World Lit Honors Midterm

The Epic of Gilgamesh: Tablet I

-The narrator begins by announcing that he will be telling the story of an extraordinary person. -According to the narrator, this person had experienced everything, and had achieved complete knowledge. In particular, he found out information about the time before the Flood. -This person went on a long journey, and wrote a report about it. He was also responsible for building the mighty city of Uruk. -Does this feel like a game of twenty questions to you, too? -The narrator invites the listener/reader to inspect the city and see how awesome it is. He lists the various notable features of the city. -Then he tells the reader to go to a specific place along the city's wall. There, he'll find a hidden box, made out of copper. Then, open a series of locks and lift the box open. Inside, he'll find a tablet made of lapis lazuli (a semi-precious stone), maybe like this. -The narrator says that this tablet tells the story of the extraordinary person he has been talking about: Gilgamesh. -Then we get another description of how awesome Gilgamesh is. In fact the text even says "awesome to perfection" (1.35). This time, we learn that he is a king (of Uruk), and is very powerful in war. No wonder: he's the son of Lugalbanda (a mortal king of Uruk) and Ninsun (a goddess). -We learn that Gilgamesh supervised great public projects (carving passes through mountains, digging wells, restoring temples), and went on a long journey to the end of the earth, and met a guy named Utanapishtim (we'll be hearing more about him later). -We learn that the goddess Aruru herself designed the shape of Gilgamesh's body, and so he's obviously the most handsome man in the world. There's some bad stuff thrown in the mix. Gilgamesh is extremely arrogant, and his outrageous behavior is really frustrating some of the people of Uruk. -What exactly is Gilgamesh doing? Unfortunately, the clay tablets of the epic are damaged at this point (it would be at the good part). The best guess is that Gilgamesh is wearing out all the young men of the city by challenging them to endless athletic contests and exhausting all the young women of the city in, uh, other ways. And you can bet that the parents and husbands of the young women aren't thrilled about this either. -Finally, the people get so fed up that they pray to the gods for help. Anu, the sky-god, father of all the other gods, hears their prayer. He calls to the goddess Aruru, who created humans. He tells her to make another human who will be able to take on Gil. -Aruru does as she's told. She makes a new man, named Enkidu (pronounced: ENG-kee-doo), and sticks him in the wilderness. -Enkidu is totally uncivilized. He is extremely hairy, wears only animal skins, eats grass, and hangs out with the animals in the forest. -One day, when Enkidu is drinking at a waterhole, he encounters a trapper (a guy who hunts animals. With traps). The trapper is totally freaked out, especially after three days of seeing Enkidu at the watering hole. -Finally, the trapper decides he's had enough. He goes and complains to his dad that a wild man is causing trouble at the watering hole. (But did we see Enkidu cause any trouble?) -He also complains that the wild man is destroying the traps he has set, and releasing any animals who have gotten caught in them. (But have we seen Enkidu do this? Is this the earliest example of "The dog ate my homework?") -The trapper's father tells him to go to the city of Uruk and ask Gilgamesh for help. According to the trapper's father, Gilgamesh will send him on his way with a woman named Shamhat. If the trapper takes her to the watering hole and gets her to lie beside it in a sexually provocative position, Enkidu won't be able to resist her charms. Once Enkidu has slept with Shamhat, says the trapper's father, he won't be a wild man anymore. -Now, there are quite a few strange things in the trapper's dad's plan, but one of the big ones is: why does he think this Shamhat lady will go along with it? To answer this question, we've got to bring you one of Shmoop's patented

The Odyssey: Book XVIII

A real beggar by the name of Iros, who regularly begs at Odysseus's hall, sees the newcomer and basically says that the town isn't big enough for the both of them. This launches us into another back-and-forth round of insults. Antinoös, seeing these two going at each other, spurs them on, since everyone loves a good fight. He promises a prize of fat blood pudding to the winner. Telemachos assures beggar Odysseus that the crowd will watch his back (meaning they won't let some jerk hit him with a footstool). The crowd cheers, proving that if there's one thing Greeks can agree on, it's that old beggars shouldn't be hit unawares from behind. Iros is all, "You're going down!" and Odysseus is all, "Oh really? Well look at...THIS!" and then he rips off his shirt and everyone goes "Ooooh!" Iros kind of wants to back out, but Antinoös really ups the stakes by threatening to have him beaten and castrated if the new beggar wins against him. Odysseus decides to be merciful and strike Iros only once, which he does, in the jaw. Unfortunately for Iros, this one punch is enough to break his jaw and send blood spewing everywhere. Everyone is massively entertained by the fight (hey, what else were they supposed to do before YouTube?) and they all cheer the beggar Odysseus on. Amphinomos, who we've already seen is a not-so-bad suitor, gets some advice from the beggar, who urges the suitor to go home before Odysseus returns and punishes everyone by exacting some revenge. Unfortunately for Amphinomos, Athene wants all the suitors to die. And then Athene puts Penelope to sleep for a few minutes during which she showers her in ambrosia and makes her even lovelier than she already is. She also inspires Penelope to show herself to the suitors and get them all hot and bothered over her. Penelope is oblivious to her influence on the men and scolds Telemachos for allowing such abuse (she's referring to the beggar) in her household. Wait, says Telemachus—it's not what it seems— But Eurymachos interrupts and compliments Penelope on her beauty. Though she plays modest at first, Penelope finally ends up flirting a bit with the suitors; she complains that they haven't courted her correctly, as not one of them has presented her with any gifts. Unfortunately, not one of the suitors responds with, "I've got a gift for you. Come here and I'll show it to you." Instead, they comically search each of their troves to find a suitable gift for the Queen. Odysseus thinks this is hilarious. When Penelope leaves, her servants carrying the shining gifts she has just received, Odysseus decides to test the loyalty of her maids. At night, the maids are assigned to keep the torches burning in the hallway so that the suitors—getting drunk in the hall—can see what they're smacking into before they smack into it. (Really? Who ordered that?) Beggar Odysseus tells the servants he'll take care of the torches tonight and sends them up to go care for Penelope. The women giggle at him, until beggar Odysseus threatens snitch on their rude behavior and they scatter in fear. The suitors lay into the beggar again, but this time Odysseus answers back: he could defeat any of them in battle. This infuriates Eurymachos, and he lobs a footstool at the beggar. (Very original.) It misses, however, and hits a wine steward, spilling all the wine. Now look what you've done! Amphinomos restores the peace by turning their attention to the banquet and away from the fighting. This wine isn't going to drink itself.

Oh Brother, Where Art Thou? (Movie) Relevance to Class

Loosely based on Homer's "Odyssey"

The Odyssey: Book IX

Odysseus introduces himself and begins his story, starting with the moment his men leave Troy. We've got almost ten years to cover here. He starts by describing his home—the island of Ithaka of course—and all of the surrounding islands. He laments that he was held captive by Kalypso, and actually declares (in our Lattimore translation) that she "never could [...] persuade the heart within me" to be her lover. (Basically, he means that he was acting like he loved her, but didn't feel that way in his heart.) Yeah, we're pretty sure we've heard that excuse before. Now Odysseus covers the stuff we don't know—the years in between Troy and Kalypso. Also, welcome to the historical present. Odysseus and his men first come to the land of the Kikonians, where they kill everyone, take plunder, and enslave the women. Ah, Ancient Greece: when men were raging jerks and women were chattel. Gosh, we miss the old days. Odysseus tries to get his men to go back to sea so they can get home already, but the men are starving and therefore mutinous. Many Ithakans are killed in the plundering struggle (the natives put up a fight). Those who escape are victims of a god-sent storm and have to wait around for a few days before they can sail again. Ten days later, they land on the island of the Lotus Eaters. This sounds like a great tropical get-away, until three of Odysseus's men eat the lotus flower, lose their memory of home and family, and want nothing more than to stay on the island getting high. Forever. Odysseus quickly rounds up his men, including the three lotus-afflicted guys, and leaves. Next they arrive at the land of the uncivilized Cyclopes, giant monsters with only one eye. Because of their uncivilized ways, these monsters have no seamanship and let their fertile land go to waste. All they do is tend flocks of sheep. (We're hearing a little farmer vs. nomad grudge here.) When Odysseus and his crew run across a Cyclops's deserted cave, his men want to steal, but Odysseus won't let them. Instead, he wants to treat the Cyclops like a human being and play the part of good guests (more on that hospitality thing). So they burn an offering in the monster's cave and wait for his return. Not surprisingly, the Cyclops soon returns, driving in his herd of sheep and closing the entrance of the cave behind him with a huge boulder. But he doesn't want to play along. After some bantering he refuses their suggestion of hospitality—he doesn't care for Zeus's rules about being good guests and hosts. The Cyclops asks Odysseus where he has landed his ship. Odysseus, quick on his feet, says that they've been shipwrecked by Poseidon. (Irony alert!) The Cyclops, also quick on his feet, bends down, grabs two men, and promptly eats them. Then he goes to sleep. Odysseus draws his sword to kill the Cyclops in his sleep, but he stops when he realizes that they can never escape the cave without the strength of the Cyclops to remove the gigantic rock at the entrance. Foiled again. So they mill around and wait for the monster to wake up and have breakfast. The Cyclops wakes in the morning and, yes, has a few of Odysseus's men for breakfast. Luckily, he doesn't choose Odysseus. When he leaves to tend his flocks for the day, Odysseus hatches a plan. He has his men carve out a huge wooden pole and sharpen its end in fire. When the Cyclops returns, Odysseus cunningly offers him wine and tells him that his name is "Nobody." The Cyclops gets drunk from the wine and passes out. Time for action. Odysseus and his men drive the sharpened pole straight into the Cyclops's only eye, blinding him. Moral of the story: don't drink until you blackout. The Cyclops makes such a racket that other Cyclopes gather outside his cave and ask him what is wrong. We hear his name—Polyphemos—for the first time. They ask if any man has tricked him. Polyphemos yells out to them: "Nobody's tricked me, Nobody's ruined me!" So the others are all, "OK, fine, then stop making a ruckus. Nobody's ruined us, either" and they go back to their fun times in the pastures. But first, they reveal the information that Poseidon, god of the sea, is Polyphemos's father. Uh-oh. Odysseus takes a moment to congratulate himself. But there's still in the little problem of how to escape the cave. The Cyclops, meanwhile, can't see to eat the men for their treachery (is it treachery if you've imprisoned them in your cave?), so he just pulls the spike out of his eye and goes to bed. While he sleeps, Odysseus devises the second part of the plan: he ties each of his men beneath one of Polyphemos's rams, saving the biggest for himself, of course. You know what they say about men who need big rams. The next morning, Polyphemos lets his flock out, reaching down and feeling the tops of their fleece for escaping men. Of course, he doesn't detect anything. Odysseus's ram is the last one out and Polyphemos asks him (the ram) what is wrong; he is usually the first out. He decides that his king ram must be sympathizing with his master because of the whole mutilated eye thing and lets the creature pass. Outside, Odysseus triumphantly unties his men and all make their way to their ship, stealing the escape-vessel sheep while they're at it. Sweet—surely they're home-free now, right? Nope. Odysseus can't help taunting Polyphemos as they sail away. (We're sensing a trend here.) Polyphemos, enraged, throws a gigantic rock that passes over the Ithakans' ship. The men rather reasonably want Odysseus to stop taunting Polyphemos, but he's having too much fun trash-talking. He then pulls the moronic move of revealing his real name to Polyphemos. In fact, he doesn't just reveal his name; he basically delivers his personal biography: he is Odysseus, raider of cities, Laertes's son, the man from Ithaka. Polyphemos runs to daddy and begs him to curse Odysseus. He prays that Odysseus will never get home, or if he does, that he will lose all his companions in the journey. This is where we can all stop wondering why Poseidon hates Odysseus so much. Polyphemos hurls another rock, this one landing behind the ship and forcing it out to sea. Shortly thereafter, Odysseus lands and makes a sacrifice to Zeus. It's rejected. (We don't really know how that works, but take Odysseus's word for it—he clearly messed with the wrong one-eyed man-eating son-of-a-god.)

The Odyssey: Book XI

Odysseus travels to the Underworld and makes the offerings according to Circe's instructions. The shades of the dead (shades = ghosts) gather to drink the blood (gross) and then talk to Odysseus. The first shade is Elpenor, freshly fallen from Circe's roof. Odysseus's eyes bug out when he sees one of his crew members—he weeps and listens to the man's story. Elpenor begs for Odysseus to honor his death by building a burial mound (essentially a pile of rocks) for his dead body. Odysseus agrees, since it's the least he can do after totally having failed to notice that one of his crew members was missing. Odysseus then glimpses his mother's shade among the rest of the dead. This is news to him, since last he heard she was still alive. Not a good way to find out. Fortunately, he is soon distracted from his weeping by the arrival of Teiresias (the dead blind prophet). Teiresias drinks the blood of Odysseus's sacrifice and then speaks. His first words are a warning: don't eat Helios's cattle at Thrinakia. His next are to casually announce that Odysseus will survive alone. In other words, all of his companions will die. Great, that's probably something they're glad to hear. The good news is, Odysseus will make it home after all, but he'll find trouble there. He'll have to make the suitors pay for their insolence with ... wait for it ... blood. After defeating the suitors, Teiresias continues, Odysseus had better go inland until he reaches an area of earth which has never known the sea. There, he has to pray to Poseidon in order to ensure himself a peaceful seaborne death in his old age, surrounded by all his folk. Okay, that's great, says Odysseus; but why is his mother here, and can he talk to her? Sure, says Teiresias, as long as she drinks the blood of the sacrifice, too. One gory mess later, Odysseus's mother Antikleia tells him of the situation back home in Ithaka: Telemachos is growing up but helpless against the suitors; Penelope is still loyal; and, oh yeah, she herself has died from loneliness. Her son tries three times to embrace her, but this doesn't work out too well, since Antikleia is dead. When she leaves, there's a long line of other dead people waiting to talk to him. The shades don't get too many visitors around these parts. Odysseus draws his sword to hold them back. (Except they're already dead, so we're not sure how effective that would be.) He lets them come and drink one at a time. Odysseus speaks first to a long line of princesses: Tyro, Antiope, Alkmene, Megara, Epikaste, Chloris, Leda, Iphimedeia, Phaidra, Prokris, Ariadne, Maira, Klymene, and Eriphyle. At this point, Odysseus pauses in his narrative. The Phaiakians are all "No way!" Queen Arete, clearly impressed by all these stories, decides that when they do finally send Odysseus on his way, it should be with lots of sparkly things (i.e., treasure). King Alkinoös then asks Odysseus if, while he was down in the underworld, he met any of his friends who died at Troy. He sure did! Back in the Underworld, Odysseus sees Agamemnon and hears the tragic story of his murder and his son Orestes's revenge against Aigisthos and Klytaimestra. Agamemnon is understandably bitter against women and considers all of them treacherous. Oh, except for Penelope, whom he praises for her loyalty. (Nice save.) Then appear the spirits of Achilleus, Patroklos, Antilochos, and Telamonian Aias, some of Odysseus's buddies from the Trojan war. Odysseus praises Achilleus for having earned so much honor and glory in his life; surely his death is like, the greatest death ever. Nope. Actually, Achilleus says, being dead sucks. He'd rather be a poor country farmer who is alive than a glorious lord in the Underworld. Wise words. He then asks Odysseus about his son, Neoptolemos; Odysseus responds with what he knows of the lad's brilliance and luck in battle. Then Odysseus pleads with Telamonian Aias to forget their earlier quarrel in Troy over Achilleus's arms. [Mythological Context Lesson: You've already heard about little Aias in Chapter 4, so here's the deal with big or "Telamonian" Aias: back at Troy, Odysseus and big Aias competed for the arms of Achilleus, who had been killed and therefore didn't need his weapons anymore. The arms were supposed to go to the bravest man, but the Greeks couldn't bring themselves to make a decision since they figured whoever lost would leave the war in a huff. Since they couldn't afford to lose either of these great heroes, so they let the Trojan captives decide. The Trojans picked Odysseus, and the enraged Aias killed himself. Sore loser.] Clearly still peeved, the ghostly Aias turns away from Odysseus. Ouch. Rejected. Before he goes, Odysseus also sees Minos, Orion, Tityos, Tantalos, Sisyphos, and Herakles. These are all figures of Greek myth and, if you're interested in the specifics (obviously you are), check out your text. (And then check out Shmoop's handy-dandy mythology guides!) When all the shades come crowding in to drink the blood, Odysseus freaks out and runs back to his ship. Everyone leaves the Underworld a little bit wiser and less a few sacrificial animals.

The Odyssey: Book X

Odysseus's crew lands next on the island of Aiolia, ruled by Aiolos, the god of the winds. Aiolos welcomes the Ithakans and listens to their tale of the Trojan War. They stay at his home for a month. When they leave, the gracious Aiolos gives Odysseus a bag of storm winds. (Neat!) The idea is that only the west wind is left free to blow the Ithakans straight back home. Odysseus doesn't tell his men what's in the bag, and just takes care of steering the ship by himself for nine days. Then, predictably, he falls asleep, exhausted. His men see Ithaka on the horizon, but before waking their master decide to check out what's in the sack; they think it may be treasure of some sort. This is a phenomenally bad idea. The moment they open the sack all the storm winds rage out and blow the ship backwards, undoing all their nine days of sailing. Odysseus despairs, even though he really only has himself to blame. He even thinks to kill himself, which would be extremely suspenseful if he weren't the one telling this story. So instead of suicide, Odysseus rows all the way back to Aiolia and begs for more help. Aiolos now realizes that the gods have cursed Odysseus, because there's no other way he could've messed that one up. The god refuses to help him. So the Ithakans row for six more days and again see land—Lamos, this time, the land of the Laistrygones, who are something between ogres and giants. When the men land, the king, Antiphates, greets them by falling on the first man and drinking his blood. And that, understandably, is the end of their stay on Lamos. They sail again until they reach the island of Aiaia, home of the goddess Circe. Odysseus scouts around and sees a plume of smoke rising inland. Made cautious by his last few adventures, he decides not to explore it alone. Instead, after killing a big stag for dinner, he sends 22 men—including his friend Eurylochos—to explore the hall. The witch Circe greets them and invites them in. She's so hot that everyone goes immediately, except for cautious Eurylochos. He watches in secret as the men eat—and turn into pigs, which Circle drives into a pigsty. Well, that's what you get for leering at a goddess, right ladies? Eurylochos runs back to the ship to warn Odysseus, who arms up to rescue his men. Eurylochos begs him not to go back, and in fact stays behind himself once the men set out with their master. On the way, Odysseus is visited by the god Hermes who gives him advice and a magical herb called moly. Odysseus is supposed to eat it to keep from turning into an animal at Circe's table and then draw his sword when the witch tries to drive him into a cage. When she breaks down, he has to agree to have sex with her if she vows not to use magic against him. Gee, sounds like a fair trade to us. Odysseus follows all the instructions. All of them. Afterwards, Circe restores Odysseus's companions to him by turning them back to human form. Then the witch, who is apparently a nice person now, invites the whole crew to stay with her and rest, which they do. For a year. (!) Finally, one of Odysseus's men asks if perchance they could consider the possibility of potentially, perhaps, maybe going home. So Odysseus approaches Circe to help them get to Ithaka. She prophecies that he cannot go home until he visits the land of the dead to see the prophet Teiresias, who has further instructions for him. She gives him directions to get to the Underworld (which you could reach by ship back then, apparently). Meanwhile, Elpenor—one of Odysseus's crew members—wanders to the rooftop to get some fresh air and spends the night up there. In the morning, Elpenor wakes up and falls off the roof to his death. Sadly, nobody notices because they're all despairing over the news of going to the Underworld and also they're busy preparing the ship. They find that Circe has disappeared for good, leaving behind only a black ewe and ram as sacrifice required to enter the Underworld. It's like a highway toll, but bloodier and less portable.

The Odyssey: Book XIX

Odysseus, still disguised as the beggar, orders Telemachos to remove the suitors' weapons from the great hall, as planned. Telemachos tells Eurykleia to go shut the women in their rooms while he does so. Well, this won't be suspicious at all. Odysseus and Telemachos move the weapons together. Athene is conveniently lighting their way. Telemachos is blown away by how deeply she's invested in helping Odysseus. Penelope waits in her room for the beggar. Melantho sees Odysseus coming up and insults him; he says that she should really think about what Odysseus would think of her behavior. The queen tells the beggar about the long years she has spent waiting for her husband to return and how she tricked the suitors with her shroud-weaving routine. But now she's desperate. She plans to marry a suitor soon, just to get out of Telemachos's house and let him live in peace. (Nooo!) Finally, she persuades the beggar to tell her about himself. Odysseus assumes a fake name—Aithon—and weaves a complex story in which he came from Crete, fought in Troy, and later played host to Odysseus. Penelope gets excited at hearing her husband's name, but she wants proof. The beggar describes Odysseus's clothing, weapons, and men so perfectly that Penelope weeps. It's cool! He'll be back...today! Penelope isn't exactly unconvinced, but she offers the man a bath, clothes, and bed for the night. The beggar, however, refuses the bath (which is really just a foot washing) unless he gets it from a maid as old and long-suffering as he is. Playing right into his hands, Penelope offers the services of Eurykleia, Odysseus's nurse when he was young. Eurykleia notices the strong resemblance between the beggar and Odysseus, but the beggar brushes it off by saying he gets that a lot. She begins washing his feet. Odysseus realizes something and freezes—he can't let her see the scar on his thigh. (Thigh? Just what kind of foot wash is this, anyway?) Flashback to the scar story: as a boy Odysseus went on a hunt on Mount Parnassos with his grandfather Autolykos, where he was gashed in the thigh by a wild boar. It left an unmistakable scar. Of course, Eurykleia spots the mark, figures out that it's Odysseus, and freaks. Odysseus controls the situation and vows her to silence. Eurykleia promises to zip it. In the meantime, Penelope, comes in to ask the beggar one last question. She describes to him a dream she had in which she joyfully watched the domestic geese in her garden. Sweet, until a mountain eagle swooped down and killed them all. She and her attendant women began to wail in sorrow, but the eagle came back and spoke, saying that he is her lord returned and the geese are the suitors. Gee, we wish all our dreams interpreted themselves for us. Still, this isn't enough explanation for Penelope. She asks the beggar to interpret the dream...again. The beggar, somehow avoiding rolling his eyes, tells her it means certain death for the suitors. Penelope isn't convinced. She tells him that she's so tired of the courtship that she'll end it tomorrow with a contest: the suitors must string Odysseus's old bow and shoot an arrow through twelve consecutive axe heads. She will marry the suitor who wins it. The beggar promises that Odysseus will be present for the contest. Still skeptical, Penelope goes upstairs to sleep.

The Odyssey: Book XXI

Penelope takes Odysseus's bow down from its place of honor on the wall. She remembers how he obtained it as the payment for a debt from Iphitos from Lakedaimon. Don't worry—Homer tells you the story: Odysseus met Iphitos in Messene, where he (Odysseus) had come claiming the natives owed Ithaka for having stolen some sheep way back when. Iphitos was also there on the account of livestock; he was tracking some stray mares that apparently wandered to Messene themselves. But these mares ended up being the death of Iphitos, since he later wandered to the house of Herakles (Hercules), who promptly killed him so he could have the mares. The point is, Odysseus became friends with Iphitos; he gave him a sword and spear, and Iphitos in return gave him the bow that Penelope is now taking off the wall. Back to the Queen. She approaches the suitors and announces the contest and all its details, which we've already heard. Eumaios and Philoitios present the weapons and both break down in tears, since they know Penelope has given up hope that her husband will ever return. Antinoös mocks them for their sniveling, of course. Telemachos is the first to try stringing the bow, not because he wants to marry his mother (he'll leave that to this ancient Greek hero), but because he wants to prove his strength, manliness, and virility. After four tries, it looks like Telemachos is finally about to succeed—when beggar Odysseus signals for him not to do it. Convenient. Telemachos obeys and hands the bow over to the first suitor, who fails miserably. Antinoös orders Melanthios to build a fire and bring a cake of lard so that they can limber up the bow in the hopes of stringing it. (Cheating!) As he does, beggar Odysseus notices Eumaios and Philoitios leaving the hall. He rushes after them and reveals himself as Odysseus. As proof, he shows them his scar. Woohoo! In the meantime, Eurymachos has been shamed by the bow; he can't string it, either. To delay his own attempt, Antinoös distracts everyone's attention with the feast and says he'll try the bow tomorrow after they have eaten. Beggar Odysseus speaks up; he wants a chance at stringing the bow. The suitors, especially Antinoös, emphatically say no. They're afraid he can actually do it, since they saw his absolutely awesome body a few days before. Penelope scolds Antinoös and Eurymachos for treating the beggar so badly and invites him to give it a shot. Telemachos uncharacteristically steps forward and tells his mother that this is a man's affair and she ought to go upstairs and be a woman. Alone. In the bedroom. Incidentally, that's where ancient Greek women actually did spend a lot of their time. Penelope obeys, marveling at Telemachos's sudden bravery. Because there's nothing a mom likes better than being ordered around by her son. As the beggar takes his time feeling the bow, Telemachos tells Eurykleia to shut all the women in their rooms and tell them not to come out until summoned, even if they hear sounds of battle. As the beggar takes his time stringing the bow, the suitors shout insults at him... ...Until he successfully strings the bow in one easy motion, grabs an arrow and shoots it straight through the twelve axe heads. In the silence that follows, Zeus sends a sign of his favor—a single thunderclap. Telemachos arms himself and moves to stand next to his now unmasked father. Odysseus is back. Yeah!

