim that any excesses are permissible to ensure the state's survival, public safety, national security, or some other.

Shogun

a hereditary military dictator of Japan significance: established in place of an emperor, fractioned imperial rule

Anti-Semitism

hostile actions or discrimination against Jews as a religious or ethnic grou

Protestant Reformation

response to "bottom up" desire for more personal religion -leaders = medieval "heresies" -movement for reform in 14th century with church crises (Conciliar movement - Church Council electing Pope since Pope cannot decide for himself —> election of more popes —> division of kingdoms as one chooses this pope or that pope —> Church Council then elects just one Pope to solve this problem) -popular reformers: John Wycliffe (England); Jan Hus (Bohemia) -In response to the Protestant (the name all groups that seceded from the Church acquired in 1529 owing to their "protest" against the condemnation of Luther for heresy), Catholic movement (Counter-Reformation or Catholic Reformation) reconverted some churches to Roman obedience. -New religious orders rose: Society of Jesus (1540) founded by Ignatius Loyola (Brought martial values to the movement: tight discipline, comradeship, self-sacrifice, and a sense of chivalry... Jesuits became the Roman Catholic Church's most effective missionaries and educators, and the schools they established were nurseries of science and scholarship.) -Protestant movements tended to split among themselves in bitter and bloody disputes. -As a result of this hostility, traditional history has exaggerated the differences between Protestant and Catholic Christianity -Protestants = services in vernacular and promotion of bible in translation -Catholics = frequent communion and the extension of the cults of the Virgin Mary and founding of new orders of nuns (both to involve women) -both eventually made God more accessible (through competition with one another)

Empiricism

the view that (a) knowledge comes from experience via the senses, and (b) science flourishes through observation and experiment