The Qu'ran: The Feast

Revealed at Medina: deals with the Commandments and instructions about the religious, cultural and political life of the Muslims. In this connection, a code of ceremonial rules concerning the journey for Hajj has been prescribed; the observance of strict respect for the emblems of Allahhas been enjoined; and any kind of obstruction or interference with the pilgrims to the Kaabah has been prohibited

The Qu'ran: The Lord of Mercy

Revealed at Medina: One of the main aims of the sura is to chastise men and jinn for their lack of gratitude towards Allah, who has showered them with an abundance of blessings. Verses 1-30 describe some of the resources (fruits, palm trees, husked grain, fragrant plants, fresh and salt water, pearls, ships) that Allah has graciously provided for the men and jinn he created, in his infinite mercy, out of clay and smokeless fire (55:14), and set down under a sky illuminated by the twin risings of the sun and moon (55:17). In addition to these material blessings, verses 1-4 recount the fact that Allah taught man how to communicate and even gave him the Qur'an to guide him on the path to righteousness. The refrain, "Which, then, of your Lord's blessings do you both deny?", chastises the bountifully-provided for men and jinn for failing to acknowledge their indebtedness to Allah for his tremendous mercy. The punishment that awaits these ungrateful creatures is briefly described in verses 35-45; for the remainder of the sura, the delights of the gardens of paradise (replete with shading branches, flowing springs, fruit, maidens, couches, cushions, and fine carpets) are lyrically described, punctuated throughout by the stinging refrain which draws attention to the discrepancy between Allah's mercy in providing such luxuriant rewards and the ingratitude of men and jinn. The idea that man's gratitude towards Allah is not commensurate with Allah's tremendous mercy is a central, recurring theme in the Qur'an, especially in the early Meccan suras, and Sura 55 is an important poetic treatment of this theme. The sura also exemplifies the Qur'an's tendency to be self-referential and self-validating, as when in verse 2 it emphasizes the fact that Allah taught the Qur'an to man out of mercy. In terms of theological developments, Al-Rahman introduces a three-tiered classification of men and jinn: the best of believers ("those near to God", the muqarrabīn who will ascend to the higher garden of paradise), the ordinary believers ("those at his right", the ashāt al-yamīn who will enjoy the second garden of paradise), and the disbelievers (who will be punished in Hell). This division is echoed in the following sura, Al-Waqi'a. Finally, it is worth noting that the sura is dominated stylistically by pairs, which in the Qur'an are frequently employed as a sign of the divine. To begin with, it is addressed to a dual audience of men and jinn: in Haleem's translation of the refrain "Which, then, of your Lord's blessings do you both deny?", "both" is understood to refer to men and jinn (likewise for the "you and you" in Arberry's rendering). Natural phenomena are also referred to in pairs: for example, "the sun and the moon" (55:5), "the stars and the trees" (55:6), "the two risings and the two settings [of the sun and the moon]" (55:17), and "the two bodies of [fresh and salt] water" (55:19). In addition, paradise is described as consisting of two double gardens (55:62), each of which contain a pair of springs (55:50, 55:66) and fruit in pairs (55:52).

The Qu'ran: Joseph

Shows intertwining with Judeo-Christian faiths Meccan surah: The story of Yusuf (Sura) is about the prophet Yusuf, translated in English as Joseph. Yusuf is one of the sons of Ya'qub (known as Jacob in the English translation) who has the talent of interpreting dreams. One day Yusuf has a dream and he narrates his dream to his father who immediately knows that Yusuf will be a prophet. His father tells him not to tell his brothers to avoid any harm. However, because of Ya'qub's loving treatment towards Yusuf, Yusuf's brothers felt jealous. They wanted to get rid of Yusuf, so their father could love them instead of Yusuf. Their initial plan was to kill Yusuf, but later they decided to throw him in a well. They lied to their father and told him that a wolf had killed him. Later, a caravan rescued Yusuf from the well, who then sold him to a man in Egypt. The man took Yusuf in and was hoping to have him as a son. Later, the man's wife tries to seduce Yusuf, but he resists. The woman seeing his resistance accuses Yusuf of wanting to harm her and demands that he should either be punished severely or sent to jail. A witness, after Yusuf defends his innocence, testifies "if his shirt is torn from the front, then she has told the truth, and he is of the liars but if his shirt is torn from the back, then she has lied, and he is of the truthful." The shirt was indeed torn from the back. Soon after this accident, the women of the city talk of how the wife is seeking to seduce Yusuf. The wife of 'Az-Aziz invites them to a banquet, gives each of them a knife, and then tells Yusuf to come out. The women cut their hands in astonishment. 'She said, "That is the one about whom you blamed me. And I certainly sought to seduce him, but he firmly refused; and if he will not do what I order him, he will surely be imprisoned and will be of those debased." http://quran.com/12/32' Yusuf prefers prison to what they call him so he prayed to God. Yusuf is sent to prison. In the prison, Yusuf met two other men and interprets one of the prisoner's dreams. The prisoner is then released and Yusuf asked the prisoner to mention his talent to the king. One day, the King had a dream, and the prisoners who had been released mention Yusuf. He interprets the King's dream, which is about Egypt having a seven-year drought. To reward him, the King requests his release from jail and the King also investigates his case. The wife who tried to seduce Yusuf testifies that he was innocent, and the truth unveils. Yusuf is given authority in Egypt. During the seven-year drought, Yusuf's brothers visit Egypt to get food for their family. Upon seeing his brothers, Yusuf recognizes them though they did not recognize him.[4] Yusuf, in a high position of authority, requests that the next time they come, they bring their youngest brother Benjamin or benyameen with them. When the brothers returned with their youngest brother, Yusuf takes him aside and tells him his identity. Yusuf plots a theft case where his youngest brother is found guilty of theft when he is truly innocent and is detained from his family, so he could stay with him. Later, when the father and brothers face poverty they come back to Yusuf and Yusuf then helps them and reveals his identity asking them to come and live with him.

Author Notes: Homer (The Iliad & The Odyssey)

Wrote The Iliad & Odyssey (Homeric Epic Poetry) Odyssey composed by Homer during 700 BC. Blind and lived in Greece

The Epic of Gilgamesh: Class Discussion

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

The Iliad: Class Discussion

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

The Odyssey: Book XX

Beggar Odysseus settles down to bed on the floor outside of Penelope's room, but has trouble falling asleep. Kind of like before the night of a big game, or in this case the slaughter of 100+ men. He sees some of the maids slipping out to go sleep with the suitors. He's enraged at the maids' betrayal but stays silent. Athene arrives and to give Odysseus a game-day speech, while Penelope cries upstairs. She prays for death and then dreams that Odysseus comes back, but of course doesn't believe the good omen. Odysseus wakes at dawn and, in a moment of angst, asks Zeus for a sign that he was meant to come home. Zeus hears and sends a thunderclap through a perfectly clear sky. A maid grinding barley hears the thunder clap and knows Zeus must be around and listening. She prays that all her hard work to feed the greedy suitors will soon be over. Oh, and that all the suitors die. This is convenient for Zeus, who gets to grant two prayers at once. And we're back to Odysseus, who takes heart at seeing the thunderbolt. Telemachos checks up on beggar Odysseus and then orders the maids to prepare a feast, because today is a holiday. Melanthios returns to taunt the beggar more. Does he ever learn? And also, doesn't he have anything else to do? Afterwards another man approaches the beggar—Philoitios, the resident cowherd. He greets the beggar warmly and notes his resemblance to Odysseus. We quickly see that he is ashamed and outraged at the suitors' behavior in his lord's house. The beggar asks Eumaios and Philoitios if they would fight on Odysseus's side against the suitors should he return to Ithaka. Sure! The suitors temporarily drop all their plans of killing Telemachos and turn their minds to the real task at hand—eating breakfast Telemachos seats the beggar opposite himself with his own share of food and a goblet of wine and challenges anyone to insult him. For the most part, no one does, although there is some mild grumbling from (surprise) Antinoös. We find out that the "holiday" is really a day of sacrifice to Apollo. Athene, who apparently loves conflict, wants the suitors to tease Odysseus so he'll get all worked into a rage. Because she always gets her way, the suitors indeed taunt the beggar, one by one. Eventually, one suitor, Ktesippos, throws a cow's foot at the beggar. Odysseus ducks, but Telemachos rushes to the beggar's defense. Yet another suitor, Agelaos, gets everyone back to the issue at hand: who's going to get Penelope. He asks Telemachos to see reason: it's obvious that Odysseus isn't coming back, so Penelope needs to get over herself already and marry one of the suitors. Telemachos refuses and the suitors laugh at him. Athene, who still wants to see some blood, makes his refusal seem especially hilarious to the suitors so they laugh for a really long time. Prophetic fugitive Theoklymenos, has a vision of the hall filled with dripping blood and shades of the dead. Then he tells everyone about it. You would think this would dampen the mood, but the suitors just laugh at him, too. Telemachos rolls his eyes and tries to ignore them, a task made easier by the knowledge that, very soon, the hall will indeed be filled with their dripping blood.

The Epic of Gilgamesh: Tablet X

Beside the underground sea where Gilgamesh has arrived, there's a tavern. Why somebody thought this would be a promising business location, we have no idea. This tavern is kept by a woman named Siduri. When Siduri sees Gilgamesh, she's terrified. Because of his long journey, he's haggard and destitute looking. So, obviously, he must be a murderer. To keep safe, she bolts her door. Gilgamesh is Not Happy and starts shouting threats at her. To make his words more convincing, Gilgamesh throws in some boasts about how he iced Humbaba, and liquidated the Bull of Heaven. But Siduri doesn't believe it's really him—he's just that haggard-looking. Gilgamesh sticks up for himself, however, and gives her the whole story: his grief over his friend's death, and how he mourned over him for six days and seven nights, refusing to let Enkidu be buried until—finally—a maggot fell out of Enkidu's nose. We hope you aren't eating as you read this. And then Gilgamesh asks Siduri if he, too, must die. In the Old Babylonian Version of the Epic of Gilgamesh, Siduri has an answer for Gilgamesh. Most translators include Siduri's reply along with the main text of the Standard Version. (For more info on the Old Babylonian Version and the Standard Version, check out the "Writing Style" section of this module.) Because Maureen Gallery Kovacs (the translator we're following) includes it, we will too. Basically, Siduri tells Gilgamesh not to worry so much. She says that humans simply cannot achieve immortality—the gods won't let them. Instead, they should just make the most of what they have on earth. She tells Gilgamesh to make every day a party, and to be good to his children and wife. That's what life's all about. We can kind of get behind that. But not Gilgamesh. Instead, he just keeps asking how he can find Utanapishtim. Siduri tells Gilgamesh that to see Utanapishtim, he first has to cross the Waters of Death (oooh, that doesn't sound pleasant). To do that, he has to talk to a guy called Urshanabi (not to be confused with Utanapishtim), the ferryman over the Waters of Death. Siduri tells Gilgamesh where to find Urshanabi's boat, and his "stone things." What are the "stone things"? We don't really know. They are somehow critical to a successful journey across the Waters of Death, but that is all we know. Option (1): some scholars (and the translator Stephen Mitchell) think that they are stone men—living statues that help out Urshanabi. Option (2): some scholars think of them as lodestones (a naturally magnetized mineral used as a compass in the ancient world). Option (3): since we don't know, you're free to imagine the "stone things" as being whatever you want them to be. Once Gilgamesh has gotten Siduri's directions, he runs off—and attacks Urshanabi's "stone things." In fact, he destroys all of them. (Geez. That was uncalled for.) Hearing the commotion, Urshanabi comes running back from the forest, where he was gathering mint. The text of the clay tablet is unclear at this point, but the basic idea seems to be, "Hey! Why the heck did you break all my stone things?" After this, we get basically a repeat of the exchange between Siduri and Gilgamesh. Urshanabi asks Gilgamesh why he's looking so wiped out and down on his luck. Oh, well, you know, he's just lost his greatest friend and is terrified of death. He follows up his story by demanding to see Utanapishtim. Can you predict what Urshanabi says here? That's right: he says, "Well, you know, Gilgamesh, it would have been easy enough to cross the Waters of Death—if you hadn't smashed all my stone things, that is." Fortunately, Urshanabi has a backup plan. He tells Gilgamesh to go into the woods and cut 300 punting poles (sticks to push off on the bottom of the lake), each 60 cubits in length. How big is a cubit, you ask? Here you go. As you can see from the diagram, we mean "handy-dandy" literally. Gilgamesh doesn't need to be told twice. In no time, he has come back with the 300 punting poles, as per the instructions. He and Urshanabi get into the boat and they're off across the Waters of Death. Urshanabi tells Gilgamesh to get as much leverage out of each punting pole as he can—and then throw it away. He can't let his hands touch the Waters of Death, otherwise he'll, you know, die. Unfortunately, when Gilgamesh runs out of punting poles, they still aren't at the other side of the Waters of Death. But Gilgamesh isn't about to give up. Instead, he takes off his cloak and holds it up as a sail. At about this point, on the far side of the Waters of Death, Utanapishtim sees them coming. He can't understand why Urshanabi's "stone things" have been destroyed—or why somebody other than Urshanabi is sailing on the boat. When Urshanabi and Gilgamesh arrive on shore, we get yet another repetition of the original exchange between Gilgamesh and Siduri. Utanapishtim asks Gilgamesh why he looks so worn-out. Gilgamesh explains about his grief for his friend (he still doesn't realize who he's talking to), and then gives a really detailed description of all the trials and tribulations he's been through on his voyage this far. Utanapishtim replies with a long speech of his own. Unfortunately, the beginning of this speech is not well-preserved. From the fragments that survive, it looks like he is telling Gilgamesh to count his blessings, since he was born a rich and powerful king, not a poor fool. Then Utanapishtim tells Gilgamesh that it is pointless for humans to try to escape death, because it is the will of the gods that all humans must die. The only thing that's uncertain is when a person will die, not whether he or she will.

Terms with Translation Significance

Epic: (pg 36 in text) "comes from the Greek term meaning simply 'speech' or 'song.' It has come to refer to long poems that use elevated language to describe a panoramic sweep of action, spanning the divine and human worlds." Oedipus Rex: Latin translation to English "Oedipus the King"; Oedipus Tyrannus was the original Greek title that then went to Latin Oedipus Rex but the Greek title translates more directly to English as "Oedipus the Tyrant" Oedipus: "swollen foot" The Qu'ran: "recitation" Odyssey: "The story of Odysseus" Iliad: "The story of Ilium [Troy]" Medea: from Greek Μηδεια [Medeia] probably meaning "to ponder" or "cunning" Aeneid: originally Aeneis as a tribute to the work's hero Aeneas (Virgil follows pattern of titling similar to Homer here) Achilles heel: point of weakness; taken from Achilles wound Oedipus Complex: Freudian reference for a son's desire to sleep with mother

The Iliad: Book XXII (The Death of Hector)

Eventually, Apollo lets Achilleus know that he duped him. Achilleus is mad, and races back to Troy. Priam sees him coming and cries out to Hektor, who has stayed outside the walls to face the Achaian warrior. Priam urges his son to come inside the walls. He predicts that his death will mean the destruction of Troy. Hektor's mother, also on the rampart, exposes her breast to remind her son of the role she played in nurturing him. She, too, asks him to take pity on her and come inside the walls. But Hektor refuses to listen. He is too full of pride to turn back - all because he disregarded Poulydamas's advice from the night before not to remain on the beach now that Achilleus has returned to the battle (see our summary of Book 18 for details). Hektor figures that it would be better to kill Achilleus now and be done with it. He briefly considers trying to reason with him - say, offering to give Helen back along with free pick from among Troy's treasures - but then he realizes that Achilleus would just kill him anyway. And yet, just when Achilleus comes close, Hektor's nerve fails him. He turns tail and runs (so much for his boasting back in Book 18). Hektor runs three times around the walls of Troy - always with Achilleus in hot pursuit. Up on Olympos, Zeus wonders whether they should free Hektor from his fate or let him die. But Athene explodes on him, saying, "What are you talking about? No way! This is his fate. You can't let him out of it." "Relax, I was only kidding," Zeus says. "Do whatever you want." Meanwhile, the heroes are still running around the walls of Troy - Achilleus unable to catch up, and Hektor unable to get away, in what the poet likens to a horrible nightmare. The fourth time around, however, Zeus lifts up the golden scales of fate, just as he did with his son Sarpedon back in Book 16. He puts each warrior's fate in the scales. Hektor's heavier fate sinks down towards the underworld. At this point, Athene appears beside Achilleus and tells him that he's about to be victorious. Then she flies off and stands by Hektor. She takes the form of Deïphobos, Hektor's brother. She tells him that they should fight Achilleus together. Hektor is overjoyed, thinking that his brother has come out of the city to help him. Hektor faces Achilleus and stands his ground. He suggests that they make a pact: "If I kill you, I won't mutilate your body, and, after I've stripped your armor, I'll even give you back to your comrades for proper burial." Achilleus refuses, however, saying that "No pacts are made between humans and lions." Then Achilleus throws his spear - but Hektor ducks it. Hektor thinks he's sitting pretty. The only problem is, Athene grabs Achilleus's spear and gives it back to him without Hektor noticing. Now Hektor throws his spear, but it deflects off Achilleus's shield. Hektor calls on Deïphobos to give him another spear - but Deïphobos isn't there. That's when Hektor realizes that he's been tricked - and that he is doomed. All the same, he resolves to go down fighting. Hektor charges at Achilleus with his sword, but Achilleus stabs him in the neck with his spear - narrowly missing his windpipe. This means that, even though he is mortally wounded, Hektor is still able to speak. The dying Hektor asks Achilleus once again to spare his body from the dogs. Once again, Achilleus refuses, in even more fearsome terms than before. He says that he wishes he were angry enough to hack off Hektor's flesh and eat it raw. Hektor says that he recognizes Achilleus won't be won over. But then he predicts that, some day soon, Apollo and Paris will kill him outside the Skaian Gates. Then Hektor dies. Achilleus taunts him. Then the Achaians catch up to them. Each of them stabs Hektor's body. They all mock him. Achilleus speaks warmly to his comrades and gives the gods credit for his victory. He considers continuing with the fight, but then remembers Patroklos back by the ships. He decides to return - as he was instructed to do. Then Achilleus does something outrageous: he pierces the tendons at the back of Hektor's feet and then threads rawhide cords through the holes. He attaches these cords to the back of his chariot, and starts dragging Hektor's dead body over the plain, his head dragging in the dust. Up on the wall, Hektor's terrified mother starts tearing out her hair in grief. Hektor's father, Priam, has to be forcibly restrained from running out of the walls and begging Achilleus to give his son back. He rolls around in the mud, defiling himself with filth. Back at their home, Hektor's wife, Andromache, has not yet heard the news. She is preparing a bath for when her husband returns from fighting. Then she hears wailing outside. She runs to the wall and sees Achilleus dragging Hektor's body back to the ships of the Achaians. She starts lamenting, predicting a grim future for their son without a father to protect him.

Class Discussion

Fate versus Free Will (be able to argue both sides as needed to reading) Aristotle's 3 Unities: unity of time (24 hours), unity of place (single setting), unity of action (one single main plot) Sophocles- brought the third actor on stage; introduced setting and scenery; stabilized the chorus at 15 Aeschylus- introduced the use of the second actor on stage; introduced more complicated plots Thespis- father of Greek drama; considered first actor the chorus (Theban plays): 1. Represents the collective voice of the Theban elders by expressing their values and/or concerns. 2. Often takes part as an "actor", helping to drive the action of the play. 3. Provides a running commentary that is meant to influence or inform the audience's reaction to the drama.

The Odyssey: Book XXII

First up, Antinoös. Odysseus him with an arrow to the throat while he's drinking wine. It's justice time. Realizing that their weapons are gone, the suitors scatter. Eurymachos begs for Odysseus to have mercy on the rest of the suitors, now that he's killed the worst of them (that would be Antinoös). Nope. So, Eurymachos tries to rally the suitors to fight Odysseus, who responds by promptly killing Eurymachos with an arrow to the heart. As Amphinomos rushes Odysseus, Telemachos stops him with a spear to the heart. Telemachos then runs to the storage room, grabbing more weapons, and arming the four allies (Odysseus, himself, Eumaios, and Philoitios). Melanthios sees Telemachos go to the storage room and quickly does the same in order to arm the suitors. Odysseus is none too happy to see that the suitors suddenly have weapons. Telemachos knows it's his fault for leaving the storage room door open and confesses it to Odysseus, who orders the two herdsmen to follow Melanthios, tie him up, and lock him in the storage room so he can do no more harm. They obey. All right, guys, less apologizing/ordering and more fighting! Especially since the suitors now have Odysseus and Co. cornered and incredibly outnumbered. Athene arrives, disguised as Mentor. Odysseus recognizes her for who she is and calls help. The suitors beg Mentor/Athene not to help Odysseus, threatening him with death if he does. She turns to Odysseus and tells him to show the suitors his stuff (i.e., the skills he used against Troy)—justice, she says, is on the way. But she holds back. Odysseus and Telemachos have yet to prove themselves worthy of her assistance. She watches her two little pet mortals from the roof and passively protects them while they pick off suitors one by one. At last, Athene's sign—the aegis or "great shield"—shines in the air in the hall and the suitors realize that Odysseus has godly help. They panic. Some beg for mercy, but Odysseus is ruthless. So ruthless, in fact, that he spares only Phemios the singer and Medon the town crier, because Telemachos swears they're loyal. Finally, all the suitors are dead. Bloodbath? Check. Revenge? Check. Mischief managed? Check. Odysseus calls for Eurykleia to bring all the unfaithful maids to him. Eurykleia is all, "Um, how 'bout putting on some non-bloodbath clothes first?", and Odysseus is all, "No." Of the fifty maids in the household, twelve have proved disloyal. Odysseus forces them to drag the corpses of the suitors outside and clean the hall. He orders his son to then hack the disgraceful women to pieces outside, but Telemachos thinks this is too noble a death for these "sluts." Instead, he hangs them, which is apparently worse than being hacked to pieces. Then the good guys torture and kill Melanthios. Odysseus orders Eurykleia to bring brimstone, a brazier, and medicinal herbs so he can purify the great hall. We're thinking some bleach and a mop would be a good idea, too. Apparently, so does Eurykleia, since she tries to get him to clean up first. He refuses. Odysseus purifies the hall, and all the maids and servants who remain with many hugs and tears (and grimaces, because as far as we can tell, he's still wearing his bloody clothes).

The Aeneid: Class Quiz

Ganymede was the love interest of which Olympian: Zeus. Which 2 relatives does Aeneas take with him as the city of Troy falls? Son & Father Dido is Queen of Carthage. What vow does Dido break? Remaining chaste Specifically, what does she do when Aeneas leaves her? Throw herself on a blade in a pyre of Aeneas things The mother of Aeneas is Venus. During the Trojan War, the Amazons fought for these people: Trojans. How does Queen Amata die? Hangs herself Who wrote Aeneid? Virgil Who is Lavinia? Aeneas's Lover & Wife

The Epic of Gilgamesh: Tablet IV

Gilgamesh and Enkidu set out on their journey. Because of their superhuman prowess (or speed hack?) they cover in one day the same distance it would take ordinary humans a month and a half to walk. Before they sleep that night, Gilgamesh climbs up a mountain and prays, asking for Shamash, the sun god, to send him a dream. Enkidu performs some more special rituals before Gilgamesh sleeps. In the middle of the night, however, he wakes up from a terrible nightmare: he dreamed that a mountain fell on top of the two of them. Enkidu tells him not to worry. The dream actually has a good meaning: the mountain represents Humbaba, and it means that they'll defeat the monster. The next morning they set out again with their super speed. That night, once again, Gilgamesh climbs a mountain and prays for a dream. Once again, Enkidu performs special rituals before his friend goes to sleep. Guess what comes next? Yep, Gilgamesh nods off, and then wakes up in the middle of the night, complaining of nightmares. This time, Gilgamesh says he dreamed that he was fighting with a fearsome wild bull that split the ground with its breath. At the last minute, a mysterious figure saved him and gave him water to drink. Once again, Enkidu puts a positive spin on his friend's dream. Enkidu says that the bull was Shamash, and was apparently a protector, not an enemy. He also says that the figure who gave Gilgamesh a drink was Lugalbanda—Gilgamesh's dead father—who is now his divine guardian. Rinse, wash, and repeat: super speed, mountain climbing, dream, rituals, nightmare. This time, Gilgamesh says that he dreamed there was a terrible storm and earthquake; then everything was dark. At this point, a lightning bolt flashed and ignited a fire. Death rained down. (Doesn't sound good.) Then, the fire went out, and everything turned to ash. Pretty freaky stuff, huh? The next section of the tablet is broken, so the story is missing. Based on what's come before, though, we can guess that Enkidu comes up with some interpretation that makes the dream good news, not bad. We don't know how to turn that last one around. Got any ideas? And then this all happens again—but the tablet is badly damaged at this point, too. From the little bits that survive, however, it looks like Gilgamesh has another freaky nightmare. Just like all the other times so far, Enkidu interprets this freaky nightmare in a positive light, saying that it foretells their victory over Humbaba. And then—yep. It all happens again, only this time more of the tablet is missing. But we're going to go out on a limb and assume that it's more of the same: Gilgamesh has a horrible nightmare, and Enkidu interprets it as a positive omen. Finally, Gilgamesh and Enkidu come to the edge of the Cedar Forest. Now, all of a sudden, Gilgamesh is overcome by fear. He starts crying, and calls out to the god Shamash for help. Shamash tells the friends to stop dilly-dallying. Humbaba normally wears seven layers of armor, but right now he is only wearing one. It's time to strike! Now it's Enkidu's turn to lose courage. Gilgamesh steps into the role of team captain, telling his friend that through teamwork everything is possible. It works, and together they march into the Cedar Forest to do battle with the big boss, Humbaba.

The Epic of Gilgamesh: Tablet XI

Gilgamesh tells Utanapishtim that he can't believe he (Utanapishtim) is only a regular human being. How has he ended up being granted immortality? Gee, thought you'd never ask. Utanapishtim's story begins in the city of Shuruppak, on the banks of the Euphrates, many, many years ago. In those days, Shuruppak was inhabited by the gods. For some reason (we aren't told why), the gods decided to destroy the world with a flood. (Translators differ on this section since many of them like to supply reasons for the flood.) The flood would have come as a total surprise, were it not for the actions of one of the gods—Ea, the trickster. Ea went up to the wall of a house made of reeds and said, "Hey! Hey you there! Wall made of reeds! I want to tell you a secret: destroy your house and make a boat. Put animals onto it—every kind. The boat should be in the shape of a cube. You didn't hear it from me." Then Utanapishtim (who had been "coincidentally" listening on the other side of the wall of reeds) replied, "but, my lord, what should I tell the people of city?" "Oh," said Ea, "Just tell them that the god Enlil hates your guts, and wants you to leave town. Oh yeah, and the god Ea is going to rain down ... good things on the rest of you." Utanapishtim went to work. He assembled the craftsman of Shuruppak and got them to help out. Everyone helped, even children and sickly people. When the boat was finally finished, it was totally ginormous: cube-shaped, with each side 120 cubits in length. That is like 180 feet—or half a football field, including the end zone. Clearly proud of himself, Utanapishtim then goes into serious detail about the cube-ship's specs: six decks and seven levels (counting the roof), interior divided into nine compartments, more punting poles than you can shake a punting pole at, crazy amounts of raw bitumen used for caulking—you name it. No doubt about it, this is one serious cube-ship. Utanapishtim also says that he handsomely rewarded the workmen with food and drink, so that every day spent building the cube-ship was like a feast. Finally, the ship was ready to set sail. Utanapishtim put all his family members on the boat, and also all the animals of the field, and, oh yeah, also all the craftsmen of the city. (You need those guys to rebuild civilization, you know?) Then the rain began to fall—a torrential rain. In no time, it had rained so much that even the gods themselves had to climb up to the highest heaven to escape from the water.There, they huddled together, weeping, they were so terrified. The storm continued for six days and seven nights. When it finally calmed down, Utanapishtim was able to open a hatch and look around. At first, he couldn't see land anywhere, but eventually the boat drifted to a stop on the peak of Mount Nimush. The boat stayed on top of Mount Nimush for seven days. On the seventh day, Utanapishtim released a dove. It came back: it couldn't find land. Then Utanapishtim sent out a swallow. The same thing happened: it came back; there was no dry land. Finally, Utanapishtim sent out a raven. This time, the bird didn't come back: it had found dry land. The flood was over. Utanapishtim released all the animals from the boat. Then he himself got out, and made sacrifices. The gods smelled the sacrifices and were happy, clustering around the smoke like flies. The goddess Beletili (another name for Aruru) was especially pleased; she said that all the other gods should prevent Enlil, the king of the gods, from coming to the sacrifice. She held him responsible for the Flood that destroyed nearly the whole human species. Speak of the Enlil ... and the Enlil appears. When he showed up on the scene, the king of the gods was furious to find out that some humans survived the catastrophe. Looking for someone to blame, Enlil correctly pointed the finger at Ea. But Ea shot right back, accusing Enlil of being unjust for destroying all of mankind just to punish a few bad apples. Enlil didn't respond directly to Ea's criticism. Instead, he found Utanapishtim and his wife and made them kneel down beside him. He blessed them both and said that, from now on, they would no longer be human. Instead, they would be able to dwell far away from humankind, at the Mouth of the Rivers. (This must be where Gilgamesh is now.) Here Utanapishtim ends his story. Then he makes his point: "So you see, Gilgamesh, that's why I'm so awesome. Do you think the gods are going to intervene on your behalf? Puh-lease!" But Utanapishtim is willing to give Gilgamesh a chance: "OK, hot-shot. Here's what: you stay awake for six days and seven nights, and then we'll see about immortality for you." Gilgamesh doesn't seem to think this is a major challenge—but then, the very second he sits down, he falls sound asleep. Utanapishtim immediately starts mocking Gilgamesh, but his wife tells him to stop. She says that he should wake Gilgamesh up and send him on his way. That isn't good enough for Utanapishtim, however. Instead of waking Gilgamesh up, he gets his wife to bake a loaf of bread for every day that Gilgamesh remains asleep. Every time she finished a loaf of bread, she should put it beside the sleeping man. As it turns out, Gilgamesh ends up sleeping for six days and seven nights—the same amount of time he was supposed to be staying awake. Just as Utanapishtim suspected, when Gilgamesh wakes up, he doesn't believe that he was ever asleep. But when Utanapishtim points out the loaves, which range from fresh to moldy (thus showing how long each one has been sitting there), Gilgamesh is forced to accept the truth. Science, y'all. Gilgamesh is bummed that Death is still after him. But Utanapishtim doesn't answer Gilgamesh. Instead, he turns to Urshanabi, the ferryman, and fires him, but not before telling him to take Gilgamesh away and clean up him. Urshanabi does as he's told. When Gilgamesh is all decked out in his fancy new duds, he and Urshanabi get in the boat, and start to sail away. Just then, Utanapishtim's wife intervenes, pointing out that Gilgamesh worked hard to get there and is now heading away with nothing. Gilgamesh must have been eavesdropping, because in no time he's turned his boat around and come back to the shore, hoping to get something for his trouble. Utanapishtim tells Gilgamesh that he needs to find a special plant that grows on the bottom of the sea. If he eats it, he will become young again. (Not the same as becoming immortal, but not a bad deal all the same.) Gilgamesh thinks this sounds like a great idea. He digs a hole in the ground until he reaches groundwater. Then, he attaches rocks to his feet and sinks down to the bottom; there, he finds the plant and grabs it. At this point, he cuts the rocks off his feet and lets the underground current of water carry him out to the sea. Once he's there, he bobs up to the surface, and lets the waves carry him back to the shore where he started. Not a bad round trip, if you ask us—plus Gilgamesh is now one magical plant the richer. Time to head back to Uruk. Gilgamesh doesn't plan to eat the plant right away. Instead, he'll test it out on one of the old men of Uruk. If it works on the old man (makes him young again), then Gilgamesh himself will eat it. Hm, seems like a sound plan. In any case, Gilgamesh and Urshanabi set out for Uruk. They stop for the night beside a spring of water. Gilgamesh decides to have a bath, obviously. But he doesn't take the magical plant in with him. Big mistake. Instead, he leaves it on the ground. While Gilgamesh isn't looking, a snake comes up and steals the plant. As the snake slithers away, it sheds its old skin—maybe because the plant has rejuvenated it? Gilgamesh starts crying. He thinks that his entire quest was a waste. But, all the same, he and Urshanabi keep heading for Uruk. And when they arrive at the city, Gilgamesh triumphantly lists the notable features of Uruk—thus echoing the opening lines of the epic. The end. (Or is it?)- [some translations may have another tablet]

Medea: Gods

HELIOS: First there's Helios, the Sun god. In some translations, Helios is mostly referred to simply as the Sun. He was said to have ridden his shining golden chariot (the sun) across the sky each day. Helios is probably the most significant god in the play. He's Medea's grandfather. Helios was a Titan, one of the older and more primitive gods, which were later replaced by more "civilized" beings. Medea's "barbaric" behavior could be seen as a result of her relation to this volatile and primal force of nature. The Sun god is also the only divine presence to directly affect the action of the play.Several of the gifts Helios has given his granddaughter are used in key plot points. The golden diadem and gossamer gown which Medea gives to Creon's daughter were both originally from Helios. When the gown and crown shoot out flames, it's like the Sun itself is attacking the Princess. The dragon-drawn chariot that serves as Medea's get-away car is also a gift from her grandfather. When Medea flies away in this junior version of Helios's flaming chariot, it's as if the Sun god has symbolically sanctioned her vengeful actions. APOLLO: Apollo was the god of many things, including reason, poetry, the arts, and prophecy. Like Helios, he was also a Sun god. Apollo was part of the second generation of gods who, led by Zeus, replaced the Titans. What's interesting is that Apollo never totally replaced Helios in the Greek imagination. They existed side by side as gods of the Sun. (We wonder if they ever argued over who got to drive the flaming chariot that day.) By using the names of both Sun gods, Euripides seems to symbolize the basic conflict at the heart of the play: Greek reason vs. "barbarian" passion. To the Greek Jason it's perfectly rational that he marry Glauke. It gives his family, including Medea and her children, wealth, power, and security. Medea's wild passion doesn't allow her to accept this rationale. To her, it's much more basic. She just sees her husband marrying some other woman and responds with "barbaric" violence. This idea of Apollo being on Jason's side is strengthened when the Chorus basically accuses the god of chauvinism. They sing: The ballads of ages gone by that harped on the falseness Of women, will cease to be sung [...] If only Apollo, Prince of the lyric, had put in our hearts the inventions Of music and songs for the lyre Wouldn't I then have raised up a feminine paean to answer the epic of men? (58) The Chorus asks Apollo why he hasn't blessed any women with the art of poetry. If he had, then perhaps the depictions of women in Greek tradition would have been a great deal more sympathetic. This is, of course, a pretty ironic thing for a male playwright to have his characters say, especially since his female protagonist is notoriously unsympathetic. Still, this passage helps support the theory that the Apollo of Medea is firmly on the side of men and is symbolic of Jason's side of the argument. HECTATE: It's no surprise that Medea, a symbol herself of feminine revolt, mostly prays to goddesses rather than gods. Besides, Helios, her grandfather, she prefers to gain strength from the female side of the pantheon. Most important of all to Medea is Hecate, who Medea describes as "the goddess who abides in the shrine of my inner hearth - the one I revere most of all the gods" (57). Hecate is a lot like Artemis, who Medea also calls upon. Both goddesses represent nature and are virgins. Both are potent symbols of girl-power, making them ideal figures for Medea to call upon. Hectate however, is a much older goddess than Artemis. Like Medea's grandfather Helios, Hecate was a Titan. In some mythologies she is said to have helped Zeus overthrow her fellow Titans. It's interesting that, once again, Euripides shows Medea favoring the older, more primal deities, ones that might be cooler with her "barbaric" ways. Like Medea, Hecate was also a foreigner. The Greeks created many conflicting mythologies about her as they tried to weave her into their pantheon. Hecate's cult is thought to have originated somewhere around modern day Turkey, which is the same area that Medea is said to have been from. The fact that Medea and Hecate originated from the same general area ties them even closer together. By Euripides's time, Hecate had come to be associated with witchcraft. Though her name didn't have this connotation when she first showed up in Greece, to this day she is thought of as a goddess of witches. She's even been appropriated by modern Wiccans and Neo-Pagans. Once again this connection with witchcraft makes her a good fit for Medea, who has mad sorcery skills of her own. In some mythologies, Hecate was seen as an avenger of women. When Medea calls on the goddess to bless her revenge, she symbolically summons the energy of all women ever done wrong by men. In a way this elevates Medea's bloody deeds above the level of petty revenge. Though she is mentioned only once by name, Hecate is alluded to a couple of other times. The Chorus tells the story of the Trojan Queen Hekabe who, like Medea, killed her children. In some myths Hekabe became Hecate's dog after she threw herself into the sea. Also, Jason insults Medea by saying she's like the Tuscan Scylla, a sea monster that some said was the child of Hecate.

The Aeneid: Book IV (The Tragic Queen of Carthage)

If she had a bit of a crush on him before, now that Aeneas has finished his story, Dido totally has the hots for him. The next morning, she confides in her sister, Anna. She says that even though she swore she would never love anyone after her dead husband, Sychaeus, she seriously wants to get with Aeneas. But she decides she can't do that. Anna says, "What do the dead care if you're faithful or not? Anyway, Carthage is surrounded by enemies. We could use a strong alliance. At least get the Trojans to stay for the winter." The days pass, and Dido becomes more and more in love. The city's building projects stall with no one to oversee them. The goddess Juno, seeing what is going on, recognizes Venus's fingerprints all over it. She takes the matter up with Venus, and suggests they get Dido and Aeneas to marry. Venus - who knows that Juno wants to keep the Trojans down - says that they should maybe check with Jupiter first. Juno says, "Leave it to me. But first, let's do some matchmaking. Soon, Dido and Aeneas are going to go out hunting. While they're out there, I'll whip up some rain, so they will have to take shelter together in a cave. Then we'll put on some Barry White - or the equivalent - and wait for the magic to happen." Things go according to plan, the magic happens, and Dido begins to see herself and Aeneas as married. (Notice a certain lack of symmetry?) But Rumor - described as a weird winged goddess with as many eyes and tongues as feathers - can't pass up a juicy story like that. Eventually, word makes its way to the North African king Iarbas, whose father is Jupiter, and who was once rejected by Dido. Iarbas doesn't like this one bit, and complains to his daddy about it. Hearing his son's complaint, Jupiter takes a good look at what is going on down in Carthage. Then he sends the god Mercury to go and ask Aeneas, "What's the deal?" and remind him that he's supposed to be founding a city in Italy. Mercury heads down and finds Aeneas supervising the construction of Carthage's walls, all the while sporting some fancy-pants Carthaginian duds. Mercury passes along Jupiter's message, and tells Aeneas to think about his son Ascanius, and what sort of legacy he is going to leave him. Then Mercury flies off, leaving Aeneas to say, "Dang." He tells the other Trojans to get the fleet ready for departure. He tries to keep the preparations secret, but Dido gets wind of it and becomes royally angry. When she confronts Aeneas about it, Aeneas is like, "OK. It's true, I am leaving. But we're not married, and I've got to go found a city in Italy. My dad keeps appearing to me in my dreams and pestering me about it; I've got to leave a legacy for Ascanius; and now the messenger of the gods has told me to get a move on. It's not my fault." As you might expect, Dido doesn't take this too well. In fact, she tells him to get lost - and that she hopes his ship sinks. Then Dido runs off and faints; her maids carry her back to her bedroom. The Trojans keep getting ready to set sail. When Dido comes to, she sees them, and tells her sister Anna to go and tell them to wait for better winds at least. Anna goes and tells him, but Aeneas won't listen. Dido then gets troubled by a bunch of weird happenings. For example, water blackens on her altars, and wine turns to blood. Voices seem to arise from the shrine of her dead husband. It seems that everything is going to Hades in a hand basket. Dido decides to commit suicide. Dido tells Anna to prepare a pyre, claiming she only wants it to burn some things that Aeneas has left behind. That night, Dido ponders again what she should do. She considers following the Trojans, but decides against it. She reaffirms to herself her intention to commit suicide. Now she is also motivated by guilt at having been unfaithful to the memory of Sychaeus. Meanwhile, Aeneas is sleeping on the stern of his beached ship. Mercury comes down and tells him, in a dream, to get a move on. Aeneas wakes up, tells the other Trojans to sail out. They do. Then Dido wakes up and sees the Trojans leaving. She wishes she had killed Aeneas when she had the chance. She prays that his mission will fail, and this her people and his will become enemies. (We know from subsequent Roman history - i.e., the Punic Wars - that her wish will come true.) Then Dido sends her sister's old nurse to tell Anna to get a pyre ready; she claims that she wants to burn some stuff that Aeneas left behind. After Anna builds the pyre, Dido climbs on top of it and stabs herself with a sword once given to her by Aeneas. Anna climbs onto the pyre herself and tries to save the dying Dido, but it is too late. Juno sends down Iris, the messenger of the gods, to take a lock of Dido's hair and prepare her for death. Iris does this, and Dido dies.

The Aeneid: Book XII (The Sword Decides All)

In the city of the Latins, Turnus announces that the time has come for him to fight Aeneas one-on-one. Latinus tries to convince him to give it up - to take some other woman as wife and leave Lavinia to Aeneas. Turnus refuses. Then Amata pleads with Turnus, telling him that, if she dies, she'd sooner kill herself than have Aeneas as a son-in-law. Lavinia, who has been watching all this, blushes. Turnus, seeing her, is overcome with love for her. Turnus tells Amata not to jinx him. He says he's got to go fight Aeneas - no ifs, ands, or buts. Then Turnus makes ready his chariot-team and arms himself for battle. At the same time, Aeneas makes himself ready. The next morning, the Italians emerge from their city. Both armies make room on the plain for the coming battle between the two champions. From a nearby height, Juno is watching what's going on. Standing beside her is Turnus's sister, the nymph Juturna. Juno says, "I helped your brother as long as I could, but fate's against him. If you want to try to save him, have at it. Either that, or stir up the war again." Down on the plain, the leaders from both sides are meeting. Aeneas prays, saying that, if Turnus wins, the Trojans will go packing. If he wins, however, he will not enslave the Italians, but will ask them to join him as equal citizens in a new nation. Latinus agrees to the terms. They sacrifice animals to formalize the deal. But now the Rutulians are getting upset. Now that they see the two champions ready for battle, they can easily tell that their own guy isn't strong enough. Seeing this, Juturna descends among them, taking the shape of the warrior Camers. She tries to stir them up to fight on behalf of Turnus. Just then, they see an eagle - considered to be the bird of Jupiter - swoop down and seize a swan. Then, a whole bunch of other seabirds attack it in group formation; eventually, the eagle is forced to release the swan and beat a retreat. Tolumnius, the augur (a soothsayer who interpreted the movements of birds), says that this is a sign that they should back up Turnus. Then Tolumnius himself throws his spear at the Trojans. The spear kills one of a group of nine brothers all standing together. Predictably, the other brothers grab their weapons and race forward for revenge. In no time, both armies are fighting again. Aeneas tries to stop his men from fighting, but then somebody hits him with an arrow - though not fatally. When Turnus sees Aeneas falling back, he gets a boost of excitement. He whips his chariot team into action and starts racing through the battle, killing guys left, right, and center. Meanwhile, behind the lines, Aeneas is being treated by the healer Iapyx, who was taught the art by Apollo. But Iapyx isn't having any success; he can't get the arrowhead out. Then, without anyone seeing her, the goddess Venus comes down with a special plant, called dittany, which she picked from Mount Ida in Crete. She mixes the essence of this plant, along with some other nifty stuff (like ambrosia - the food of the gods), in the water Iapyx is using the wash the wound. In no time, Aeneas is completely healed, and the arrowhead comes out easily. Then, Iapyx calls people to get Aeneas his armor and send him back to battle. Once he has got his armor on, Aeneas turns to Ascanius and says, "Watch me in this fight. You'll learn how things get done." Then he leads the Trojans in a counterattack; they kill many of their enemies. Not liking this one bit, Juturna knocks Turnus's charioteer, Metiscus, onto the ground. Then she takes his form and starts driving Turnus erratically over the battlefield, keeping him out of Aeneas's reach. Aeneas keeps up as best he can. But then Aeneas gets distracted by other Italian soldiers. For the next little while, both Aeneas and Turnus rage in their own corners of the battlefield, each killing many opponents. Then Venus gives Aeneas an idea. Taking a stand on a hilltop overlooking the city, Aeneas announces to his captains that the time has come to level the Latins' home - unless they surrender immediately. The Trojans start attacking the city. Seeing from her window how the ramparts are being besieged, Amata thinks that Turnus must be dead. In grief, she hangs herself with cloth torn from her robe. Lavinia, learning of her mother's grief, laments loudly, as does King Latinus, who covers his head in filth. Turnus hears the commotion from the city. Juturna, still disguised as his charioteer Metiscus, tries to convince him to keep killing Trojans on the periphery, but Turnus recognizes her and refuses. After having lost so many friends in battle, he can't bear the destruction of the city to top it off. Death does not frighten him; he must go to face Aeneas! At just that moment, word comes to Turnus of the dire straits of the city - and of the death of Amata. Now he is firmly decided. He goes to face Aeneas, knowing he will die. When Aeneas hears that Turnus is coming, he stops attacking the city and goes to meet him. A space is cleared for them to fight, and in no time they are throwing spears at each other. Then they fight with swords. While they are fighting, Jupiter raises a scale. In it, he places each man's destiny; whosever's sinks toward the ground will die. Meanwhile, Turnus gives Aeneas a mighty blow with his sword - but the blade shatters on impact. It turns out that Turnus was using Metiscus's sword, instead of his own. It was no match for Aeneas's divine armor. Then Turnus turns tail and runs. (The puns just keep flowing.) The problem is, he's hemmed in - by the Trojans, by the city walls, and by an inconveniently located marsh. As he runs, he calls out to his men to get him his sword, but Aeneas tells them not to - threatening to destroy their city if they help Turnus. Eventually, Aeneas approaches the olive tree stump where his spear earlier stuck fast. Seeing him, Turnus prays to the local divinities to prevent Aeneas from being able to pull it out. The gods hear him, and Aeneas is unable to remove it. Meanwhile, Juturna, disguised as Metiscus again, runs up to Turnus and gives him back his sword. Venus doesn't like this, so she comes and pulls the spear out of the tree. She gives it to Aeneas. Up in the heavens, Jupiter tells Juno that the end has come. He forbids her to interfere with Aeneas any more. Juno says, "Fine. But promise me that, after Lavinia and Aeneas marry and join their peoples, the Latins won't have to change their name." Jupiter says, "No biggie. Latin will stay Latin. The Trojans will join with them, not the other way around." Then Jupiter sends down one of the Furies to stop Juturna's meddling. It changes itself into a bird and starts flapping around Turnus, annoying him. Juturna realizes what it is, and withdraws from the fight. Now Aeneas stands face to face with Turnus. They exchange hostile words. Then Turnus picks up a huge rock to throw at Aeneas, but he isn't strong enough, and it falls short. Now Aeneas throws his spear; it punctures Turnus's shield and stabs him in the thigh. Turnus falls to the ground. He asks Aeneas to spare his life so he can see his father again; he relinquishes his claim to Lavinia. Aeneas is debating with himself what to do, when he sees on Turnus shoulder the belt he stole from the dead body of Pallas. Becoming enraged, Aeneas shouts out that Pallas is now taking his revenge. With that, he stabs Turnus, killing him. With a groan, Turnus's outraged soul flutters down to the underworld.

The Odyssey: Book XXIV

In the meantime, Hermes is leading the suitors' ghosts to the Underworld. There, the shades of Achilleus and Agamemnon exchange their stories about the Trojan War. Actually, Achilleus talks about the Trojan war, while Agamemnon is still rattling on about getting killed by his unfaithful wife and her lover. Get over it already, man! When they see the suitors' shades entering, Agamemnon asks why they are here. We get a three minute version of everything we've just read, courtesy of a suitor named Amphimedon, who amazingly blames everything on Penelope. Agamemnon rejoices for Odysseus, happy that the man has such a faithful wife. Unlike his own. Back in the land of the living, Odysseus reaches Laertes's garden lands; he sends Telemachos and the herdsmen up to the hut to prepare a good meal. Odysseus finds his father alone, ragged, and plowing the land dejectedly. He decides to test him to see if he is still loyal. We would expect nothing less from Odysseus at this point. Odysseus insults Laertes's appearance and then says his name is Quarrelman and he once housed Odysseus on his journey home. Laertes is grateful to the man for helping his son, but doesn't believe Odysseus is back. He obviously fell for the story that the screams of agony coming from the palace were mere wedding noises. Finally, Odysseus gives up the ruse and throws his arms around his father, confessing who he really is. Laertes... still doesn't believe him. He wants proof. Odysseus shows him his thigh scar. Their reunion is very emotional. They go back to the farmhouse where the other men have prepared a meal. Laertes is joyous and Athene makes him look young again. Meanwhile, in town, people have heard about the massive slaughter of yesterday in Odysseus's hall, so apparently that brilliant wedding cover-up didn't work at all. Eupeithes clamors for revenge before a council and is approved. Odysseus's friends—Phemios, Medon, and Halitherses—tell the council that the gods are on Odysseus's side and warn the townspeople not to spill blood over this. But Eupeithes, an old man who, it turns out, is the late Antinoös's father, wants Odysseus to die. In the heavens, Athene approaches Zeus to ask whether it is his will that blood be shed in revenge. Zeus basically shrugs and says that peace can only come about by mutual contract and agreement. In other words, the people have to accept Odysseus as king. Instead, they march to Laertes's land, armed to kill Odysseus. Odysseus's friends are ready to fight, and Laertes actually manages to kill Eupeithes with a spear right in the helmet. Athene shouts for the skirmish to end and the people stop, scared by the goddess who apparently got past her desire for blood and vengeance and now is all about peace. She orders Odysseus to stop the battle or Zeus will be angry, leading us to believe she didn't really listen to Zeus's words at all. Ugh, FINE. Odysseus stops, both parties swear to peace with Athene as their witness, and Ithaka is finally back to normal.

The Qu'ran: Purity [of Faith]

Intro notes from text: Described by Mohammed as 1/3 of the Qu'ran (because its highly condensed verses on the unity of God encapsulated the very core of Islam) Meccan sura: The Oneness _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

The Qu'ran: The Opening

Introduction notes: 1st sura; AKA "The Mother of the Book" Meccan surah: The first four verses praise God and use God's personal name, AR-Rahman. The fifth verse affirms the oneness of God in Islam and asks for his aid. There are differing interpretations for verses 6 and 7. The phrase "the Path journeyed by those upon whom You showered blessings" is usually seen as referring to Muslims. The phrase "those who made themselves liable to criminal cognizance/arrest" (more clearly translated as "those who have incurred Your wrath") is usually seen as referring to the Jews and the phrase "those who are the neglectful wanderers" (more clearly translated as "those who have gone astray") is seen as referring to the Christians.The Quran: An Encyclopedia, authored by 43 Muslim and non-Muslim academics says, "The Prophet interpreted those who incurred God's wrath as the Jews and the misguided as the Christians". Other commentators suggest that these verses do not refer to any particular religious community

Medea: Characters

Medea- Jason's first wife, kills Jason, the princess and her own children Jason- Medea's husband, marries the princess Creon- King of Corinth and father of Jason's new bride Nurse- sets the stage, afraid Medea will do something drastic, curses Jason, worried for boys Tutor- with the boys a lot, very cynical Aegeus- agrees to host Medea in Athens when she is banished from Corinth Servant- Tells Medea of the princess's death Corinthian- Women Chorus Princess of Corinth- Jason's new bride

The Odyssey: Book VI

Meanwhile, Athene enters the city where Odysseus has crash-landed and heads to the bedroom of the beautiful princess Nausikaa. Taking the form of the princess's friend, the goddess enters Nausikaa's dream and explains that, while the single life is nice, it's time for her to think about marriage. She urges the princess to go to the streams and wash her wedding linens. In the morning, young Nausikaa asks her father to borrow the car—i.e., mule-cart—to take her laundry to the streams. When her party gets to the streams, they wash their clothes and play around on the shore. Nausikaa is so beautiful that she looks like the goddess Artemis. The girls' shouting wakes Odysseus and he gets up to see who it is. Did we mention he's naked? (Well, he covers the naughty bits with an olive branch.) Everyone scatters at the sight of the big, scary, nearly-naked man. Everyone except Nausikaa, who stays because Athene gives her courage. Odysseus considers whether he should fall and hug her knees or use his eloquent speech to convince her that he needs some help. They don't call him "cunning" for nothing: Odysseus decides that a big naked man hugging a pretty virgin's knees is probably the wrong way to go, and so he uses his eloquent speech instead. He praises her beauty, tells her his situation, and effectively begs for her aid. Nausikaa is touched by his story and wants to be of service. She calls her maids out of hiding to help him bathe. (What?) Odysseus, always the gentleman, begs to bathe alone—he doesn't want to offend the young girls by letting them see him naked. Teehee. If this is what he looked like, we bet a few of those maids would have been glad to volunteer. When he's done, he puts on some clothes that the princess gave him and Athene plays up his good looks. Now might be a good time to try the knee-hugging approach, because Nausikaa is in l-o-v-e. She tells her maids that she wants a man who looks like Odysseus for a husband. The princess gives Odysseus directions to the palace, where he can meet the rest of the Phaiakians. Wait a minute... Phaiakians...on the island of Scheria...this sounds familiar. Oh, right, Zeus predicted it. She rambles on a bit about her people, who are apparently terrible archers and great at building ships, a particularly juicy tidbit for a stranded man with no possessions who's trying to sail back home to his family. Once she's done dropping unintentional hints, the princess tells Odysseus to follow her train of accompanying servant-folk into town and ignore the crude remarks of the seamen they will pass on the way. Once they get to town, she says, he should hang out in the garden while she goes inside. Then, when the time is right, he should come inside, find her mother the Queen, and hug her knees while he begs for mercy. Apparently everything depends on the Queen's opinion. If he can get her on his side, he's all set for hospitality and help in this country. Now that Nausikaa has laid out the plans, everyone follows them. While Odysseus waits in the gardens, he prays to Athene for luck. Athene hears him.

Oedipus the King: Characters

Oedipus- King of Thebes A Priest- A Priest of Zeus Kreon- Brother of Jokasta, second heir to throne A Chorus- Representing the Theban citizens and their leader Tiresias- Blind prophet that knows all Jokasta- Queen, wife and mother of Oedipus A Messenger- A messenger from Corinth A Shepherd- Knows the truth about Oedipus' parents Messenger #2- From inside the palace Antigone, Ismene- Daughters of Oedipus and Jocasta, half-sisters of Oedipus Guards and Attendants- Just regular Priests of Thebes- Priests of Thebes

The Qu'ran: Jonah

Shows intertwining with Judeo-Christian faiths Meccan surah: Jonah recaps the stories of Noah, Jonah, and Moses. It also contrasts believers and nonbelievers _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Special Note:

Summaries and other details have been collected from a variety of sources. Please use this to supplement in class reading rather than to replace. Spellings vary from translation to translation and may differ from your text. Also, blanks are given so this can be adapted to classes in the future and students can personalize notes on author, history, and class discussion.

The Epic of Gilgamesh: Tablet VII

Tablet 7 begins in the middle of Enkidu's dream—the dream he began telling Gilgamesh at the end of Tablet 6. In Enkidu's dream, the gods Anu, Enlil, and Shamash are confabbing. Anu says that, because Gilgamesh and Enkidu killed the Bull of Heaven and Humbaba, whichever one of them chopped down the biggest tree in the Cedar Forest must die. Enlil thinks Enkidu should be the one to get the axe this time. But Shamash sticks up for the two friends, saying that they killed the Bull of Heaven and Humbaba on his orders. (Is this true?) So, Enkidu is innocent. Enlil isn't too happy about this; he blames Shamash for having supported Gilgamesh and Enkidu on their quest. And then Enkidu wakes up. When he hears about this horrible nightmare, Gilgamesh starts crying. He can't understand why the gods are sparing him and condemning Enkidu to die. At this point, Enkidu—who also can't believe that he must die—calls out to the god Enlil and says that he didn't chop down the greatest tree in the Cedar Forest. (Really?) Now Enkidu starts losing it. First he curses the Cedar Door, blaming it for his misfortunes. (This is the door he made out of the cedar he chopped down in Humbaba's forest—check out the end of Tablet 5 to jog your memory.) Gilgamesh tells his friend to cut out the crazy talk. He says that he will pray to Enlil on his behalf. He also promises to have his craftsmen make a statue of Enkidu out of gold. (Is this supposed to help in some way?) The next morning, however, Enkidu is still sputtering curses. This time, he calls on the god Shamash to curse the trapper. (Remember him? We met him back in Tablet 1; he was the one who first spotted Enkidu at the watering-hole, and set in motion the chain of events that made the wild-man join the human world.) Next on the docket for Enkidu's curses is Shamhat, the temple-servant who first initiated him into the world of human sexuality. Enkidu's curses against her are especially cruel: he hopes that she will end up as a poor prostitute of the streets. Shamash isn't happy about all this cursing. He tells Enkidu to stop blaming Shamhat—has he forgotten how she took him out of the wilderness, and fed and clothed him? Besides, says Shamash, if it wasn't for Shamhat, Enkidu would never have met Gilgamesh, his best friend. Once Enkidu is dead, Gilgamesh will always keep the statue of his friend beside himself and make all the people of the land worship it. He also makes a mysterious prediction. Shamash says that once Enkidu is dead Gilgamesh's grief will make him "don the skin of a lion and roam the wilderness" (7.136-137). Enkidu is so convinced by Shamash's words that he starts blessing Shamhat instead of cursing her. He prays that no man will be able to resist her, and that her lovers will seriously make it rain with their gifts. But he's still pretty bummed out. He tells Gilgamesh about another crazy dream he had the night before. In this dream, a lion-headed eagle attacked him and overpowered him. He called out to Gilgamesh, but Gilgamesh was too afraid to help him. Then things got weirder. The lion-headed eagle turned Enkidu into a dove and took him down to the underworld, where people were sitting around in darkness drinking dirt and eating clay. People who had been great rulers on earth were now reduced to slaves of the gods. Enkidu finishes telling Gilgamesh about his dream. He reminds him of all they've been through together, and asks that Gilgamesh not forget him. Gilgamesh is frightened by Enkidu's dream. Enkidu lies sick in bed for twelve days. On the final day, he cries out to Gilgamesh, accusing his friend of having abandoned him. Finally, Enkidu dies with Gilgamesh at his side. Gilgamesh promises to mourn for his friend.

The Odyssey: Book XVI

Telemachos arrives to find Eumaios chatting with a beggar. Eumaios jumps up to greet Telemachos enthusiastically; it is obvious that he loves him like a son. Eumaios introduces the beggar to Telemachos and asks if he'll look after the old man. Telemachos laments that his house is being intruded on, but offers the beggar clothing and food and further permission to stay with Eumaios. He worries aloud that he isn't trained in arms and will likely do a lousy job of ousting the suitors. (Plus, he's sort of outnumbered.) Odysseus/the beggar pumps his son up. He urges Telemachos to seek the aid of his brothers in ousting the suitors. Even if the odds are stacked against him, it's better to die in glorious battle than to be beaten by all these suitors. Telemachos says he has no brothers and no chance against the suitors, who are some of the toughest men in the land. He sends Eumaios to Penelope with the news that he has returned, but warns the swineherd not to let the suitors hear. When Eumaios asks if he let Laertes know, Telemachos tells him to let Eurykleia the nurse tell him instead. (Keep this in mind.) At this point, Odysseus spots Athene outside and goes to her. Telemachos can't see her, which could possibly make for some comic relief. She tells Odysseus to reveal himself to Telemachos and removes his disguise with her wand. Telemachos is blown away by the staggering transformation and assumes that Odysseus must be a god. (Well, all the ladies seem to like him.) While Telemachos is all overcome by wonder and happiness, Odysseus berates him for not taking the news more like a man. After the hugging and the tears, the father and son plot to defeat the suitors. Based on Telemachos's information, there are over one hundred of them. Hm. These are some mighty high odds. Telemachos despairs, but Odysseus tells him to have faith—after all, the gods are on their side. (Well, most of the gods.) Odysseus outlines the plan: tomorrow, Athene will disguise him as a beggar. He'll head to the royal hall to distract the suitors while Telemachos locks their weapons up in another room. Odysseus has set aside only two swords, spears, and shields for their own use. Other than that, they're trusting in the gods to assist them. He also warns Telemachos not to let anyone else know that he has returned. The pair agrees to question the female servants of the household to discover which ones are loyal to their cause. Then they send a runner to the Queen to say Telemachos has returned. This not so smart for two reasons: one, they already sent Eumaios to do just that; and two, this runner shouts the news aloud so that everyone, including the suitors, hears. Twenty minutes later, Eumaios tells the queen in private that her son has returned, and she's all, "No kidding." Back at the royal hall, the seabound suitors return to their friends, all bummed that they've failed to ambush and kill Telemachos. Antinoös urges the suitors to act fast. Now that everyone knows they've tried to kill Telemachos, they might as well strike the first blow. Another (and more prudent) suitor named Amphinomos isn't quite so trigger-happy: he advises them to pray to the gods to see if they are favored. The others agree. Meanwhile, Medon, our favorite town crier, has overheard the suitors' plans yet again and brings the info to Penelope. She confronts the suitors and accuses them of trying to kill her son. Eurymachos is all, "Who, us? Never!" and the Queen, who is helpless because she is a woman, goes upstairs. Back at the hut, Athene disguises Odysseus just as Eumaios returns. He delivers the news that a crier ruined their secrecy and that he spotted an unknown ship coming to Ithaka. (It's implied that this is the ship of the unsuccessful ambushing suitors.) Odysseus and Telemachos aren't fazed. They tuck into a good dinner and go to sleep

The Odyssey: Book II

Telemachos calls a meeting of all the Ithakan men, which includes the suitors. Lord Aigyptios (not to be confused with Aigisthos, the man whose murder the gods were earlier discussing), want to know why. After all, there haven't been any meetings since Odysseus left. Considering it's been almost twenty years, we're thinking these Ithakans aren't exactly bureaucratic go-getters. Telemachos grouses for a bit about the suitors who have invaded his house, eaten his food, drunk his wine, and tried to get with his mom. Nobody dares challenge his righteous anger except Antinoös, the would-be-king we met earlier. He blames Penelope herself for deceiving the suitors. How so? Let us (him) explain: When Odysseus didn't come, Penelope devised a plan to delay having to marry one of these suitors. (Note: Because she was a queen, Penelope would have been expected to marry after her husband died. Part of her duty is making sure that her people have a king.) To stall, she said she wouldn't marry until she'd finished weaving a funeral shroud for Laertes, Odysseus's father. Now, weaving is slow, but it's not that slow. Luckily, Penelope had a trick up her sleeve: she wove all day, and then unraveled all her work at night. No one could figure out why the shroud never grew, until a maid blabbed on her. (Off with her head, right?) Oh, BTW—Laertes isn't even dead. Penelope is just a real go-getter. Finished with his Penelope story, Antinoös issues an ultimatum: Telemachos either need to get rid of Penelope (we're not exactly sure how that would work) or make her choose a suitor for a husband. Again, we're not exactly sure how that would work. Telemachos refuses to oust his mother from the house and is likely on the verge of refusing the second option when Zeus intervenes by sending two eagles to attack the people of the city. Halitherses, an augur whose job it is to read portentous signs, reads the portentous sign: conveniently, it's an omen that Odysseus will return home. (Don't ask us how he knew that.) Another suitor Eurymachos just laughs and declares that Odysseus is dead. He tells Telemachos that the suitors aren't afraid of him or his stupid signs. Bad move, man. But Telemachos is done arguing; he's sailing for Pylos to hear news of his father. Mentor, an old friend of Odysseus's, speaks up. (If you look up "mentor" in the dictionary, you'll see this guy's picture. Seriously. We only have the word "mentor" in English because it's this guy's name) Anyway, Mentor announces how sickening it is that the community at large has not risen to speak against the suitors. Hoorah! Surely all will be incited to action! Sadly, no. Another townsman quickly hushes Mentor, so the crowd does nothing. The meeting is over. Telemachos prays to the god who visited him last night, whoever it was. Athene, nearby, hears his prayer and descends in the guise of Mentor. He/she tells Telemachos to prepare provisions for the journey and promises to find a ship. When Telemachos goes home, the suitors mock him. But Telemachos confidently tells Eurykleia to prepare provisions and to keep this whole trip on the down-low—especially from Penelope. Athene, to mix things up a bit, disguises herself as Telemachos while roaming about town and gathering up some good-hearted men to come along as crew for the ship, which she procures from the luxury shipyard run by Noëmon. Disguised as Mentor, she tells Telemachos that his ride is ready. Telemachos leaves immediately, taking with him a group of trusted men and of course Athene/Mentor as well, who is a very convenient travel companion. (S/he brings the best snacks and always pays for gas.)

The Odyssey: Book XVII

Telemachos wakes up and wants to go check on his mom. He leaves orders that Eumaios is to bring "the beggar" to town during the day so that he can beg for food. Back in the great hall, Penelope is ecstatic to see her son alive. She asks him for news of Odysseus, but Telemachos tells her to be patient. Telemachos, who seems awfully bossy, orders her to go bathe, change her clothes, and pray that Zeus will help them with their revenge against the suitors. Meanwhile, he has to take care of a passenger who unexpectedly sailed with him yesterday. Telemachos quickly spots Odysseus's loyal friends—Mentor (the real one this time), Antiphos, and Halitherses—and goes off to consult with them. Periaios brings Theoklymenos (the cousin-murderer) to Telemachos and asks the prince to send some maids so that they can get Menelaos's gifts into the house. Um, let's wait until the suitors are gone, says Telemachos. The men eat while Penelope weaves and asks (again) for news of Odysseus. Telemachos tells her about his visit with Menelaos and then mentions that Odysseus was last seen alive on the island of Kalypso. Theoklymenos interrupts and tells Penelope about the sign he interpreted for Telemachos the day before—the sign which prophecies that Odysseus is in fact already back in Ithaka and plotting revenge. But Penelope doesn't believe it. (Phew. That was a close one!) Medon calls the suitors (who are playing sports and engaging in other manly pursuits—real sports, not NHL for Xbox 360) to come in for dinner. Meanwhile, Odysseus and Eumaios head into town. Eventually, the pair runs into Melanthios the annoying goatherd. He mocks and abuses the beggar, but Odysseus doesn't respond. He just prays (aloud) to the gods that Melanthios gets what he deserves. Given what we've seen so far, we're about 99% sure this will in fact happen. When they reach the hall, Eumaios goes in first. But when the disguised Odysseus speaks, an old dog sitting on a dung heap nearby pricks his ears up and tries to wag his tail. Odysseus recognizes him as Argos, the hound that he trained as a puppy but never had the chance to take hunting before he left for Troy. Now poor Argos is old and mistreated by everyone, which is super sad. Odysseus sheds a tear for the poor condition of his favorite dog and asks about the animal. Eumaios says that the animal was swift, strong, and courageous in his prime, but now he's just abused by everyone. As the men enter the hall, Argos breathes his last breath and dies happy, having recognized and seen his master after twenty years. Is someone cutting onions in here? Eumaios grabs a spare bench and seats himself across from Telemachos while the disguised Odysseus enters the hall. Telemachos, who has to pretend he doesn't know this guy, gives the beggar a generous hunk of bread and meat and tells him not to be shy in asking for food. Odysseus goes down the line, begging food from each man. With this strategy, he learns who goes on the good list and who on the naughty list. This would be a great way to decide who lives and who perishes, if Athene didn't command that everyone has to die, which she does. Everyone gives Odysseus something until Melanthios recognizes him as the same old beggar from before and insults the man. After hearing this, Antinoös turns on Eumaios and lectures him for bringing a beggar to the hall. Telemachos stops Eumaios from his angry reply, but only so he can insult Antinoös himself. He commands the suitor to give the beggar some bread. Instead, Antinoös threatens to throw a footstool at the man. But beggar Odysseus ignores him. After he has begged and received from everyone else, Odysseus calls on Antinoös to give something. He begins by telling him a false sob story of how he was a rich man once and had the misfortune to sail to Egypt. Antinoös interrupts with a refusal to feed him. Gee, beggar Odysseus says, it's a shame that Antinoös looks so much more lordly than he is. Zing! Enraged, Antinoös throws a footstool at the beggar (in his defense, he did give fair warning) and clips him on the shoulder. Odysseus doesn't even wince, but everyone else is embarrassed by Antinoös's bad manners. Upstairs, Penelope hears all the noise and can tell that Antinoös is causing trouble again. She sends her maid to fetch the beggar to her for questioning—she wants to ask him for any news on Odysseus. But the beggar says that he'll meet with the Queen later tonight; he wants to avoid any suspicion from the suitors. Penelope is bummed at first, but she quickly realizes that this is a clever beggar.

Oedipus the King: Class Quiz

The author of Oedipus was the first to introduce third actor to the stage of Greek theater. (? not sure if this was the answer she wanted) According to the play, why is Thebes being punished? because Laius's death has not been avenged Tieresiasis has what handicap? Blindness What is the translation of the word Oedipus? Swollen foot What prophecy is given to Oedipus at the beginning of the play? he will marry/bed his mother & kill his father Despite the various terms Oedipus calls Creon throughout the play, what is the specific relationship between Creon and Oedipus in today's terminology? Creon is his uncle & his brother-in-law Specifically, what is the method of Jokasta's death? she hangs herself Oedipus fears his daughters will never marry. Jokasta says, "In their very dreams, too, many men have slept with their mothers." Who wrote Oedipus? Sophocles

Medea: Summary

The editor starts by giving us the setting and some back story. It is midmorning outside of Jason's house in Corinth. Ten years ago, Jason sailed home with his Argonauts, triumphantly baring the Golden Fleece. Jason also brought back an Asian bride, Medea. Since their return, Jason and Medea have been living happily in Corinth, raising their children. Unfortunately, the happy time is over, because Jason has now married a new bride: the daughter of Creon, King of Corinth. OK, enough from the editor, on to the play. Prologue: The old Nurse enters from the house. She's having a freak out. She laments the fact that the Argo, Jason's ship, was ever built. The Nurse cries that she wishes the adventurer had never come for the Golden Fleece, because then her mistress, Medea, would never have helped him get it and would never have fallen in love with the bastard in the process. The old lady talks about how Jason and Medea's seemingly perfectly marriage has turned foul. Jason has now married Creon's fresh young daughter. According to the Nurse, Medea has been having a major freak out of her own. Ever since she heard of Jason's betrayal she's been inconsolable. The Nurse says that her mistress keeps cursing the fact that she ever turned on her own father to help Jason get the Golden Fleece. Medea gave up her home and family for Jason, and now he's gone and dissed her in the worst way possible. The grieving Medea apparently now even hates her own sons by Jason. The old lady is really afraid that her mistress is going to do something drastic, because Medea is a fierce and vengeful woman. A Tutor enters, with Jason and Medea's two sons. "What's wrong with you?" the Tutor asks the Nurse. The Nurse says she's bummed about Medea's situation. The Tutor says that Medea's situation is even worse than she thinks. Creon is planning to give both Medea and her sons the boot. The Nurse replies that Jason would never let his sons be treated like that, even if he doesn't like Medea anymore. Don't be so sure about that, says the Tutor. The Nurse curses Jason, saying he's an enemy to those he's loved. "Isn't everybody?" replies the Tutor. He thinks all human beings are only worried about themselves. The old lady tells the Tutor to take the kids and keep them away from Medea. She knows her mistress is plotting something and doesn't want the boys to get caught in the crossfire. From inside the house, we hear a long tortured moan from Medea. She cries out that she wishes she were dead. Fearfully, the Nurse rushes the Tutor and the boys away. We hear Medea curse her sons, Jason, and herself. She says that their whole family is doomed. The Nurse doesn't understand why Medea is cursing the sons. How is any of this their fault? The old lady says that she's glad she's not royalty, because they're often punished for being overreaching. Parodos (Entry Song) The Chorus enters. It's a group of Corinthian women. They're upset about all the drama going on. The Nurse agrees that it's a bad situation. They hear Medea praying for lightning to strike her. The Chorus sings that it's foolish to want to die just because your husband is leaving you. Medea cries to Artemis, guardian goddess of women, to bring the palace of Jason's new bride to ruins. The Nurse hopes that Medea's grief will soon fade. Bring Medea out here, the Chorus says to the Nurse. They want to try and talk some sense into her. Medea finally gets on stage. She tells the Chorus that she doesn't want them to think she's snobby for hiding out in the house all day. My life has lost all meaning now that Jason has deserted me, says Medea. She goes on to observe that women are treated like the lowest form of life on Earth, and lists some reasons why. For starters, women's families have to pay huge dowries just to get a man to marry them. The women, who rarely have a say in the matter, have to hope against hope that their husband is a nice guy. If the husband is a jerk, women are kind of trapped because divorce always makes them look bad instead of the men. When men get bored with the marriage, they just go traveling or hang out with their buddies. Women, however, have to stay at home, and are mostly only allowed to talk to their husbands. Medea thinks childbirth also stinks. She says she'd rather go into battle any day than give birth. Medea tells the Chorus of women, that she has it worse than all of them, because she no longer has a home. She's a foreigner in a strange land and has no one to whom she can turn. She begs the Chorus to not stand in the way of her revenge. Medea observes that most women are scared of war, but when they're "wronged in love, there is no heart more murderous" (1.76). The Leader of the Chorus tells Medea that they won't stand in her way. Creon enters. The King orders Medea to take her sons and get out of Corinth. Medea asks him why she has to go. Creon says he's afraid that she'll kill his daughter. Medea has a reputation as a sorceress and Creon thinks she's plotting to use those skills for revenge. Medea complains that she's always getting discriminated against because she has a little knowledge. She tells Creon that the rumors of her powers are overblown. Medea tries to ease the King, by telling him that she's not mad at him or his daughter. She's just angry at Jason. Creon doesn't buy it, and tells her again to hit the road. Medea pleads with him on her knees. The King threatens to have her thrown out forcefully. She begs him to let her stay just for the day. There are travel arrangements to be made, and she has to prepare her sons. Creon takes a little pity on the sons, and tells Medea that she has until tomorrow to get out of town. If she's still around tomorrow, though, she will be executed. Creon exits. The concerned Chorus asks Medea what she plans to do now, since she has nowhere to go. Medea tells them not to worry, she's got a little something in mind for Jason and his young princess. She chastises the Chorus, saying she never would have kissed up to Creon if there wasn't something to gain from it. Medea declares that she's going to kill Creon, his daughter, and Jason. She ponders how to kill them. Should she set their house on fire? Perhaps stab the? Bad idea, says Medea. She'll get caught if she does those things. She decides poison is the way to go. Medea realizes that she'd better chill out for a second. If she kills them, no other city will take her in. She decides she'd better postpone her revenge until she has some guaranteed shelter. Medea swears to use her sorcery to bring them down no matter what. First Choral Ode The Chorus sings a song about the trials of women over the years. They observe that women are treated so badly, it's like the universe is askew. The women hope that one day their gender will rise to a place of respect that they observe. The Chorus empathizes with Medea, who has been jilted out of her home. Jason enters, quite exasperated. He lectures Medea that it's all her fault that she and the children got banished. If she hadn't gone around cursing Creon and his daughter, they would've been able to stay in Corinth. Jason says that he'll give her some money for her impending journey. She can hate him if she wants, Jason tells her, but he doesn't wish her any harm. Medea goes off on him, calling him a "criminal" (2.28). She tells him just how ungrateful he is, pointing out that she saved his life. Medea says that he never would've gotten the Golden Fleece if it wasn't for her. She helped him with all the tasks required: yoking fire breathing bulls, slaying giant snakes, and tricking the daughters of King Pelias into cutting him up. She chastises him more, saying that she deserted her father and bore him two sons, yet still Jason betrayed her. Medea asks her husband where she's supposed to go. She's made half the world her enemy trying to help him. The jilted woman cries to Zeus, asking him to put outward markings on men indicating just what they're actually made of. The Chorus Leader observes how terrible it is when love turns to hate. Jason tells Medea she's exaggerating about how much she contributed to the Golden Fleece adventure. Anyway, Jason continues, you got way more than you gave. First of all, you now live in Greece, which is way better than the dump in which I found you. Also, you're now famous, and fame is far more valuable than gold. Medea's husband tells her that he's only marrying the princess out of devotion to his family. It's not that he doesn't find Medea attractive anymore or that he wants more children at all. Jason only wants to provide his family with a more stable life by marrying in to royalty. He chastises his wife for being a silly, jealous woman and not thinking of the greater good of the family. Jason concludes his speech by observing that, if men could only have kids on their own, they'd have no need of women and the world would be a better place. The Chorus Leader tells Jason that he had some good points, but that it's just not right to ditch your wife. Medea tells Jason he should've tried to convince her of some of these points, before he snuck off and took a second wife. Jason says he didn't think Medea would be into it. Whatever, says Medea, just admit that you were sick of your aging wife. Her husband says it had nothing to do with lust. He was only concerned for the happiness of his family. Medea curses him Jason gives up and decides to go. He tells Medea that he'll send her and the children anything they want. Medea says she doesn't want anything from him. Jason tells her all her misery is her own fault. She lashes back, saying he should just go back to his fresh young virgin. Second Choral Ode The Chorus sings of the dangers of love. They ask Aphrodite, goddess of love, to never make them lust after someone other than their husbands. They also ask that they never be cast out of their homes and country. The Leader sings that no man is her friend who would treat their wife as bad a Jason is treating Medea. Aegeus enters. He greets Medea warmly. She asks him where he's coming from. He says that he's just come from the oracle at Delphi, where he went to ask Apollo why he can't have children. No children, says Medea, aren't you married? Yep, Aegeus tells her, but we haven't had any kids yet. The Oracle gave him advice that he didn't understand, saying that he shouldn't unstopper his wineskin until he gets back home. Aegeus doesn't understand what the prophecy means, so he's swinging through Corinth on his way to see some dude name Pittheus who knows about this kind of stuff. Medea tells him that she hopes everything works out. Aegeus asks Medea what's wrong with her. She tells him all her woes, and begs him to let her come and stay with him in Athens, promising that she'll use her expertise to help him have children. Aegeus is down with this. He tells Medea that she has to get to Athens on her own, though. If he took her with him, he would risk pissing off Creon, and that's something he doesn't want to do. Medea says that he must swear an oath to protect her when she gets to Athens. She's got a lot of enemies out there, and she wants to make sure Aegeus doesn't sell her out. Aegeus agrees and swears on the Earth and the Sun that he'll never drive her from his land. Aegeus exits. The Chorus Leader wishes Medea a good journey to Athens. Medea isn't quite ready to go yet though. Now that she's got somewhere to retreat to, she can carry out her revenge. She lays out her plans. First, she'll convince Jason that's she's now OK with the marriage. Then, she'll beg him to convince Creon to let her sons stay in Corinth. Next, she'll send her sons to the princess with some deadly gifts: a gossamer gown and a golden diadem, both doused in poison. Then, regretfully, she'll have to kill her own sons. After Jason's life and legacy are totally decimated, she'll make her retreat to Athens. Medea declares that no man will ever think she's weak. The Chorus Leader begs Medea to reconsider her bloody plan, especially the part about killing the boys. Medea says there's no use trying to talk her out of it. Killing Jason's sons is way to hurt him the most. The Nurse conveniently enters, and Medea asks her to go get Jason. Third Choral Ode The Chorus sings about how blessed and sacred Athens is. They ask Medea whether she really thinks such a wonderful place will want a lady who killed her own kids hanging around. The Chorus says they don't think Medea is cruel enough to actually kill her sons. Jason enters, with the Nurse. He asks Medea what she wants. Medea tells him that she's come around to his point of view. She sees now that she was being ungrateful, for not realizing that he was only trying to help the family. She calls for the children and urges them to hug their father. All the strife is over. Jason wishes that his sons would hug him like that forever. Medea chokes up a bit at loving sight. Jason cries a bit, too. He praises Medea, telling her he doesn't blame her for acting hysterically before. That's just how women are. Medea cries. Jason asks her what's wrong. She begs him to talk his new wife and Creon into letting the boys stay in Corinth. Jason is pretty sure he can get his new wife to agree. Medea tells him she'll help out by sending his new wife a gossamer gown and a golden diadem. She orders the boys to go inside and bring out the presents. Medea says that these items were treasures from her father. The boys return with the boxes containing the presents. Medea tells them to take the gifts to their stepmother. Jason advises Medea not to bother with the gifts, saying he can convince his new wife with no problem. Medea argues that gold has stronger bargaining power than anything else. She packs Jason and the boys off, telling them to make sure that the new wife touches the items with her own hands. Fourth Choral Ode The Chorus sings of all the terrible things that are about to go down: The boys are doomed. Jason's new bride is doomed. Jason is doomed. Medea will have her revenge. (Insert maniacal super-villain laugh here.) The Tutor enters with the boys and tells Medea the good news: the princess has agreed to let the boys stay in Corinth. Medea emits a wail of pain. The Tutor doesn't get what she's so sad about; he thought he was bringing good news. Medea tells him not to worry about it. She hugs the boys close to her and laments the fact that she won't see them grow up. Suddenly, Medea has a change of heart, telling the Chorus that she'll take the boys away with her instead of killing them. She changes her minds again, saying they must die. Medea goes back and forth a couple more times and finally decides that murdering her sons is necessary. She says that she knows she's doing evil, but that her passionate desire for revenge is stronger than her will. Ads by ZINC Fifth Choral Ode The Chorus sings about the perils of parenthood. They talk about how wearying it is raising a child and how people without offspring are happier overall. They end by recognizing how terrible it is when a full grown child dies and question whether the joys of parenting are worth the potential for grief. A Messenger runs in. Panicked, he tells Medea to run. The Princess and Creon are both dead. Medea is tickled pink and asks the Messenger to tell her every grisly detail The Messenger launches into the story: He talks about how excited all the servants were when the boys showed up. They were all glad that there was peace between Medea and Jason. At first, the princess was all snobby towards them, but then Jason talked her into letting the boys stay. Medea's presents sealed the deal. Jason and the children left the house, thinking everything was cool. The Princess was all about the gifts. She put the gown and diadem on and pranced around the palace looking at herself in the mirror. Then things got ugly. Her skin changed color, her eyeballs bulged, and she started foaming at the mouth. The princess shrieked in pain. The diadem caught fire and the gossamer gown ate away her flesh. Her whole body caught fire and clots of blood dripped from her. She ran around until she finally collapsed with pain. Her flesh dripped from her bones. Then Creon showed up. The King was stricken with grief and grabbed his daughter's flaming body. He caught fire too, and, before you knew it, his flesh was also bubbling from his bones. Before too long two ghastly corpses were lying on the palace floor. The Messenger tells Medea that she'd best have a good escape route. Before taking his leave he observes that there's no such thing as a happy human being. The Chorus Leader says she feels bad for the princess. Now Medea says that it's time to kill her sons. She tells herself that they'd be killed anyway after the assassination. It's better that it be by her hand. Media pushes down her feelings of motherly love and enters the house to murder them. Sixth Choral Ode The Chorus prays to the Sun and the Earth to stop the murders. They ask if there was any point in the boys being born at all and observe that people who kill their own family will be haunted forever. The boys are heard desperately shouting for their lives inside the house. They go silent. The Chorus members lament Medea's heinous actions, and tell a story of another woman who killed her own sons by jumping off a cliff with them in her arms. Jason shows up. He's furious. He asks the Chorus where Medea is. Not that it matters, though, he says, because there's nowhere she can hide after killing Creon and his daughter. Jason says he's worried what Medea might do to their sons. The Chorus agrees that he should be worried. They tell him to open the doors to the house. Jason draws his sword and beats of the doors, trying to open them. A great rumbling is heard. Medea appears in the sky with the boys' corpses beside her. She's in a chariot drawn by dragons. (Really, she is.) Medea says her grandfather, the Sun, (yes, the actual Sun) gave her the dragon chariot to protect her from enemies. Jason heaps curses on Medea. He shouts that a Greek wife never would've been so cruel. He should've known better than to marry a foreigner. Medea tells him he can say whatever he likes. She's won, by hurting him to the core. Jason yells that she's hurt herself, too, by killing her own sons. She retorts that it was worth it and tells Jason that the whole thing is his fault, because he married another woman. Jason replies that her crime is far worse, and that he knows the children will live on in Medea's guilty mind. Medea says, enough of you. I'm going to take off on my dragon chariot now. Jason begs her to leave him the boys' bodies so that he can bury them. Nope, says Medea, I'm going to place their bodies in a temple to Hera, where no one will violate the bodies. Medea adds that she's going to start a festival in Corinth in honor of the boys. She tells Jason that she's off to Athens now, where she'll find sanctuary. Jason pleads to touch his children's flesh one last time. Medea refuses. Jason curses Medea a couple more times and cries that he wishes his children had never been born. Medea flies away. Envoi The Chorus concludes the play by recognizing how unpredictable the will of the gods is.

The Odyssey: Book I

The poet invokes the Muse to help him tell the story of Odysseus. How original. We learn that Poseidon, god of the sea, holds a grudge (though we don't know exactly why) against Odysseus and is making the guy's voyage home a pretty difficult. This tells us two very important things: (1) Greek gods are temperamental, and (2) Poseidon is a powerful guy. So Poseidon isn't around on Mount Olympos (presumably because he's busy getting sweet revenge), while the other gods discuss the fact that this one guy Orestes murdered this other guy Aigisthos. Zeus, king of the gods and playa-extraordinaire, says that Aigisthos totally deserved it because he had a long affair with Agamemnon's wife while he was away at Troy and then killed Agamemnon upon returning home. Turns out Aigisthos had been warned by Hermes (the messenger of the gods) not to do this. In fact, Hermes pretty much explicitly said, "If you touch this guy's wife and then kill him, then Orestes is going to pop a cap in you." And still Aigisthos ignored the advice. Plus, because Orestes is Agamemnon's son, he was only avenging his father by killing Aigisthos. The Greeks were pretty serious about the whole avenging-the-father thing. Let's just call it "justifiable homicide" in the eyes of the gods. Athene, who clearly doesn't give a crab's apple about Orestes, decides Zeus should be thinking less about him and more about her all time favorite mortal, Odysseus. So she asks for Zeus (who is her father, by the way) to have mercy on her favorite captain, who's has been trying to get home now for something around ten years—in addition to the ten years he was away fighting the Trojan War. Zeus claims that hasn't forgotten Odysseus's plight, though we all know he's just making excuses. Zeus reveals a little more of the Poseidon grudge story: the god is angry with Odysseus because the mortal poked out the eye of Polyphemos, Poseidon's son. Zeus comments that Poseidon will need to stop pouting at some point and get over himself already, since all the other gods like Odysseus so much. We learn that Odysseus at this very moment is being held captive by a nymph named Kalypso. Sex captive. Athene wants to send the gods' messenger Hermes to go tell Kalypso that she really needs to let Odysseus go (you know, so he can get back to his wife and child and all). Zeus, to remind everyone that HE'S THE BOSS, decides not to send Hermes. Yet. But Athene, reminding everyone that in fact, she's the boss, goes to Ithaka disguised as Mentes, a family friend of Odysseus's and the ruler of the Taphians. Oh, and also a man. Which brings us to Ithaka, where a bevy of suitors is milling about (for reasons which will be soon disclosed). Once Mentes/Athene arrives, these suitors do what they do best, namely lounge around lazily. Odysseus's son Telemachos, very clearly neither lazy nor a suitor, gets up hastily to welcome his guest. He even prepares a banquet in Mentes's honor. Historical Context Note: Hospitality (called xenia)was a big deal in the ancient world. When guests showed up, they were expected to be good guests (bring gifts and behave themselves). Likewise, the hosts were expected to, well, be good hosts (provide food and shelter). Just keep in mind that breaking these rules was a huge social taboo. And if Miss Manners gets you excited, check out our "Hospitality" theme. So Telemachos apologizes to Mentes for the suitors' rudeness, hints that it would be different if his father were here, and asks who this guest is. The point is, Telemachos didn't know this guest was Mentes (or Athene), yet he still pulled out all the stops to play the good host. Athene responds as Mentes and advises the boy to not give up hope of his father Odysseus coming home. She asks about the suitors and Telemachos replies that he can't make them go away; he wishes Odysseus were here to fend them off. Why? Well, we learn that the suitors are selfishly eating all of the household's food and giving nothing in return while hoping Odysseus's wife Penelope will marry one of them. See, Odysseus has taken so long coming back from the Trojan war they're all convinced he's dead. Also, Penelope is super-attractive, plus her husband would get Ithaka.) Anyway, trying to marry your absent host's wife is a good example of breaking the guest-host bond of good behavior. So Athene advises Telemachos to go to Pylos and talk to Nestor, and then head to Sparta to see King Menelaos, who has red hair. Which apparently matters. And when he's done with this, he should think about how to kill all these suitors, because by then it will probably be about time for some sweet revenge. As Mentes leaves, Telemachos tries to offer him gifts, as well as a bath and bed for the night, but Mentes politely declines. Then, Athene fills Telemachos with a vision of his father. He realizes that he was in the presence of a divine spirit, but he still doesn't know it was Athene. Now it's about time for some music, so Phemios the bard sings about the Trojan War. This is rather an insensitive choice of subject matter, since the elephant in the room is that Odysseus's absence is probably the result of his dying in the Trojan War. Penelope, who obviously agrees with our "insensitive" label, comes down from her room to politely request that he sing another song, preferably not one about her most likely dead husband. Telemachos reproaches his mother and allows Phemios to keep singing. Actually, Telemachos quite rationally explains that it's not the poet's fault Odysseus hasn't come home. Obviously it's Zeus's fault. Besides, lots of other families lost their men in the war, and you don't see them running around crying their heads off. Penelope is struck by Telemachos's wisdom (callousness?) and goes back upstairs to sleep. Take that, mom! Telemachos, flush from victory over his grieving mom and still high with courage from his visit with the divine, tells the suitors that they have to leave at dawn. Antinoös, one of the suitors, protests. He claims that Ithaka needs a king (like maybe ... Telemachos?) and that the suitors are here to provide one. Eurymachos, another suitor, asks who the stranger was and if he brought any news of Odysseus. Telemachos lies and says that the visitor was Mentes and then heads up to bed, where the nurse Eurykleia, who was the servant of Laertes, Odysseus's father, takes care of him. He falls asleep considering Athene's advice.

The Qu'ran: Class Quiz

The word Qu'ran literally means "to recite." One who receives communication directly from God is a prophet. "Submission to God's will" is represented by this word: islam. Which angel helped Muhammad to complete the Qu'ran? Gabriel Specifically and according to the reading assignment, how many years did it take Muhammad to complete the Qu'ran? 23 What is the original language of the Qu'ran? Arabic In "The Feast" this specific animal is named as unclean: pig. How many daily prayers are required in Islam? 5 Name two Islamic prophets from "Joseph" who are also mentioned in the Old Testament: Abraham; Isaac; Jacob (pg 875). Abraham's 1st born: Ishmael.

The Iliad: Book I (The Rage of Achilles)

The poet prays to the Muse, the goddess of poetic inspiration. He wants her to tell him about the rage of Achilleus, and how it hurt the Achaians. He asks her to begin with the fight between Achilleus and Agamemnon. Confused yet? Don't worry. You're supposed to be. What you've just experienced is one of every epic poet's favorite tricks: beginning the story in medias res or "in the middle of things." (In medias res is known to cause dizziness and loss of appetite for stories with less awesome openers. You can learn more about it and Homer's other poetic stylings in "Writing Style.") Still, to be fair, Homer's Ancient Greek audience would have known a lot of background info that you might not, so let's take a moment to bring you up to speed. In other words, we hope you brought your rain jacket - because we're about to take a Journey Through The Mists Of Time! Did we say Ancient Greek? We did. But you're not going to hear it all that often. That's because, even though the Iliad is over 2,000 years old, the story it tells is even older. Way back in the Bronze Age, when the Iliad takes place, people went by the names of dominant tribes or regions. The most general of these names are Achaians, Danaans, and Argives. To keep things simple, in these summaries we're going to stick to the name Achaians, but the others will turn up in your reading. With these three names, all you have to remember is that they all mean Greeks. Misty enough for you? Don't worry, it'll get clearer. Right now, though, you're probably still wondering about those other names heard earlier - Achilleus and Agamemnon. Who are they? For the moment, all you really need to know is that Agamemnon is the most powerful king of the Achaians, and Achilleus is his best warrior. (More detailed information can be found in our section on "Characters.") Both of them are part of the Achaian army that is making war against Troy, a city in modern Turkey. To understand what this war is all about, you'll have to get filled in on - are you ready for this? - The Backstory. Like many a Backstory, this one has to do with a Boy and a Girl. You know: Boy meets Girl, Boy falls in love with Girl, Boy and Girl run off together. Simple, right? Sort of, except in this case there were complications. (There are always complications.) Here's how it all went down: First of all, the Boy was none other than Paris, Prince of Troy. As for the Girl, whose name was Helen, she just happened to be the most beautiful woman in the world. And she was married to Menelaos, the King of Sparta, who didn't take too kindly to her running off with your standard-issue Trojan heartthrob. To get his wife back, Menelaos turned to his brother, Agamemnon. Agamemnon raised an army and set sail for Troy. Unfortunately, things didn't go as planned. Instead of being greeted as liberators, Agamemnon's army encountered stiff resistance and were forced to settle in for a long siege. That was all nine years before our story begins. The Iliad starts in the tenth year of the war. The point is, now that you know what the "things" are, it's high time we jumped "into the middle of" them! The first scene of the Iliad finds Chryses, the priest of Apollo (god of the sun and a whole lot of other stuff), approaching to Achaian camp to ask for his daughter back. Shortly afterward, we learn that his daughter is being held captive by Agamemnon, who wants to keep her as his personal possession. Ask and ye shall receive, right? Well, sometimes things aren't that simple. Even though the other Achaians say, "Let her go," Agamemnon says, "No way, José." Chryses leaves disappointed. The thing is, being a priest of Apollo, Chryses has another trick up his sleeve - that is, er, robe. He prays to the god to punish the Achaians. Apollo is only too happy to oblige. He comes down from Olympos and shoots at the Achaians with his bow. The arrows from his bow cause disease. The plague rages for nine days. Understandably annoyed, Achilleus calls a meeting on the tenth day. He tells the Achaians that they should either sail home immediately, or get advice from a soothsayer on what to do instead. On cue, the soothsayer Kalchas stands up, but he's afraid to speak his mind in case he angers the powers that be. Achilleus says, "I've got your back." With that reassurance, Kalchas reveals that the plague was caused by Apollo, who was avenging the kidnapping of his priest's daughter. Kalchas tells Agamemnon that he has to give the girl back. The powers that be are now officially angry. Agamemnon starts by cursing out Kalchas. Once that's off his chest he says he'll give up Chryseis - this is the girl's name, which is kind of confusing - but only if he gets something equal in return. Otherwise he'll be dishonored. Achilleus says, "Tough luck. You'll get your payback when we sack Troy. You can't take what's already been given to somebody else." Agamemnon says there's no way he's giving up Chryseis without taking one of the other chieftains' women. That's all it takes to make Achilleus furious. He threatens to quit the Achaian army altogether and go home. He says that the Trojans never did anything to him. If he's attacking Troy, it's only because Agamemnon asked him to, so the leader of the Achaians had better show him some respect. But the leader of the Achaians doesn't appreciate challenges to his authority. He says that he will only give up Chryseis if he can take Achilleus's girl, Briseis. Now Achilleus snaps. Or, almost. He is just wondering whether he should kill Agamemnon, when the goddess Athene comes down from Olympos, invisible to everyone except him. Athene tells Achilleus that she was sent by the goddess Hera, who loves both men equally, and doesn't want either of them to get hurt. She says that, in the future, Achilleus will get paid back thrice over for whatever he suffers now. For the moment, though, he must immediately cease and desist. Achilleus puts his sword back in its scabbard. Frustrated that he can't kill Agamemnon, Achilleus unleashes a merciless flow of disses against him. Achilleus tells Agamemnon that he's had it, he quits. He lets everyone know they'll be sorry they insulted him when they are suffering at the hands of Hektor - the best of the Trojan warriors. At this point, Nestor, the resident old-timer in the Achaian army, stands up and makes a long, rambling speech about how he's the resident old-timer, and how everybody had thicker skin in the old days. Having thus established his street-cred, Nestor tells Agamemnon not to take Achilleus's girl Briseis. Then he tells Achilleus not to stand up to a king. But they don't listen. Agamemnon starts whining about how Achilleus doesn't respect his authority. Achilleus says that Agamemnon deserved everything he got. He says that he will give up Briseis without a fight, but if anybody tries to touch the rest of his stuff, it's curtains. It also happens to be curtains for the meeting, and everyone disperses. Achilleus goes back to his own ship to hang out with his best friend Patroklos. When heralds come from Agamemnon to take Briseis away, Achilleus tells them his quarrel isn't with them. He lets her go. She goes unwillingly. Now Achilleus sits down on the shore and starts crying. He prays to his mother, Thetis, a sea-goddess, to come help him out. She hears him and comes out of the sea. Achilleus tells her what happened, and asks her to put in a request with Zeus, the king of the gods. He wants her to get Zeus to help the Trojans drive the Achaians back against their ships, so that they'll know how much better off they were with Achilleus on their side. Thetis laments because she knows a prophecy that this will set off a chain of events that will make the rest of Achilleus's brief life miserable. All the same, she says that she will speak to Zeus - as soon as the gods get back to Olympos from their twelve-day party with the Aethiopians. In the meantime, Agamemnon sends Chryseis off on a ship to be returned to her father. He puts Odysseus in charge of this expedition. Twelve days later, the gods get back to Olympos, and Thetis goes to see Zeus. She finds him sitting alone on the highest mountain peak. She reminds him how she once helped him out when the other gods tied him up. Even though Zeus is reluctant - he reminds Thetis how his wife Hera is always nagging him about helping out the Trojans - he agrees to Thetis's request. As he predicted, as soon as Zeus walks out among the other gods, Hera starts nagging him. Zeus tells her to be quiet. Hephaistos, the blacksmith god, and the son of Zeus and Hera, tells his mother to make her peace with Zeus. Once things are settled, the gods have a feast. Hephaistos bustles about, serving them. The gods laugh at him because he walks with a limp, and because the Olympian gods are never politically correct.

Troy (Movie) Summary

The story takes place in the fertile, eastern lands bordered by the Mediterranean Sea and kept by the gods. Within the cradle of ancient civilization empires are built, wars fought, alliances forged, and heroes born. Agamemnon (Brian Cox), king of Mycenae, has united most of Greece's kingdoms under his rule and now advances his army upon the nation of Thessaly, hoping to include it in his collection of ever-growing conquests. King Triopas (Julian Glover) bargains with Agamemnon to each let one of their best fighters decide who wins the battle rather than engaging in open war. Triopas calls upon the giant Boagrius (Nathan Jones) while Agamemnon calls to Achilles, but the legendary warrior is nowhere to be found. A messenger boy (Jacob Smith) is sent to fetch him and Agamemnon curses the stubborn nature of the fiercest warrior Greece has ever seen. A half-god and blessed with incomparable strength and skill, Achilles lives to fight but he refuses to associate with Agamemnon, preferring instead to seek his own destiny and be immortalized in history. Achilles easily defeats Boagrius, sealing Agamemnon's control over the nation, and calls out if there is anyone else worthy enough to fight him. Meanwhile, Princes Hector (Eric Bana) and Paris (Orlando Bloom) of Troy feast in the banquet hall of King Menelaus of Sparta (Brendan Gleeson) as honored guests and peace ambassadors to their home nation. However, young Paris sneaks away to be with Menelaus' beautiful wife, Helen (Diane Kruger), whom he loves dearly. He convinces her to come back with him to Troy, stowing her away on his brother's ship. When Hector finds out he is clearly angry but it is too late to return to Sparta with Helen and seek pardon. Finding Helen gone, Menelaus vows revenge on Troy and seeks the approval of his brother, Agamemnon, who is only too happy to oblige, though Agamemnon's decision comes mostly from his desire to sack Troy. Odysseus (Sean Bean), king of Ithaca and under command of Agamemnon, goes to convince Achilles to accompany them in the conquest of Troy. He finds him sparring with his young cousin, Patroclus (Garrett Hedlund), who is more than eager to join in the fighting. But Achilles refuses to go, despite Odysseus' assurance that this war will go down into history. Achilles later seeks advice from his mother, the sea nymph Thetis (Julie Christie), who is gathering shells to make a new necklace for him. She tells him that if he chooses to stay home he will find a wife, raise a family, and die old and loved. If he goes to Troy, he will find his eternal glory and history will remember his name for thousands of years. However, should he go to Troy, he is doomed to die and will never return. Meanwhile, Hector and Paris return to Troy with Helen, greeted warmly by their fellow Trojans. The city is guarded by a high, thick wall that has remained impenetrable since its founding. They meet their father, King Priam (Peter O'Toole), who welcomes Helen and praises her beauty. Hector is reunited with his wife, Andromache (Saffron Burrows), and his infant son. Achilles decides to join Agamemnon's campaign against Troy but brings his own warriors, the Myrmidons, led by Eudorus (Vincent Regan). Patroclus accompanies them as well. The Myrmidons prove to be faster rowers than the Greeks and arrive on the shores of Troy before anyone else, though Achilles tells Patroclus to stay and watch the ship. They take the beach with ease and sack the Temple of Apollo where priestess and cousin of Hector and Paris, Briseis (Rose Byrne), is taken captive. In a defiant move, Achilles decapitates the statue of Apollo. Prince Hector leads an offensive to keep the Greeks at bay and runs into the temple where Achilles confronts him but refuses to fight him. Achilles explains that their fight would be suited best in front of an audience and he allows Hector to leave. Briseis is brought to Achilles' hut as his prize. She berates him for killing priests of Apollo before he is summoned to see Agamemnon who is preparing to celebrate the victory. There, tensions rise as Achilles and the king argue over claims to the victory. Agamemnon goes further by bringing in Briseis, claiming her as his own spoil of war, which drives Achilles into a rage. He threatens to fight for her but she angrily interjects, saying that no one else will die for her. Achilles stays his blade, to the surprise of Agamemnon. Achilles vows that Agamemnon will one day fall under his sword. That night, Priam seeks the advice of his advisors and elders with his sons in attendance, discussing how best to defend against the Greeks. Paris offers an alternative to bloodshed; he will fight Menelaus for Helen's hand. The winner will take her home and the loser will burn before nightfall. Later, Priam speaks with Paris in a courtyard and admits that, in all the wars hes fought for power or land, a war fought for love makes more sense. He gives Paris the Sword of Troy, forged at its founding and containing the history of their nation. He explains that as long as a Trojan wields it there is hope for their people. Hector goes to see his wife and son. She fears for his life and can't imagine living on without him. He comforts her before getting up to see his brother. In the halls, he sees a cloaked figure and gives pursuit to find that it's Helen trying to leave the city. She is remorseful for being the sole reason so many Trojan men died that day but Hector tells her that returning to Menelaus will not end the war and that she is a princess of Troy now. Helen returns to Paris. The next day, Agamemnon's army marches for Troy while Achilles, still seething over his loss of Briseis, watches from a nearby hill with his men. Hector and Paris ride out to meet Agamemnon and Menelaus before battle. Agamemnon demands that the Trojans return Helen to his brother and submit to his rule. Hector bravely rebuffs but Paris offers to fight Menelaus one-on-one, hoping that will settle the dispute. While Agamemnon could care less about returning Helen to his brother, he allows Menelaus the opportunity to issue revenge. The two begin their fight and Menelaus is clearly stronger. Paris is wounded and disarmed but, before Menelaus can deliver a death blow, ducks away and crawls back to his brother. Stunned at his cowardice, Menelaus demands the fight to continue but Hector defends his brother and drives his sword through Menelaus, killing him. Enraged, Agamemnon charges forward with his army. Watching from his hilltop, Achilles can't help but curse under his breath at Agamemnon's inability to keep his ranks in formation. Hector proves to be the more able warrior and overpowers the Greeks with his tactics. One of the strongest Greek warriors, Ajax (Tyler Mane) is felled by Hector. Odysseus advises Agamemnon to fall back before he loses his entire army and the Greeks retreat to the beach where their archers provide defense. With Menelaus dead, the main reason for the assault on Troy is gone and Agamemnon struggles to think of a way to rally the troops to his cause. Odysseus suggests that Agamemnon put his reservations aside and enlist Achilles to fight again. Outside, Briseis is tossed around between Greek soldiers, having been given to them by Agamemnon. Before she can be cruelly branded, Achilles steps in and takes her back to his hut. He gives her a wet cloth to clean with and some food. When she questions why he fights and defies the gods, he shows her a more reflective side to his nature and explains that the gods are jealous of men for their short, mortal lives. As such, everything is more beautiful. Priam consults with his advisors again while Paris laments over his cowardice. Helen assures him that, though Menelaus was a strong warrior, she hated her life with him. She'd rather have someone to love and grow old with than to see him die on the battlefield. Hector advises his father that the Greeks underestimated Trojan strength and that they should not do the same. However, General Glaucus (James Cosmo) wants to strike preemptively and High Priest Archeptolemus (Nigel Terry) claims Troy is favored by the gods, citing bird omens. Despite Hector's warnings to keep behind their walls, Priam favors his advisors and issues an attack before daybreak. As Achilles sleeps that night, Briseis takes a dagger and holds it to his throat. Without opening his eyes, he encourages her to kill him but she hesitates. They realize their feelings for each other and make love. Achilles decides that he's had enough of war and offers to take Briseis away from Troy. Afterwards, he speaks with Eudorus and tells him that they will go home. Hearing this, Patroclus is devastated, having hoped to take part in battle. Achilles returns to his hut. Just as dawn approaches, the Trojan army, led by Hector, set up on the dunes and sent hundreds of lit arrows into the sand. The Greeks awake in time to see large balls of hay being rolled down the hill towards camp, ignited in huge fireballs by the torched arrows. Banging their shields to intimidate, the Trojans advance towards the Greek camp. Suddenly, Achilles appears in his armor and rallies the troops to fight. Achilles fights his way towards Hector and the two engage in combat. Greeks and Trojans alike surround them, edging them on, until Hector slits Achilles' throat with a swift thrust of the sword. Achilles falls, gasping for breath, while the Myrmidons look on in horror. But when Hector removes his helmet, he discovers that the man he wounded is not Achilles; its Patroclus. Hector, repentant but resolute, drives his sword into the boy's chest to finish him. He addresses Odysseus and tells him they've fought enough that day. Before leaving, Odysseus tells Hector that Patroclus was Achilles' cousin. The Myrmidons return to camp as Achilles emerges from his tent. Seeing them battle-worn, he asks why they disobeyed him. Eudorus laments that Patroclus disguised himself in Achilles' armor, even moved like him, and fell under Hector. Achilles is outraged and attacks Eudorus. Briseis tries to stop him but he throws her to the ground. Hector returns to his wife. He admits that he killed a boy who was much too young and feels that his actions will have severe repercussions. He shows his wife a hidden passage under Troy that she can take civilians through to get to the mountains should he die and the walls be breached. Though she is upset to have to consider this, she heeds his advice. Achilles puts his cousin on a funeral pyre and sets it alight. Agamemnon watches and says, "That boy may have just saved the war for us," knowing that the rage of Achilles will not wane until he's had revenge. Meanwhile, Helen watches as Paris practices his archery in preparation for battle, hitting his target time and again. The following morning, Achilles sets off to enact vengeance upon Hector. Briseis begs him not to go, but he ignores her. He rides to the gates of Troy and calls for Hector who dresses in his armor and says goodbye to his wife. He meets Achilles outside alone. Achilles throws down his helmet so that Hector can see his face. Though Hector tries to reason, Achilles is bent on bloodlust. As they begin to fight, Priam and Paris watch while Helen comforts Andromache who can't bring herself to look. Achilles overpowers Hector by driving his spear into his chest before finishing him with his sword. He then ties Hector's legs together behind his chariot and drags him away, back to the beach. When he returns to his hut, Briseis cries out and asks when the killing will stop before leaving. That night, Achilles is visited by a stranger in a cloak. The stranger kisses Achilles' hand before revealing himself as none other than King Priam. Having stealthily entered the Greek camp unnoticed, Priam begs for his son's body back to be given a proper burial. He tells Achilles that, while Hector killed his cousin, he did not know who it was and he asks Achilles how many cousins and brothers he's killed in his time. Despite being enemies, he asks for respect. Achilles relents. He weeps over Hector's body, promising to meet him in the next life, before giving him to Priam. When Briseis comes forward, Achilles allows her to go home and apologizes for hurting her. He gives Priam his word that the Greeks will not attack Troy for 12 days to allot for proper mourning. When Agamemnon hears of Achilles' secret treaty with Priam, he becomes incensed. But Odysseus, who notices the sculpture of a horse a fellow soldier has made for his son, proposes a plan, putting the 12 days of mourning to their advantage. After 12 days, the Trojans discover that the beach has been abandoned and various bodies lie in the sand. They appear to have been taken by disease and, where the heart of the camp once was, a large wooden horse has been erected. Upon seeing this, Priam is advised that the horse was left as a gift to the god Poseidon and is encouraged to bring it back to Troy. Paris, who is suspicious, urges his father to burn the horse, but Priam brings the horse into the city where its revered as a sign of the end of the war. A Trojan scout, hiking through the cliffs outside the city, comes upon a cove apart from the main beach and discovers the Greek armada hiding there. However, he is killed by arrow before he can warn the rest of Troy. Meanwhile, the whole city celebrates into the night. Once everything has quieted down, the horse opens and Achilles, Odysseus, and a mass of Greek soldiers emerge from inside and open Troy's gates where the rest of the Greek army has gathered. They quickly infiltrate the city, pillaging and burning homes and killing any Trojan who stands in their way while a tearful Priam can only watch. Soldiers of Troy attempt to defend the royal palace, but fail. As Priam prays before the statue of Apollo and asks why he's been forsaken, Agamemnon comes up behind him and stabs him in the back. Achilles, meanwhile, searches the city for Briseis. Paris and Andromache lead surviving civilians down to the secret passage where Paris gives a young boy, Aeneas (Frankie Fitzgerald) (a progenitor of the Romans), the Sword of Troy, reciting what his father told him. He then returns with his bow and arrow to help fight. Briseis is praying before a statue of Apollo when she is grabbed from behind by Agamemnon. Achilles sees this and runs to her aid. Agamemnon tells Briseis his intent to take her back to Greece as his slave before she takes a concealed knife and fatally stabs him in the neck. His guards accost her but Achilles kills them. As he is helping her up, Paris arrives and shoots an arrow through Achilles' heel. Standing up to face Paris, despite Briseis' cries, Achilles is shot again through the chest. He removes the arrow only to be shot again and again, each time removing the arrow. He finally collapses and tells Briseis that she was his peace in a lifetime of war and urges her to escape. Briseis goes with Paris and they leave as the Greeks arrive at the palace to find Achilles dead, seemingly taken by a single shot to the heel (thus perpetuating the myth surrounding his death). Achilles' body is burned honorably on a funeral pyre within the ruins of Troy the following day as Odysseus watches and exalts, "If they ever tell my story, let them say I walked with giants. Men rise and fall like the winter wheat, but these names will never die. Let them say I lived in the time of Hector, tamer of horses. Let them say I lived in the time of Achilles."

The Epic of Gilgamesh: Tablet IIX

This tablet begins with Gilgamesh lamenting over the dead body of Enkidu. Gilgamesh lists off many, many different plants and animals, locations on earth, and people, and prays that they will all mourn for Enkidu. Gilgamesh turns to the men of Uruk, and tells them about his grief. Then he turns back to Enkidu and speaks to the dead man directly. Gilgamesh touches Enkidu's chest, but his heart is no longer beating. He covers his friend's body, and stands guard over it. As a sign of mourning, Gilgamesh cuts his long hair and tears off his fancy clothes and jewelry. The next day, Gilgamesh calls together the finest craftsmen of the land. He orders them to make a statue of Enkidu out of the most precious materials. At this point the tablets are damaged, so there's a break in the text. We're guess it would have been a description of Enkidu's funeral. (Well—us and plenty of scholars with better guesstimates.) When the story picks up again, Gilgamesh is talking to Enkidu. It's not clear if he's talking to the dead body, or is simply using his imagination, but, either way, he tells him about the statue he had made for him. (Clearly some time has passed.) Another, larger section of the text is missing at this point. When the story picks up again, Gilgamesh is making an offering to the god Shamash. The rest of the tablet is missing. Because Tablet 9 begins with Gilgamesh wandering in the wilderness, it seems likely that the end of Tablet 8 (this one) described Gilgamesh setting off on his voyage.

The Odyssey: Concepts and Places

Trojan War- The war between Greeks and Trojans. Odysseus fought in the war for 12 years Bard- A poet Cave with Two Mouths- Odysseus' crew members enter the cave the wrong way, and should have only been entered in by the immortals and gods. Gods created an earthquake because they felt disrespected Cicones- Odysseus raided the island of the cicones. Ogygia- Home of Calypso Scherie- Island of the Phaecians Flashback- When a story portrays a scene that occurred before the present scene In Media Res- When an author begins a story from the middle and includes flashbacks Prophecy- Prediction of what will happen Hades- The Underworld Charybdis- Giant sea whirlpool. Sucks in Odysseus' crew and ship Scylla- Monster with multiple heads Pylos- Home of Nestor. Lotus Eaters- a "drug" that makes the people feel content and never want to go back home Omen- Phenomenon told to believe the future Seer- A person who tells the future Soothsayer- A person that is able to forsee the future Nobody- Name Odysseus gives Polyphemus Thrinacie Place that Odysseus and his men stayed and ate the cattle

Oh Brother, Where Art Thou? (Movie) Summary

Ulysses Everett McGill (George Clooney), a suave, fast-taking convict, escapes from incarceration in Mississippi during the Great Depression. He is chained to two other prisoners, slow-witted Delmar (Tim Blake Neslon) and hot-tempered Pete (John Turturro), so the three must escape together. Everett convinces them that he has hidden $1.2 million after robbing an armored car, and promises to split it with them. They hitch a ride with an elderly blind man on a railway handcar, and he foretells that they will indeed find a treasure, though it may not be the one they seek. They travel on foot to visit Pete's cousin, Washington Hogwallop, who removes their shackles and allows them to sleep in his barn. However, the trio is awakened by the authorities after Hogwallop turns them in for the reward. The barn is set ablaze, but Everett, Pete, and Delmar escape with the help of Hogwallop's rambunctious young son (who drives them out of the fiery barn in a car). They continue their journey, and encounter a religious congregation in the midst of a mass baptism. Pete and Delmar are drawn in and are baptized as well, but Everett resists. They later pick up a hitchhiking young black guitarist, Tommy Johnson (Chris Thomas King), who claims he sold his soul to the devil in exchange for musical talent. They hear that the nearby WEZY radio station pays people to sing into a can, so they pay a visit to the blind disc jockey (Stephen Root), and sing a version of "Man of Constant Sorrow" with Tommy accompanying them. Calling themselves The Soggy Bottom Boys, they are paid cash and leave satisfied. However, unbeknownst to them, their record becomes wildly popular around the state, with no one knowing the identity of the band. That night the police track them down and find their car near their campsite. Everett, Pete, and Delmar part ways with Tommy as they escape. The next day, they meet famed robber George Babyface Nelson (Michael Badalucco), on the run from police, and accompany him in robbing a bank. He gives them a share of the stolen loot and departs. The trio encounters three sirens: beautiful women washing clothes in the river, and are seduced by them. Delmar and Everett discover the next morning that Pete has disappeared, and Delmar believes the women had turned him into a toad (which was found in Pete's abandoned clothes). Carrying "Pete" in a shoebox, Delmar and Everett go to a restaurant where they meet Big Dan Teague (John Goodman), a one-eyed Bible salesman. Thinking that their box contains money, Big Dan lures them to a field for an advanced tutorial on salesmanship. He violently beats the two men, kills the toad after finding no cash, and steals their car. Everett and Delmar arrive at Everett's hometown, where he attempts to speak to his wife, Penny (Holly Hunter), mother of his seven daughters. He finds that Penny is engaged to Vernon T. Waldrip, the campaign manager for Homer Stokes (Wayne Duvall), who is running for governor against the grouchy elderly incumbent, Pappy ODaniel (Charles Durning). Penny refuses to take Everett back, and was so ashamed of his arrest that she told their daughters he was hit by a train and killed. Rejected, Everett and Delmar attend a movie, where a chain gang is in the audience. Pete, it turns out, was turned into the police by the Sirens, and is once again in chains. In the theater, Pete advises his friends to abandon their quest, as it is a "bushwhack." That night, Everett and Delmar stealthily break him out of jail. Pete tearfully confesses that, after threatened with death by the authorities, he revealed their plans to find the armored car loot to the mysterious Sheriff Cooley, who has been hunting them across the state. However, Everett reveals that he fabricated the story to entice Pete and Delmar to escape with him. Everett had truthfully been arrested for practicing law without a license, and was determined to escape when he heard his wife planned to remarry. If caught, the trio could face an additional 50 years in jail. An enraged Pete tackles Everett. The three stumble upon a Ku Klux Klan rally in a nearby field. Shocked, they see that Tommy Johnson has been captured and that the Klan is preparing to hang him. The trio disguise themselves as color guard members and attempt to rescue Tommy, but are confronted by Big Dan Teague, a member in attendance. The Grand Wizard, it so happens, is candidate for governor Homer Stokes. After a scuffle, Everett, Pete, and Delmar topple a huge fiery crucifix onto Big Dan, presumably killing him, and escape with Tommy. The four men arrive at a campaign dinner, disguised by long false beards. Pretending to be the hired band, they slip onstage and entertain (Delmar sings an impressive version of "In the Jailhouse Now") while Everett attempts to speak to Penny again. When the men launch into "Man of Constant Sorrow", they watch in awe as the entire audience rises to its feet and cheers, recognizing them as the elusive Soggy Bottom Boys. However, Homer Stokes arrives and tries to reveal them as the men who disrupted the lynch mob in performance of its duties. The townspeople are outraged at Homer's confessed racism, and literally ride him out on a rail. Everett, Pete, Delmar, and Tommy resume playing, and a delighted (and victorious) Pappy O'Daniel joins them onstage and grants them an official pardon. After the event, Penny takes Everett back, but demands that he return to their old cabin and retrieve her wedding ring. The four men depart quickly, as the cabin is in the valley that is due to be flooded the following day. They briefly see Babyface Nelson again, re-captured by police, but in extremely high spirits, happy at the thought of being executed in the electric chair. The men arrive at the cabin the next morning, but to their horror find that Sheriff Cooley has caught up with them and his men have already dug their graves. As the authorities loop nooses over a tree branch, Everett drops to his knees and prays that he might see his daughters again. At that moment, the valley is flooded. The cabin is destroyed, and Everett, Pete, Delmar, and Tommy surface on the newly-made lake. They retrieve the sought-after ring from a floating rolltop desk, and return to town. Shortly afterwards, Everett is happily reunited with Penny and his children. The family is taking a walk through the town when Penny remarks that the ring Everett brought her is the wrong one. She firmly asserts to a frustrated Everett that he must find the original ring (now at the bottom of a lake). Their daughters sing the hymn Angel Band as they cross paths with the elderly handcar operator who had predicted Everett's fate.

The Aeneid: Book I (Safe Haven after Storm)

Virgil begins by announcing his theme. He is going to be telling the story of how Aeneas made his way from Troy to Italy and founded the precursor to the modern city of Rome. (That's modern from Virgil's perspective - i.e., the first century B.C.) Virgil also reveals that Aeneas is going to have a really, really crummy time of it. This, he explains, is because the goddess Juno is mad at him. Juno - the Roman name for the Greek goddess Hera (check out this comparative chart if you aren't familiar with this sort of stuff) - is mad at Aeneas for two reasons. The first reason is because Aeneas is a Trojan. Juno hates the Trojans because Paris, a Trojan prince, once picked Venus (a.k.a. Aphrodite) over her and Minerva (a.k.a. Athene) in a beauty contest. This made the two Olympian Idol losers take the Greeks' side during the Trojan War. (For more info about the Trojan War, check out this handy-dandy website.) The second reason Juno hates Aeneas is because she loves Carthage, a Phoenician city in Northern Africa (in modern-day Tunisia, to be precise). Juno knows that, many years later, Rome and Carthage are destined to fight a series of three major wars. These wars, known as the Punic Wars (you can read about them here), resulted in the complete destruction of Carthage. Because Aeneas is on his way to found Rome - well, you get the picture. Juno first catches sight of Aeneas and his fleet as they are sailing past Sicily. Juno doesn't like this one bit, and decides to give him a hard time, whether the Fates like it or not. The first thing she does is go find Aeolus, the king of the winds (he was appointed by Jupiter). Juno tells Aeolus to stir up the sea against the Trojans; she says she'll give him one of her nymphs to marry, in return for his trouble. Aeolus tells Juno that her wish is his command - after all, she has given him a lot of sweet stuff already. (It is unclear whether Aeolus accepts the nymph or not, though it seems like he doesn't.) He takes his spear and pounds on the mountain where the winds are locked up. Out come the East Wind and the South Wind. They speed down to where the Trojans are sailing and stir up a storm against them. As the storm starts to pick up, Aeneas exclaims how he wishes he had died back home in Troy. That would have been a lot better than the death that is about to befall them. Sure enough, things start to look bad: three ships crash and three get stuck on sandbars. Just then, though, Neptune, the god of the sea, hears the commotion going on above him. He pokes his eyes out of the water, and isn't pleased with what he sees. Neptune immediately tells off the winds for stirring up the ocean without his permission. Before he's even done talking, the storm ends. After that close call, Aeneas and his remaining ships decide to head for the nearest land. This happens to be Libya. Once they have pulled into a convenient natural harbor, Aeneas and his men disembark. They make a fire and eat grain by the seashore. In the meantime, Aeneas and his comrade Achates climb a nearby hill to scan the sea for any sign of the lost ships. He doesn't see them. Instead, he finds a troop of wild deer. Aeneas chases after them and shoots seven - one for each of his ships. Then he takes them down to the shore, and gives his men a speech reminding them of how much they have suffered already. He tells them to look on the bright side - one day they might even look back nostalgically on these hardships. We are told that Aeneas is putting on a brave face for his men - inside, he feels more grief for their lost companions than anyone else. Meanwhile, the Trojans feast on the deer and get their strength back. That evening, Jupiter, the king of the gods, is looking down at the world. Just then, up comes Venus, the goddess of love, who also happens to be Aeneas's mom. Venus complains to Jupiter about how Aeneas and his men have to suffer so much, when other Trojans, like a guy called Antenor, have already been able to settle in various parts of Italy. Jupiter says, "Chill. I'm still going to let Aeneas make it to Italy." He then explains how Aeneas, when he gets to Italy, is going to have to fight a war against the local tribe of the Rutulians. After that, he will reign for only three years - but then his son, Ascanius, will rule for another thirty years in the new capital of Alba Longa (don't worry if you haven't heard of it). Alba Longa will be the headquarters of the Trojans in Italy for three centuries, until the queen and priestess Ilia gets pregnant by Mars, the god of war, and gives birth to Romulus and Remus. (Are things starting to sound a bit more familiar?) Romulus will found Rome (aha!). Jupiter says he will give the Romans unlimited power. This power will reach its summit during the reign of Caesar (that is, the Emperor Augustus), which will bring about a great era of peace. Then Jupiter sends down the god Hermes to make the Carthaginians welcome Aeneas and the other Trojans. That night, Aeneas is lying awake thinking. He decides to go exploring the next day. And that's just what he does - once again with his buddy Achates. While they are walking in the woods, Aeneas and Achates run into Venus, who is disguised as a young huntress. Aeneas knows something is up, and asks the huntress what goddess she is. (This would probably be a good opener even if she wasn't a goddess.) But Venus keeps up her disguise, saying that she's just an ordinary girl from that neck of the woods. Venus then fills Aeneas in on what's been going on. She explains how Dido, the local queen, was once married to Sychaeus, the richest man of the city of Tyre (in modern-day Lebanon). Her brother, Pygmalion, was the king of Tyre. Unfortunately, Pygmalion was very greedy, and ended up killing Sychaeus for his money. He managed to keep what he had done from Dido for a little while - but then Sychaeus appeared to her in a dream and explained what had happened. (Sometimes dead men do tell tales.) Sychaeus told Dido to flee the city immediately, and also told her where some treasure was buried, to finance her trip. (Sweet.) Dido gathered up some other men from Tyre and sailed over to North Africa, where they are now, and where she is building the city of Carthage. Then, having wound up her story, Venus asks Aeneas who he is. Aeneas replies by saying his name, his quest, and his favorite color - wait, scratch that last bit. He ends by saying how he got slammed by the storm and lost a bunch of his companions. Venus says, "Don't worry about them." To illustrate her point, she shows him where twelve swans are flapping around in peace, even though a little while ago they were being chased by an eagle. Venus interprets this as a sign that everyone's OK. Then the goddess turns to go, and, as she does, Aeneas recognizes her. "Hey, mom!" he calls out, "What's with the disguises? I just want to spend some quality time with you!" But Venus doesn't answer. Instead, she wraps Aeneas and Achates in a cloud of mist, making them invisible. This allows them to walk into the heart of Carthage. All around them, people are busy as bees building the new city. Aeneas is jealous. In the middle of the city, the Trojans are building a temple to Juno. (Insert ominous music here.) Aeneas goes up to the temple. On its gates, he sees depicted various scenes from the Trojan War. (Most of these are from the Iliad, though some come from the later tradition known as The Epic Cycle.) Then, Queen Dido comes in with a bunch of attendants. She takes her seat in front of Juno's shrine. At this point, in come representatives from all of the ships that Aeneas thought he had lost - safe and sound, just as Juno predicted. The Trojans explain to Dido who they are and where they're going. They complain about the rough treatment they've gotten from the locals, and say that the gods are on their side. They ask for permission to stay in the area for long enough to repair their ships; then they'll either sail for Latium as planned (if they reconnect with Aeneas, that is), or head to Sicily instead, where another Trojan, Acestes, has set himself up as king. In response, Dido apologizes for any trouble they have encountered; she explains that she has had to ramp up security while their city gets on its feet. Then she tells them that she has heard of Aeneas. She says that the Trojans can go wherever they want, with a Carthaginian escort. Or, if they want, they can stay in Carthage as equal citizens. She says that she wishes Aeneas were there, and promises to send out scouts to search the coastline for him. Just then, the cloud vanishes from Achates and Aeneas. At the same time, Venus makes Aeneas look super-impressive and handsome. Aeneas thanks Dido for her hospitality. Dido is impressed with Aeneas and tells him so, explaining how she is an exile too, from Tyre. She leads Aeneas into her palace and declares it a feast day. Aeneas thinks about his son Ascanius and sends Achates back to the camp to bring him to the feast. He also tells him to bring some gifts for Dido. (Specifically, he asks him to bring some of the things that Helen brought with her to Troy when she ran off with Paris, as you can read about here.) The goddess Venus decides to make Amor - the god of love - take Ascanius's form so he can infect Dido with love. She tells Amor that she will hide the real Ascanius away in one of her shrines so that no one will be the wiser. This is exactly what happens. When Amor arrives with the gifts, he first goes up to Aeneas and says "Hi dad." Then he goes and sits on Dido's lap. Amor inflames Dido with love for Aeneas, and slowly takes away her memory of her dead husband, Sychaeus. At the end of the feast, Dido fills a huge bowl with wine, drinks from it, and starts passing it around. At the same time, the poet Iopas sings a song about the cosmos and the natural world. Dido, who is growing more enthralled by the minute, asks Aeneas question after question about the Trojan War. Finally, she asks him how Troy was captured, and how he came to North Africa.

The Epic of Gilgamesh: Class Quiz

Who is the king of Uruk? Gilgamesh The father of Gilgamesh is a human; his mother is a goddess. Enkidu first goes to Uruk to stop the king from violating a bride on her wedding night. Who has nightmares while travelling to the Cedar Forest? Gilgamesh Who actually kills the creature in the Cedar Forest? Gilgamesh Who asks Gilgamesh to marry her? Ishtar She requests this creature kill the two heroes/warriors when he refuses? Bull of heaven The gods decide that Enkidu must die. The King is told about a plant that does not offer immortality, but it does restore youth/vitality. The magical plant is eaten by the serpent.

The Odyssey: Book IV

When Telemachos arrives, Menelaos is hosting a double wedding feast, and he serves them food even before finding out their names. Nice guy! Telemachos is totally awed by the place, and he can't help but whisper that Menelaos. Menelaos agrees; he was pretty happy to see it again after wandering the seas for seven years. But it's not all happy homecoming; he was pretty bummed to discover his brother Agamemnon murdered. Also, he lost a lot of friends in the Trojan war. Menelaos misses Odysseus more than anyone else does, he says (although we think Penelope is probably a good contender for that title). And, oh, hey! Aren't you Telemachos, Odysseus's son? Sure is. Telemachos is so bummed by hearing the King talk fondly about his father that he cries. Awkward silence. Helen, Menelaos's wife (and BTW the woman that started the whole Trojan war to begin with by getting herself stolen) enters and breaks the silence tactfully by saying that Telemachos looks just like Odysseus. Menelaos fondly recognizes Peisistratos as Nestor's son, and everyone gets back to eating. Helen decides to drug the men's wine with an anodyne of forgetfulness, hoping to soothe away their sorrows, which—and correct us if we're wrong, but doesn't that means she's roofieing them? After treating the wine, she serves it and tells funny stories about Odysseus. Like this one time, Odysseus disguised himself as Trojan beggar—even beating himself up to make it look convincing—to get information from the Trojans. Ha! Then Menelaos recounts the time they were inside the Trojan horse and Helen, whose loyalty apparently lay with the Trojans at the time, came around knocking on the horse and calling each man inside in the voice of his wife. Odysseus saved everyone from giving themselves away by urging them into silence and even clapping his hands over one man's mouth. Everyone enjoys these stories, plus they've been drugged, so Telemachos suggests they all go to sleep. In the morning, Menelaos finally asks Telemachos why he has come, and Telemachos explains the sitch. Menelaos isn't happy about the suitor situation. He tells Telemachos another story. Once, when Menelaos was stranded on the island of Pharos, Eidothea, one of the resident nymphs, advised him to capture the god of the island—Proteus—and hold him captive. Normally, this would be suicidal, and therefore a really bad idea, but in this case, it's the only way the god will tell them how to get off the island. Eidothea helps disguise Menelaos and three of his men as seals. When Proteus surfaces to count his seal flock, they pounce on him and cling desperately while he shape-shifts into several different beings. (Ever heard the word "protean"?) Finally, Proteus reveals that Menelaos is trapped at Pharos because he didn't offer a proper sacrifice to Zeus before departing. The only way he can appease the now-angry god is by going to the Nile River and making them an offering. With the diagnosis out of the way, Menelaos asks Proteus for news of his Greek friends. Proteus tells him that Aias (little Aias that is) has died for foolishly challenging the gods. Mythological Context Lesson: there are two different characters named Aias (or Ajax, if you're feeling Latin-y) in Greek mythology, but they aren't related. This one here is called little Aias, and the other is called big Aias, or Telamonian Aias (his dad was a dude name Telamon). The deal with little Aias is that he raped and killed Kassandra (a Trojan Princess) on the altar of Athene. This was a big no-no—both for obvious reasons (rape/ murder) and because altars were sacred spaces. Naturally, the gods killed him. Next, we learn again that Agamemnon is dead. Finally, what we've all been waiting for: Odysseus is being held as a prisoner of Kalypso and would really like to get home. Menelaos is all, "Thanks, man" and books it off island. And that's it for his story. Telemachos gets ready to head back to Pylos. Idiotically (if you ask us), Telemachos refuses horses and a chariot and wants a keepsake instead. Menelaos gives him a silver bowl set. Oh, yeah, that'll come in handy. NOT. In the meantime, back at Ithaka, Noëmon, the rich merchant who sold Mentor/Athene the ship, asks Antinoös when Telemachos will be back from Pylos because he needs his ship. Apparently it was more of a lease than a sale. Antinoös freaks out because he didn't know about Telemachos's voyage at all. (Or else he wasn't listening when Telemachos TOLD THEM ABOUT IT at the council meeting.) Mostly, he just gets all riled up because he's a jerk. So he calls a meeting with all the other suitors. Since Telemachos has been making their parasitic lifestyle so difficult and also they all pretty much hate him, the men decide to sail out to sea, ambush the young man on his way home, and send him to his death. Nice, guys. Town crier Medon (we so wish that job hadn't gone out of style) overhears this and makes a not-so-public announcement to Penelope, who freaks out. Justifiably. She didn't know about the voyage either and laments wildly—first for her lost Odysseus, then for her son who is about to die. Eurykleia, the old nurse, feels guilty about concealing the journey from Penelope and begs her mistress to pray to Athene for Telemachos's sake. Penelope does, and Athene hears her. (She's got good ears, that goddess.) Meanwhile, down at the docks, the suitors have set sail. Athene, pitying Penelope, sends an image of the queen's sister—Iphthime—to her in her sleep. Iphthime assures her sister that Telemachos will come home safely. When Penelope doesn't believe her, the hallucinatory sister reveals that he has Athene's help. Penelope, all reassured by this, asks for news on Odysseus. Before answering, Iphthime fades away. Penelope wakes up feeling as fresh as a daisy, while the suitors wait in ambush. We suspect this won't end well for them.

The Iliad: Book XXIV (Achilles and Priam)

When the games are over and the crowds disperse, Achilleus keeps grieving for Patroklos. Days pass, but his grief does not. Each day, he fastens Hektor's corpse to the back of his chariot, and drags him three times around the burial mound of Patroklos. Apollo, however, uses his divine power to prevent any damage to Hektor's corpse. The gods pity Hektor. They consider sending Hermes, god of trickery, down to earth to steal his body. Hera, Poseidon, and Athene refuse, however. They all hate Troy, though for different reasons. (Here the poet reminds us of Paris's fateful judgment in Olympian Idol. Check out our recap of The Backstory's Backstory in the summary of Book 2.) Countering them, Apollo argues that Hektor always honored the gods, that he shouldn't be deprived of a proper funeral, and that Achilleus's behavior is completely inappropriate. Hera doesn't like this one bit. She thinks it sounds as though Apollo were trying to make Hektor and Achilleus equal - even though Achilleus's mother is a god, whereas both Hektor's parents are mortal. Zeus tells Hera to cool it. He says that she's right, but that the gods still love Hektor. Then again, he says that they can't steal his body, because Thetis is constantly watching it. Instead, they've got to bring Thetis up to Olympos and tell her that Achilleus must give Hektor back to Priam in exchange for a ransom. Iris goes down under the sea, finds Thetis mourning for her son, and brings her up to Olympos. There, Zeus tells her that the gods had been considering sending Hermes down to steal the body, but have instead decided to give Achilleus a break. He also says that he has sent Iris down to tell Priam to go to the Achaian ships with gifts for Achilleus. Thetis descends to Troy and finds Achilleus on the beach while others are preparing breakfast. She says, "Wouldn't you rather be sleeping with a woman? It would make you feel better." Then she delivers Zeus's message. Achilleus says, "Whatever, fine." Then Zeus sends Iris down to Priam with the following message: "Go alone, with only a herald to drive the cart that will transport the body back to Troy. And have no fear. Achilleus honors the gods and will not hurt you." Iris goes down and finds Priam wallowing in dung in his misery. The whole palace is wailing. Iris delivers the message. Priam tells his sons to prepare the cart. When he tells his wife what he's doing though, she refuses, thinking it's pointless. Then she echoes Achilleus's rage at her son, saying how she wishes she could cut off Achilleus's flesh and eat it raw. Then Priam starts gathering treasure. He yells at the Trojans who are gawking at him. He also yells at his remaining sons, calling them worthless. Before he heads out, Hekabe makes him and the herald pour out libations and pray. Priam prays to Zeus for a sign, and he gets one: the god sends down an eagle, flying on the right. Then they head out. Zeus sends down Hermes to guide them. Hermes meets Priam and the herald on the plain, taking the form of a young Myrmidon warrior. He tells Priam that the body of Hektor has not been destroyed despite Achilleus's abuses. He offers to take them to Achilleus's lodging. Hermes leads them through the camp to the lodging, then reveals his true identity. He tells Priam to go in alone, then books it back to Olympos. Priam goes in to see Achilleus. He falls at his knees and begins kissing Achilleus's hands - the hands that killed so many of his sons. Achilleus is taken aback. He grasps Priam by the hand and gently pushes him back. Then they share a silent moment of grief, each thinking of his own loved ones. Achilleus sees his own father, Peleus, in Priam. Now Achilleus speaks, reflecting on the mix of happiness and sadness that Zeus gives to all mortals. Now, explicitly, he compares Peleus to Priam. Priam asks to go immediately with his son's body, but Achilleus refuses. He says "I know the gods sent you. Don't annoy me or I'll lose my temper and kill you." Priam settles down. Then Achilleus goes out of the room and tells the servant-women to bathe and clothe Hektor's body. He tells them to do it where Priam won't be able to see it. He is worried that if Priam sees Hektor's body and gets upset, he, Achilleus, will become enraged and will kill him - despite his divine protection. Then Achilleus comes back to rejoin Priam. Now he says they should eat together. Achilleus tells the mythological story of Niobe, who, even though she lost all her children, eventually began to eat again. Achilleus argues that they should follow suit. Achilleus goes over to the fire and prepares them a meal. Then he brings it over and they eat together. They share a moment of silence gazing at each other in admiration. Priam breaks the silence by saying that he's tired and has to go to bed. Achilles tells some servants to prepare a bed for the old men on the porch. He tells him that he wants him to sleep outside of the main shelter because Achaian captains keep coming in to confer with him. He doesn't want any of them seeing Priam and deciding he'd make a nice prisoner. Then Achilleus asks Priam how many days he will need to bury Hektor. He promises to hold the Achaians to a truce for the duration of that period. Priam says they will need nine days to mourn him, one day to burn him on his pyre, and another day to build a high grave mound over the body. He says that on the twelfth day they can fight. Achilleus promises to fulfill this request. The two men shake hands. Then Priam goes out to sleep on the porch. Achilleus goes to sleep beside Briseis. But then, a short time later, Hermes comes and wakes up the two Trojans on the porch. He says it's time for them to go. Hermes leads them in safety out of the Achaian camp, and back across the plain as far as the River Xanthos. Then he departs. Priam and the herald continue with the body back to Troy. The first to see them approaching is Priam's daughter Kassandra, who was watching from the rampart. As soon as she sees Hektor's body, she starts loudly wailing. When they get inside the city, the first to throw themselves upon Hektor's body are his wife Andromache and Hekabe his mother. Andromache laments that he has left her and their son. She predicts that she and her son will one day become slaves of some Achaian - either that or her son will be hurled to his death from the ramparts by some Achaian, just because Hektor killed someone dear to him. She recalls that Hektor himself was a merciless soldier. She laments that Hektor did not die in his bed, where he could have given her some last word to remember him by. The next to lament is Hekabe. Her sadness is mingled with relief that she has Hektor back in her halls, his body somehow preserved. Next is Helen. She laments at having been brought to Troy by Paris. She praises Hektor for always having been kind to her, and for always warding off the cruel words of others. Then Priam commands that wood be brought into the city for Hektor's funeral pyre. He announces the truce he had made with Achilleus. The closing lines of the poem recount the funeral rites for Hektor, just as Priam described them to Achilleus. The Trojans lament for nine days. On the tenth, they burn his body. On the eleventh, they gather what remains and heap a grave mound over it. They post sentries around it to make sure it isn't attacked by the Achaians. That night they have a feast. Then the poet concludes: "Such was their burial of Hektor, breaker of horses."

The Iliad: Gods / Goddesses

Zeus- King of the Gods. . Hera- Zeuses's sister and wife. Was one of the three goddesses who tried to win Paris over. Athena- Zeus's daughter. Hates trojans with Hera.

Medea: History

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Oedipus the King: Class Discussion

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Oedipus the King: History

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

The Aeneid: Class Discussion

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

The Odyssey: Class Discussion

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Class Handout: The Qu'ran

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Troy (Movie) Relevance to Class

remake by Wolfgang Petersen of Homer's "The Iliad."

The Epic of Gilgamesh: Origins & History

what's an epic epic=a long poem usually about a hero& the hero's adventure and achievements what did Sumerians use to write history? Sumerians used cuneiform to write down there history as well as story's what is cuneiform cuneiform= wedge-shaped writing on clay tablet how many versions of Gilgamesh's epic are there? there are many different versions of Gilgamesh's epic

The Iliad: Characters

Achilles- Son of man Peleus and sea-nymph Thetis. Most powerful warrior in the Iliad. Has a big head.Fights for the Achaeans. Agamemnon- King of Mycenae. Leader of the Achaean army. Has a big head. Patroclus- Achille's friend and advisor. Goes and fights for the Achaean cause in Achilles armor. Is the reason why Achilles went back into the war. Odysseus- Clever Achaean commander. He mediates between Achilles and Agamemnon. Dimoedes- Youngest of the Achaean commanders. After getting Athena's blessing, goes on a massacre and injures Ares and Aphrodite. (Athena told him to hunt Aphrodite) Great Ajax 2nd Best Achaean warrior. Is massive. Has no support from any gods. Menelaus- King of Sparta, younger brother of Agamemnon. The kidnapping of his wife starts the war. Phoenix- An old Achaean warrior. Helped raise Achilles and helps mediate with Agamemnon Hector- Son of King Priam, mightiest Trojan warrior. Resents Paris for bringing Helen in. Devoted to wife and children. Priam- King of Troy. Son of Paris and Hector. Paris- Son of Piram. Helen- Most beautiful woman in the world. Was taken by Paris from king Agamemnon. Andromache- Hector's wife. Briseis- Achilles's war prize.

The Aeneid: Characters

Aeneas- The protagonist of the Aeneid. He is a survivor of the siege of Troy, a city on the coast of Asia Minor. His defining characteristic is piety, a respect for the will of the gods. He is a fearsome warrior and a leader able to motivate his men in the face of adversity, but also a man capable of great compassion and sorrow. His destiny is to found the Roman race in Italy and he subordinates all other concerns to this mission. The Aeneid is about his journey from Troy to Italy, which enables him to fulfill his fate. Dido- The queen of Carthage, a city in northern Africa, in what is now Tunisia, and lover of Aeneas. She left the land of Tyre when her husband was murdered by Pygmalion, her brother. She and her city are strong, but she becomes an unfortunate pawn of the gods in their struggle for Aeneas's destiny. Her love for Aeneas proves to be her downfall. After he abandons her, she constructs a funeral pyre and stabs herself upon it with Aeneas's sword. Turnus- The ruler of the Rutulians in Italy. He is Aeneas's major antagonist among mortals. He is Lavinia's leading suitor until Aeneas arrives. This rivalry incites him to wage war against the Trojans, despite his willingness to allow the Trojans to settle in Latium and Turnus's understanding that he cannot successfully defy fate. He is brash and fearless, a capable soldier who values his honor over his life. Ascanius- Aeneas's young son by his first wife, Creusa. He (also called Iulus) is most important as a symbol of Aeneas's destiny—his future founding of the Roman race. Though still a child, he has several opportunities over the course of the epic to display his bravery and leadership. He leads a procession of boys on horseback during the games of Book V and he helps to defend the Trojan camp from Turnus's attack while his father is away. Anchises- Aeneas's father, and a symbol of Aeneas's Trojan heritage. Although he dies during the journey from Troy to Italy, he continues in spirit to help his son fulfill fate's decrees, especially by guiding Aeneas through the underworld and showing him what fate has in store for his descendants. Creusa- Aeneas's wife at Troy, and the mother of Ascanius. She is lost and killed as her family attempts to flee the city, but tells Aeneas he will find a new wife at his new home. Sinon- The Greek youth who pretends to have been left behind at the end of the Trojan War. Sinon persuades the Trojans to take in the wooden horse as an offering to Minerva, then lets out the warriors trapped inside the horse's belly. Latinus- The king of the Latins, the people of what is now central Italy, around the Tiber River. He allows Aeneas into his kingdom and encourages him to become a suitor of Lavinia, his daughter, causing resentment and eventually war among his subjects. He respects the gods and fate, but does not hold strict command over his people. Lavinia- Latinus's daughter and a symbol of Latium in general. Her character is not developed in the poem; she is important only as the object of the Trojan-Latin struggle. The question of who will marry her—Turnus or Aeneas—becomes key to future relations between the Latins and the Trojans and therefore the Aeneid's entire historical scheme. Amata- Queen of Laurentum (a region of Latium, in Italy) and wife of Latinus. She opposes the marriage of Lavinia, her daughter, to Aeneas and remains loyal throughout to Turnus, Lavinia's original suitor. She kills herself once it is clear that Aeneas is destined to win. Evander- King of Pallanteum (a region of Arcadia, in Italy) and father of Pallas. He is a sworn enemy of the Latins, and Aeneas befriends him and secures his assistance in the battles against Turnus. Pallas- Son of Evander, whom Evander entrusts to Aeneas's care and tutelage. He eventually dies in battle at the hands of Turnus, causing Aeneas and Evander great grief. To avenge his death, Aeneas finally slays Turnus, dismissing an initial impulse to spare him. Drances- A Latin leader who desires an end to the Trojan-Latin struggle. He questions the validity of Turnus's motives at the council of the Latins, infuriating Turnus. Camilla- The leader of the Volscians, a race of warrior maidens. She is perhaps the only strong mortal female character in the epic. Juturna- Turnus's sister. Juno provokes her into inducing a full-scale battle between the Latins and the Trojans by disguising herself as an officer and goading the Latins after a treaty has already been reached. Achates- A Trojan and a personal friend of Aeneas.

The Aeneid: Book II (The Final Hours of Troy)

After some initial hesitation, Aeneas begins to tell the story of Troy's downfall. Everything that follows in this book is told by Aeneas, and so reflects his perspective. Aeneas begins by telling how the Greeks, unable to defeat the Trojans in battle, sail away from Troy. On the beach, they leave behind a giant wooden horse, with Greek warriors hidden inside it - though the Trojans don't know that yet. Something else the Trojans don't know is that the Greeks didn't actually sail home. Instead, they made their way to the nearby island of Tenedos, and parked their navy behind it. The Trojans are amazed at the horse and come out of their city to have a better look at it. Some argue in favor of taking it inside the city. Others say it should be destroyed. Laocoön, a priest, comes down from the city to have a look. He says not to trust anything having to do with the Greeks. He even guesses that there are Greeks hiding inside it, and throws his spear at the horse. It echoes, revealing that it is hollow. The Trojans would have followed Laocoön's lead and destroyed the horse, but they are interrupted by a commotion. It turns out that all the ruckus is coming from some shepherds, who step forward with a prisoner - a Greek! The captive's name is Sinon, and he has a story to tell. Sinon claims to be related to Palamedes, a Greek hero who came to oppose the Trojan War. As a result of this, Palamedes was executed on a trumped-up charge, as a result of Ulysses's (a.k.a. Odysseus's) trickery. Sinon says that because he complained about this injustice, Ulysses had it in for him. He also says that the Greeks tried several times to sail home, but, every time, they were held back by bad weather. He says that their problems only got worse after the horse was built. Finally, they sent a guy called Eurypylus to ask the oracle of Apollo what they should do. The oracle told Eurypylus that a human sacrifice was required for them to get home, just as a human sacrifice was required for them to get to Troy. (Huh? The oracle is referring to the fact that, on the way to Troy the Greek king Agamemnon had to sacrifice his daughter, Iphigeneia, to convince the winds to blow the right way.) As you can imagine, this made everyone pretty nervous. Ulysses asked Calchas, the soothsayer, to interpret the true will of the gods. Calchas kept silent for ten days, but finally caved in to Ulysses's pestering, and named Sinon as the victim. Everyone else was cool with that. When the day of the sacrifice rolled around, however, Sinon managed to escape. In the end, the Greeks sailed off without finding him. So ends Sinon's story. In concluding, he begs the Trojans, in the name of the gods, to spare his life. The Trojans feel pity for Sinon, and Priam orders them to remove his chains. At this point, Priam thinks it's time to ask Sinon about the elephant in the room - that is, the horse on the beach. Sinon first swears that he is no longer loyal to the Greeks. Then he explains how the Greeks' troubles started when Ulysses and Diomedes stole a statuette of Minerva from the Trojan citadel. (You can learn more about this daring raid here.) After they brought the statuette back to camp, however, wacky stuff started happening. The statuette started sweating, flaming, and moving its eyes. Oh yeah, and the goddess herself kept appearing out of the ground amid flashes of lightening. Calchas, the seer, interpreted these events to mean that Troy could not be captured. They would have to sail home and wait for another sign from the gods before making war on it again. According to Sinon, it was on Calchas's orders that they constructed the horse - as a replacement for what they had stolen. He says that the reason they made it so big was so that the Trojans wouldn't be able to take it inside their city. Sinon tells the Trojans that if any of them damage the horse, it will bring destruction on all of Troy. On the other hand, if they take it inside the city, it will bring destruction on all the Greeks (nudge, nudge, wink, wink). Here ends Sinon's second story. At this point, Laocoön, the priest guy who threw the spear at the side of the horse, starts making a sacrifice to Neptune, the god of the sea. All of a sudden, two giant serpents slither out of the sea, crawl up to Laocoön, and strangle him and his two sons to death. (A picture's worth a thousand words.) Then the serpents make their way into Troy, head to Minerva's citadel, and curl up behind the statue's shield. The Trojans interpret this as punishment from the gods for spearing the horse. They decide to take the horse inside the city. They actually have to knock a hole in the wall to bring it in. Everyone is celebrating. Four times the horse jars on its way into the city, and four times the weapons of the Greeks inside clatter. No one notices. The Trojan princess Cassandra, who has the gift of prophesy, tries to prevent them from taking the horse inside the city. Unfortunately, the gods have cursed her so that her predictions will not be believed. As indeed they aren't. Night comes. The Greek fleet sails back from Tenedos. Sinon lets the Greeks out of the horse. They kill the Trojan sentries and open the city gates for their friends who are just arriving at the city. Meanwhile, in the city, Aeneas is asleep. The Trojan warrior Hector appears to him in his dream, all covered in blood and dirt as he was on the day he was killed by the Greek hero Achilles. Hector tells Aeneas that Troy is about to be captured. He tells him to gather up his household gods and go found a new city for them. Aeneas wakes up and climbs up to his roof. From there, he hears a terrible clamor, and can see numerous houses burning. His first thought is to arm himself for battle. Then, at his door appears Pantheus, the priest of Apollo, who is carrying some images of the gods, and leading his grandson. Aeneas asks Pantheus where they should take their stand to defend Troy, but Pantheus tells him that the city is done for. All the same, Aeneas rushes into the fight, and gathers up some companions. Together, they fight with suicidal courage. They kill some Greeks and take their equipment. With these disguises, they are able to join the ranks of other Greeks and kill them through trickery. But then Coroebus, one of Aeneas's comrades, who also happens to be the husband of Cassandra, sees his wife being dragged out of Minerva's temple by some Greek warriors. Like a madman, he rushes into the fight, and everyone else follows. In the chaos, they are hit by a bunch of missiles thrown by Trojans hiding out of top of the temple - they mistook Aeneas and company for Greeks because of their stolen armor. Realizing the Trojans' deception, the Greeks rally, and a furious battle breaks out in front of the temple. Many Trojans are killed, including Coroebus. But then the Trojans are distracted when they realize that Priam's palace is being besieged. Aeneas and some other men sneak in a back entrance to help out. They make their way to the roof, where they knock a tower off onto the Greeks below. But there are too many of them, and they keep coming on. The most fearsome of the Greeks is Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles. Meanwhile, Priam puts on his armor and prepares to face down the Greeks, old and decrepit as he is. When his wife Hecuba sees him, however, she tells him to stop being such a fool. She makes him come over with her and some women who are clinging to an altar for safety. (They are assuming that the Greeks will not violate the holiness of the place.) Just then, Polites, one of Priam's sons, rushes in, wounded, with Neoptolemus in pursuit. Neoptolemus catches up to him and kills him. Enraged, Priam prepares to attack Neoptolemus. Priam reminds Neoptolemus about how his father, Achilles, once had pity on him when he gave Hector's body back for burial. (This scene is described in Book 23 of Homer's Iliad.) Priam tells Neoptolemus that his horrible behavior makes it seem as if he isn't a true son of Achilles. Priam feebly attacks his younger foe, but does not succeed in wounding him. Instead, Neoptolemus drags Priam through the blood of his son to the altar, and kills him there. Aeneas, who has been watching this whole scene, suddenly thinks of his own father, Anchises. On his way home, he runs into Helen. She is trying to hide, afraid of both the Trojans and the Greeks. Aeneas is about to kill her, when his mother, Venus, appears and tells him not to blame her. She says that what is happening to Troy is not Helen's fault; it is the will of the gods. Venus takes the mist away from Aeneas's sight so he can see various gods at work destroying the city. Then Aeneas runs home, finds his father, and tells him to get ready: they're going to head for the hills! But Anchises refuses. He says that he has lived and suffered long enough. Creusa, Aeneas's wife, and Ascanius, his son, try to bring Anchises around, but he keeps refusing. Finally, Aeneas gathers his weapons in order to go out and die fighting. Creusa tells him to take her and Ascanius along with him. Just then, flames burst out of Ascanius's head, but do not burn him. Anchises prays for a sign from the gods, and suddenly a shooting star flashes overhead. Anchises accepts the sign and decides to go with Aeneas. Now thinking of survival instead of suicide, Aeneas takes his father on his shoulders. He gives his father the images of the household gods to carry. Then he takes Ascanius by the hand. After Aeneas tells some servants that they will meet up at a certain cypress tree by an inland gate of the city, they head off, with Creusa following behind. In a moment of confusion, however, Aeneas ducks down some alleyways, and Creusa gets lost. Aeneas doesn't realize this until they get to the cypress tree. He goes back alone through the flaming city, looking for her, but does not find her. Suddenly, her ghost appears and tells him that it is too late. She tells him to go to where the Tiber river flows (i.e., in Italy). There he will get a new kingdom - and a new wife. Aeneas accepts Creusa's words and heads back to the cypress tree, where many refugees have now gathered. Together, they set out on their voyage.

The Odyssey: Book XII

As promised, the Ithakans return to Aiaia (because that worked out so well the first time), recover Elpenor's body, and go through the proper funeral rites. Circe reappears and feeds the men. She makes them promise to stay for the full day of feasting while she gives further directions to Odysseus. "Further directions" seems to be a euphemism for "more sex." Still, after the "further directions," she gives some actual directions on how to avoid the temptation of the Sirens who will try to lure him to death with their beautiful voices. Circe tells Odysseus that no man has ever heard the song of the Sirens and lived to tell the tale. But he can! He should have his men plug up their ears and tie him to the mast so he can listen without jumping overboard. Then she tells him about two different courses he can take to go home. The first one contains Rovers, moving rocks that are impossible for any ship to get through. The second route holds two dangers: Skylla, a sea monster with six heads that eats men, and Charybdis, a whirlpool that sucks in and vomits out the sea three times a day. Surprisingly, this is the better option. Circe advises Odysseus to hug the cliff of Skylla and sacrifice six men rather than risk losing his whole ship to Charybdis. Also, he should race through as quickly as possible instead of trying to fight her (the monsters are female, of course). Odysseus hems and haws, since he'd rather not lose any men—but Circle essentially tells him to suck it up. Wonder what she would tell the six men who are about to be sacrificed? One more thing: don't' kill Helios's cattle at Thrinakia, unless he wants to lose his entire crew. The next day they set sail with the help of Circe's magical wind. The Ithakans approach the Sirens and, following Circe's instructions, Odysseus plugs his men's ears with melted beeswax and then instructs them to tie him up. For the complete lyrics, please see your text, but the Sirens basically promise Odysseus immortal knowledge. Come 'ere!" Only sexier. Just as they successfully pass the Sirens, the men approach Skylla and Charybdis and promptly lose their oars in fear. That is actually not a euphemism. Odysseus tries to inspire courage in them while he arms up against Skylla. Clearly, he's forgetting Circe's instructions. As foretold, Skylla takes six of Odysseus's best men. (Come on, Skylla, couldn't you have taken the cowards and weaklings?) He suddenly remembers that he's supposed to move quickly rather than fight the she-monster, so his ship makes it out. Barely. They then see Thrinakia, land of Helios's cattle. Odysseus wants to sail past since he's been warned against it about twelve times. But his men, led by Eurylochos, vote to stay there for a night to recover from losing six of their friends to a giant, hungry monster. Well, okay, Odysseus says—but hands off Helios's cattle. The next morning, they're getting ready to head off when ... a storm begins. And continues. For a full month. When their food runs out, the cows begin looking pret-ty tasty. Odysseus goes off to pray to the gods one day and finally Eurylochos snaps. He persuades the men to kill the biggest cow they can find. It's cool, though; he'll atone for it by building a big temple to Helios once they get back to Ithaka. Yum! Steak for everyone! Odysseus comes back, sees the cooking meat, and despairs...in an angsty, we're-going-to-die sort of way. Helios is super ticked and asks Zeus for revenge. Sure thing; the King of the Gods promises to destroy Odysseus's ship with his thunderbolt. When the storm ends, the Ithakans set sail and are promptly struck by Zeus's thunderbolt. Everyone dies except Odysseus. The sea floats him back towards Skylla and Charybdis, and he manages to survive only by jumping on the huge tree-island thingy positioned above Charybdis. He clings to its trunk while Charybdis ingests his ship. When she spits it back up again, Odysseus let go and lands on its flotsam. The gods help him evade Skylla as he rows past her using his hands as oars. He drifts on the open sea for nine days before washing ashore the island of Ogygia, where Kalypso rescues him. But then she keeps him prisoner for seven years, which kind of negates her whole rescuer argument. At this point, Odysseus ends his narrative for real this time.

The Odyssey: Book III

At dawn the next day, Telemachos arrives in Pylos to find the citizens making sacrifices to Poseidon. They tend to do that a lot, and it's probably not unrelated to the two key facts: Poseidon is both powerful and highly temperamental. Telemachos is nervous about having to deliver a speech (which you had to do whenever you arrived anywhere, it seems) in front of nobility like Nestor, but Mentor/Athene encourages him: she tells him to have faith in himself because the gods favor him. This is a good thing to hear—especially in ancient Greece. Still, before any speeches are made, the Ithakans are invited to a sacrificial feast. Peisistratos, a son of Nestor, gives wine to Mentor/Athene and asks him to make a prayer to Poseidon. Mentor/Athene prays to Poseidon to honor Nestor and his sons and his kingdom and then fulfills the request herself—because she's a goddess. After they feast, it's time to find out where the Ithakans came from and what they're after. Telemachos, all jazzed up for his big speech, introduces them and asks for news about Odysseus (whom Nestor fought alongside at Troy). Nestor, reminded of the Trojan War, laments how long and difficult it was. He also says some nice things about Odysseus and tells Telemachos that he takes after his dad. And then it's more story time. Nestor details that, after their success at Troy, the Greeks had some trouble getting back home—the gods (ahem, Athene) weren't cooperating. Menelaos and Agamemnon, two brothers and also two Greek kings, argued as brothers (and kings) tend to do. Menelaos decided to take his fleet and leave Troy immediately while Agamemnon stayed behind, making sacrifices to appease Athene. The army, couldn't decide unanimously which man to follow, so they split up. Odysseus sided with Menelaos and took his ships to sea—and then he changed his mind. Heading back to Troy to show loyalty to Agamemnon, he took half of Menelaos's ships with him. Bad move, Odysseus: Menelaos and the remainder of the ships, including Nestor, safely made their way home. Agamemnon, as everyone knows, came home only to be killed by his scheming wife Klytaimestra and her lover Aigisthos. (This is the murder the gods were discussing at the very beginning of the poem.) Telemachos says he envies Orestes for taking revenge and wishes the gods would help him avenge himself similarly on the suitors. Nestor reminds him that Odysseus was a great favorite of Athene and that there is hope yet that he might come home. Eh, says Telemachos. He has a hard time believing the gods are on his side. You're wrong, says Mentor/ Athene. Telemachos underestimates the gods. After all, they can save a man just by wishing it. Telemachos is really more interested in Agamemnon's death than philosophical debate, so Nestor tells the story: Klytaimestra, Agamemnon's wife, has an affair with Aigisthos while her husband's away. While all this adultery is going on, Agamemnon's brother Menelaos is stranded in Egypt, where he can't exact vengeance. Agamemnon comes home and is promptly killed by his treacherous wife and her equally treacherous lover. The evil pair reigns for seven years in Agamemnon's (former) kingdom of Mykene. In the eighth year, Orestes, Agamemnon's son, comes "back from exile" and kills Klytaimestra and Aigisthos. On the funeral day of the treacherous couple, Menelaos finally arrives home. He's quite sad to find his brother is dead. The end. Having finished his story, Nestor warns Telemachos not to stay away from home too long, since the suitors are hanging out unchaperoned back there. Well, except that he really needs to check in with King Menelaos at Sparta. As Telemachos and Mentor/Athene are heading back towards the ships, Nestor offers them all beds for the night. More of that good Greek hospitality. Telemachos accepts, and Athene finally reveals herself by turning into an eagle. She decides to stay and watch over Telemachos's crew while he speeds to Sparta. Nestor is awed that she is helping Telemachos and promises to make a sacrifice of a golden-horned heifer to her. (The gods love a good steak.) At dawn, Nestor arrives with his sons and makes good on his word. They perform a sacrifice (yes, another one) and Nestor invites Telemachos's whole crew to the following feast. Afterwards, he provides Telemachos horses so he can go to Sparta. Nestor's son Peisistratos accompanies him to keep an eye on the horses. Road trip! Two days of fun chariot-traveling follow.

The Odyssey: Gods/Goddesses/Divine

Calypso- Nymph who falls in love with Odysseus and holds him prisoner on her island on Ogygia Hermes- Messenger god. Persuades Calypso to let Odysseus go back home. Cyclopes- Giant, one eyed creatures, try to kill Odysseus Souls of the Dead people in hades Hyperion- Sun god, , his cattle are eaten by Odysseus' men Circe- The beautiful witch god. Transforms Odysseus' crew members into swine but Odysseus resists her powers with Hermes help Aeolus- King/god of the winds. Gives Odysseus a leather bag of winds that sends him back to Aeolus Sirens- Women that have a beautiful, luring voice Dawn- Goddess of the morning Ino- Sea Goddess. Saves Odysseus at Sea Olympus- Kingdom of the gods Muse- Spirit and goddess to inspire the creation of literature and arts Athena- Daughter of Zeus and goddess of wisdom. Accompanies Odysseus on many of his journeys and disguises herself as Odysseus' friends

The Epic of Gilgamesh: Characters

Enkidu- Freind of Gilgamesh; figure of natural man; patron saint of animals. A goddess of creation, Aruru, was supposed to have created him on the Steppe from clay in the image of Anu. Gilgamesh- Fifth King of Uruk after the great flood; son of the goddess-prophetess Ninsun and of a priest of Uruk. He is two-thirds god, one-third of man, noted as a builder-king Humbaba- Guardian of the cedar forest; nature divinity Ninsun- Mother of Gilgamesh;minor goddess known for wisdom. Shamhat- Prostitute Urshanabi- The boatman of Utnapishtim at the waters of the dead Utnapishtim- Wise man of Shurrupak, one of the oldest cities of Mesopotamia, situated twenty miles north of Uruk. His name means "He who was life." he was protected from the flood by Ea. Lugalbanda- Father of Gilgamesh

The Odyssey: Book XXIII

Eurykleia goes to Penelope with the news that Odysseus is back. Penelope doesn't believe her, thinking she's gone mad. Seriously, did she not hear that battle going down? Even when Eurykleia tells her that all the suitors are dead, Penelope thinks some strange hero has come to deliver her, not her husband. Still, the stubborn woman finally comes down from her room and sees Odysseus. Now she can finally accept the fact that he's back. Except not. Telemachos begs her to just talk to the guy, but Penelope insists that if this were Odysseus, he would know their secret signs. Odysseus smiles knowingly. Because he's worried about facing repercussions for killing, oh, all the noblemen of the country, he orders that the household keep the slaughter of the suitors a secret from the rest of Ithaka. He has a brilliant plan: they'll plan a dancing feast tonight so they can pretend that all the noise was just Penelope's wedding! As Odysseus is cleaning himself up, Athene makes him more handsome to the eye. (Another goddess makeover.) When Odysseus sits down beside Penelope that night, she tells him that he can sleep outside her room, on the bed that Odysseus carved years ago. At this point Odysseus snaps, asking who dared move his bed. Apparently, he built the entire bedroom around a huge olive tree and carved the bed straight from the roots, so it totally can't be moved. This is the secret that Penelope referenced earlier; she rushes into Odysseus's arms in tears and begs his forgiveness. The two rejoice, make love, and exchange stories of the twenty long years. Except we're betting there are certain bits Odysseus leaves out, such as sleeping with Circe, having sex with Kalypso for seven years, and that offer of marriage to Nausikaa. Athene makes time go slower so that the couple can enjoy their night together and still get enough sleep. Nice to have a goddess on your side! The following morning, Odysseus announces that he will visit his grieving father. He orders the women to go upstairs and lock themselves up to stay safe from any potential avengers from town. Odysseus takes Telemachos and his faithful herdsmen with him to see Laertes. Athene adds her protection by hiding them in...yes, you got it, a cloud shaped oddly like a group of traveling men.

The Epic of Gilgamesh: Tablet V

Gilgamesh and Enkidu are stalking through the forest, looking for Humbaba. Eventually, they find him. But Humbaba isn't about to back down. Instead, he engages in a little trash talk, specifically dissing Enkidu for being a nobody, who doesn't know his own parents. Then he asks Gilgamesh something along the lines of: "Why would you want to hang around with a bum like that?" Then Humbaba does something weird: he transforms his face so that it becomes even more hideously ugly and fearsome than it was before. This time, Gilgamesh is the one who is terrified. In fact, he's so afraid that he runs away. But Enkidu calms him down by reminding him about the awesome weapons they have brought with them. This gives Gilgamesh courage again, and the two friends turn back to do battle with Humbaba. The god Shamash helps out by sending 13 powerful winds from all directions to blast their fury at Humbaba and prevent him from moving. Thanks to Shamash's help, Gilgamesh is able to get in close with his weapons; he goes in for the kill. But then Humbaba changes his tune: he starts begging for his life, telling Gilgamesh that he will become his servant, and that he will chop down as many cedar trees as Gilgamesh wants. Enkidu, however, urges Gilgamesh to ignore Humbaba's pleas, and just kill him already. Hearing this, Humbaba lashes out at Enkidu. He says that Enkidu knows the ways of the forest, he knows that Humbaba has been appointed by the god Enlil to guard it—he's just doing his job. But Enkidu keeps urging Gilgamesh to kill Humbaba. In fact, he says that Gilgamesh should hurry up and do it quick, before the gods Enlil and Shamash hear about it. (But isn't Shamash right there, helping them with the winds?) Humbaba tries one more time to convince Enkidu to talk Gilgamesh out of killing him. Once again, Enkidu ignores Humbaba's pleas and encourages Gilgamesh to kill the beaten monster. At this point, Humbaba realizes the jig is up. He curses Enkidu, praying that he will die before Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh must be wavering at this point because Enkidu shouts at him, "Listen to me, not Humbaba's curses!" Finally, Gilgamesh makes up his mind—and kills Humbaba. The two friends desecrate the monster's body, pulling out his intestines and cutting out his tongue. Rain falls on the mountain. Then they cut down the tallest cedar in the forest. Enkidu announces that he will use it to make a giant door. He'll donate this door to Nippur, a holy city sacred to Enlil. (This is the same god who appointed Humbaba as the Guardian of the Forest. Could this be Enkidu's way of apologizing to the god? Or is it more like rubbing their deed in his face?) Gilgamesh and Enkidu make a raft and sail it down the River Euphrates back to Uruk. Enkidu steers, while Gilgamesh holds the head of Humbaba. It's a dirty job, but someone has to do it.

The Epic of Gilgamesh: Tablet III

It doesn't look like Gilgamesh has taken the wise men's advice not to fight Humbaba. That's because, at the beginning of Tablet 3, the wise men are actually giving him advice on how to fight the monster. This suggests that Gilgamesh has already made his decision to go on the quest. Basically, the wise men tell Gilgamesh and Enkidu to look out for each other. What's going to work? Teamwork! Then, they give a special message to Enkidu: look after then king. After the meeting, Gilgamesh takes Enkidu by the hand and leads him to the temple of Ninsun, Gilgamesh's goddess mother. Gilgamesh prays to Ninsun to speak on their behalf to Shamash, the sun god. He asks her to get Shamash to watch over them on their quest. Ninsun hears her son's prayers. She goes up to the roof of her own temple and offers prayers to Shamash, telling him to protect her son on his quest. Then Ninsun performs a special ceremony to show she accepts Enkidu as a companion for her son. The tablet closes with the wise men of Uruk telling Enkidu to be a steadfast friend to Gilgamesh on his journey. So what does Enkidu do? He tells Gilgamesh to turn back and abandon his crazy quest. Now that's a friend.

The Aeneid: Gods/Goddessess

Juno- The queen of the gods, the wife and sister of Jupiter, and the daughter of Saturn. She (Hera in Greek mythology) hates the Trojans because of the Trojan Paris's judgment against her in a beauty contest. She is also a patron of Carthage and knows that Aeneas's Roman descendants are destined to destroy Carthage. She takes out her anger on Aeneas throughout the epic, and in her wrath acts as his primary divine antagonist. Venus- The goddess of love and the mother of Aeneas. She (Aphrodite in Greek mythology) is a benefactor of the Trojans. She helps her son whenever Juno tries to hurt him, causing conflict among the gods. She is also referred to as Cytherea, after Cythera, the island where she was born and where her shrine is located. Jupiter- The king of the gods, and the son of Saturn. While the gods often struggle against one another in battles of will, his will reigns supreme and becomes identified with the more impersonal force of fate. Therefore, he (also known as Jove, and called Zeus in Greek mythology) directs the general progress of Aeneas's destiny, ensuring that Aeneas is never permanently thrown off his course toward Italy. His demeanor is controlled and levelheaded compared to the volatility of Juno and Venus. Neptune- God of the sea, and generally an ally of Venus and Aeneas. He (Poseidon in Greek mythology) calms the storm that opens the epic and conducts Aeneas safely on the last leg of his voyage. Mercury- The messenger god. The other gods often send him (Hermes in Greek mythology) on errands to Aeneas. Aeolus- The god of the winds, enlisted to aid Juno in creating bad weather for the Trojans in Book I. Cupid- A son of Venus and the god of erotic desire. In Book I, he (Eros in Greek mythology) disguises himself as Ascanius, Aeneas's son, and causes Dido to fall in love with Aeneas. Allecto- One of the Furies, or deities who avenge sins, sent by Juno in Book VII to incite the Latin people to war against the Trojans. Vulcan- God of fire and the forge, and husband of Venus. Venus urges him (Hephaestus in Greek mythology) to craft a superior set of arms for Aeneas, and the gift serves Aeneas well in his battle with Turnus. Tiberinus- The river god associated with the Tiber River, where Rome will eventually be built. At his suggestion, Aeneas travels upriver to make allies of the Arcadians. Saturn- The father of the gods. He (Chronos in Greek mythology) was king of Olympus until his son Jupiter overthrew him. Minerva- The goddess who protects the Greeks during the Trojan War and helps them conquer Troy. Like Juno, she (Pallas Athena in Greek mythology) is motivated against the Trojans by the Trojan Paris's judgment that Venus was the most beautiful among goddesses. Apollo- A son of Jupiter and god of the sun. He was born at Delos and helps the Trojans in their voyage when they stop there. Because he is often portrayed as an archer, many characters invoke his name before they fire a shaft in battle.

Origins of the Qu'ran

Mohammad received the Qu'ran as a divine revaluation from Angel Gabriel

The Epic of Gilgamesh: Tablet II

Much of Tablet 2 of The Epic of Gilgamesh is broken. Remember, this is written on clay tablets and clay tablets have a tendency to break. So, much of this chapter is just not readable. So what do we do? Do we just have to skip this section of the story? No, and here's why: (1) Some of the Standard Version is preserved from Tablet 2. (If you don't know what we mean by the Standard Version, check out the "In A Nutshell" section of this learning guide.) (2) Scholars can still rely on an older Babylonian version of the story to fill gaps in the Standard Version when the Standard Version breaks down (so to speak). So, by piecing together the surviving fragments of the Standard Version and of the Old Babylonian version, scholars have figured out what's going on in this part of the story. Now, you might be wondering: what's all this got to do with me? Well, maybe not much. We only mention it because, as you can imagine, scholars sometimes disagree over how exactly the two versions fit together. Thus, you might end up reading a translation that gives a slightly different story from the one we're about to give (probably not by much, though). Got all that? Cool. Let's get back to the story. At the beginning of Tablet 2, Enkidu is still hanging out with Shamhat, who is still initiating him in ... uh, the ways of humans. First, she gives him one of her robes to wear. Then, she takes him to see some shepherds. The shepherds are all impressed by Enkidu's ample physique. They give him some food and some beer. At first, Enkidu doesn't know what to do. But then Shamhat encourages him. She tells him that this is what humans do: they eat food and drink beer. (This civilization stuff sounds like fun, huh?) Without further ado, Enkidu stuffs himself with food, and gulps down seven jugs of beer. This makes Enkidu very happy, and he sings for joy. (We are guessing he probably stumbles around some, too.) After dinner, he washes himself and rubs oil on himself, and thus becomes human. WAIT! Did you catch that? Enkidu is part man and part beast—but mostly acts and thinks and identifies with the beasts. Then, he has sex, eats food, drinks beer, has a bath, rubs himself with oil, and—voilà—he is a man. Yep. We thought that was rather odd too. That night, he takes a weapon, and guards the flocks so that the farmers can sleep in peace. (Even more evidence that he doesn't identify with the beasts any more?) The next day, Enkidu is hanging out with Shamhat, when he sees a young man go by in the distance. Enkidu is curious about him, and sends Shamhat after him to find out who he is. The young man is going to a wedding in Uruk. But don't think that this is going to be like your Disney princess wedding. The catch is that before the groom gets to sleep with his new bride, Gilgamesh, the king, has first dibs at the bride. (Same deal as in the Mel Gibson film Braveheart, but we digress.) According to the young man, this is according to the will of the god Anu. Divine permission or not, Enkidu doesn't like what he hears. He blushes crimson with anger. (Seems a very human thing to do, huh? Get angry?) Enkidu marches off to Uruk, with Shamhat scurrying after him. Once he gets to the city, Enkidu heads straight for the house of the bride and blocks the entrance to the marriage chamber. Then Gilgamesh shows up. As you might imagine, he doesn't like what he sees. Enkidu and Gilgamesh engage in some epic fisticuffs. The fight is closely matched—but in the end, Gilgamesh is victorious. Enkidu recognizes that Gilgamesh has beaten him, and praises the stronger man. There are no hard feelings between them: instead, they embrace each other and become the closest of friends. (And ... presumably Gilgamesh has his way?) Time passes. At some point, Gilgamesh suggests to Enkidu that they should go together into the Cedar Forest and kill the one who inhabits it—the monster Humbaba. You know, just for kicks. Enkidu thinks this is a horrible idea. He tells Gilgamesh that it was the god Enlil who placed Humbaba in the Cedar Forest to keep humans from going into the Cedar Forest. (How does Enkidu know all this? We guess it has something to do with his having been a beast until like two weeks ago.) In any case, Humbaba is extremely powerful and frightening; they wouldn't stand a chance against him. Gilgamesh tells Enkidu he's only saying that because he's chicken. He says something along the lines of: "Look, we've all got to die sometime, so we might as well earn some fame for doing great deeds. We can get the blacksmiths to make us some really killer weapons. Plus, then we can put it on YouTube and maybe it'll go viral." The mention of YouTube—er, fame and honor—clinches the deal, and the two friends head over to the forge to place their order. The craftsmen agree to make some gigantic axes, sweet swords, and massive armor for them. After that, Gilgamesh announces to the wise men of Uruk his plans to go to the Cedar Forest and do battle with Humbaba. He explains that his goal is to win undying fame. Enkidu tries to get the wise men to talk Gilgamesh out of it. The wise men tell Gilgamesh that he is young and foolish; he is letting testosterone addle his brain. They say that Humbaba is simply too powerful; Gilgamesh will not be able to defeat him. Gilgamesh listens patiently to the wise men.

History of the Qu'ran

Qu'ran Definition "The Recital". The Holy book of Islam Al-Koran = "the recitation" How did Mohammad obtain the Qu'ran? Mohammad received the Qu'ran as a divine revaluation from Angel Gabriel How is the Qu'ran written? In poetic arabic poses Surah's definition- Chapters in the Qu'ran. They are arranged from longest to shortest What are the Four Complete Surahs? "Jonah"(10), "Mary"(19), "The Merciful"(55), "Unity"(112) Describe Unity- a brief pronouncement about the nature of god Who is Allah? god Who is Muhammad? Islamic Prophet born in 570 AD When does the book record Muhammad's teachings? 610 AD - 632 AD What painting does not portray? Muhammad's face "The Prophets Night Journey" Who is Khadija and what is her importance? Muhammad's wife. First convert and confidant of the Qu'ran. What is Yathrib? Where Mohammad leads his followers, later renamed Medina "City of the Prophet" Where does Mohammad die? Mecca What is Mohammad's flight to Mecca called? Hijrah What is Kabah? Cube-shaped shrine in Mecca Muslim definition- One who surrenders to god Islam definition- Surrender to the will of god What are the five pillars? 1. Pray 5 times a day 2. Make a trip to Mecca at least once in your lifetime 3. Give a tithe of alms to the poor 4.Public affirmation of faith 5. Fasting during Ramadan

The Odyssey: Class Quiz

Polyphemus is one of the three one-eyed giants known as cyclopes. Polyphemus is the son of Poseidon. To whom is Penelope married? Odysseus Briefly explain the "weaving" trick Penelope uses to postpone accepting one of the marriage proposals from one of the suitors: Says she is going to weave & when it is done, she will choose; secretly, she un-weaves at night what she has weaved during the day Odysseus makes a raft and leaves this nymph behind on her island: Calypso. Explain how Odysseus reacts or his reaction to the Phaeacian bard's song about a quarrel that the hero had previously had with Achilles: Cries & becomes emotional Briefly explain how Hephaestus traps and treats his cheating wife and her lover:________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ The sailors with Odysseus forget about home and family when they eat this fruit: Lotus-flower Circe turns some of Odysseus' crew into pigs / hogs. What is really in the bag given to Odysseus by Aeolia? wind

Medea: Class Discussion

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Medea: Class Quiz

The Author of Medea is Euripides. The name of Jason's ship is Argos. Pelias is killed by whom? his daughters Instead of becoming immortal, Pelias is killed by this method: boiling Medea said she would "rather take [her] stand behind a shield three times than go through childbirth once." What is the name of the king that exiles Medea? Creon Specifically, how much time does he give her to get out of town? 1 day Who offers Medea shelter after her exile is announced? Athens; Aegeus (King of Athens) What two gifts does Medea send to the new princess bride? A combustible crown & corrosive dress What weapon does she use to kill her children? Sword

The Aeneid: History

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

The Iliad: History

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

The Odyssey: History

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

The Qu'ran: Class Discussion

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

The Epic of Gilgamesh: Tablet IX

This tablet begins with Gilgamesh roaming the wilderness, alone. We never saw him leave Uruk—but, then again, the end of Tablet 8 is missing, so maybe we heard about it then. Gilgamesh is still lamenting the death of Enkidu, but his lamentation is taking on a different tone. Now, it starts to seem like what's really bugging Gilgamesh is the thought that he himself will die someday. Enkidu's death has just made this thought real to him in a way that it never was before. Finally, Gilgamesh figures out what he's got to do: head to the ends of the earth and meet a man called Utanapishtim. Why does he need to speak to Utanapishtim? We'll find that out soon enough. Also, Gilgamesh tells us about another dream. The details are a bit hard to make out, but it sounds like it was some sort of crazy nightmare. Still, Gilgamesh isn't going to let a dream turn him back now. Eventually, he comes to the mountain of Mashu. This mountain is in the very, very far East. In fact, Mount Mashu is where the sun rises every day. (The Babylonians thought the earth was flat; thus, if you got to its Eastern edge, you'd be where the sun rises. You can get a very rough idea of the Babylonian view of the cosmos here.) Standing in front of Mount Mashu are two scorpion-beings. What are scorpion-beings? They are divine entities who are part scorpion, part human. If that doesn't help, then check out this picture—a copy of an ancient Babylonian carving of one of these weird dudes. Gilgamesh is super freaked out when he sees them, but he doesn't let his fear get the better of him. Instead, he stomps right up to them. Apparently, the feeling is mutual. The first scorpion-being is afraid because he thinks Gilgamesh is a god—but then his wife (the other scorpion-being) calms him down by pointing out that Gilgamesh is only 2/3 god and 1/3 mortal. Gilgamesh says that he's come to speak to Utanapishtim. From Gilgamesh's words here, we learn that Utanapishtim is Gilgamesh's ancestor. But that's not nearly as important as the next thing we learn: that Utanapishtim is a mortal who has been granted eternal life by the gods. Gilgamesh wants to speak to him to learn about the mysteries of life and death. At first, the scorpion-being tells Gilgamesh that no mortal man can go where Utanapishtim is. But after Gilgamesh insists, the scorpion-being backs down. He tells Gilgamesh that he can walk through the mountains to the mysterious region beyond. As it happens, the road Gilgamesh takes through the mountains is the same path that the sun will take when it rises in the morning (remember: Mount Mashu is at the eastern end of the world). Thus, Gilgamesh is in a race against time: if he doesn't cover all 12 leagues of the journey before the sun rises, he'll burn to a crisp. Gilgamesh makes an incredible effort and runs the whole way. Surprise, surprise, he only makes it at the very last minute; one second more, and our hero would have been Grilledgamesh. (Maybe Sinleqqiunninni should move to Hollywood and make end-of-the-world, disaster movies.) So where is he now? In a marvelous garden—where, instead of fruit, the trees bear precious stones.

The Iliad: Class Quiz

What is the 1st word in the Iliad? Rage Explain why Apollo is angry with the Greeks? _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ What does Agamemnon take from Achilles? The girl, Bersius Patroclus goes into battle wearing the armor that belongs to Achilles. Name one of the goddesses who favor the Greeks: Hera. Who kills Patroclus? Hector What relationship is Priam to Paris? Priam is the father of Paris Who kills Hector? Achilles What does the killer do to Hector's corpse outside the walls of Troy? drags the body by his chariot Priam said he did what no other man had done; he kissed the hand of the man who killed his son.

Course Introduction Notes

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Author Notes: Euripides (Medea)

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

The Odyssey: Book VIII

At dawn, Athene goes around the city in town-crier disguise, shouting the news of the stranger's coming and the upcoming feast. Everyone congregates at the palace. She also makes Odysseus totally studly (studlier) and instills in him a desire to prove himself worthy of any challenge. At this little meeting, Alkinoös orders that a ship and crew be prepared for later that day. The King then invites everyone to the banquet and calls in his blind bard, Demodokos. (Oh, p.s., it's likely that Homer himself was blind.) Demodokos about the fight between Odysseus and Achilleus that went down before the Trojan War. Odysseus, his name still unknown to the Phaiakians, sits back to listen to the tale about himself. It brings tears to his eyes. He hides his face beneath his cloak and only King Alkinoös notices his tears. Alkinoös orders some sporting games, bragging that when Odysseus goes home, he'll boast to his people of the Phaiakians' athleticism. They play. Homer lists the names of all the men that partake and the winners of each race. (Hey, epic poems were the only way for people to get their due before Facebook.) You should note that the King's sons make a good showing; Prince Klytoneos wins the foot-race and Prince Laodamas wins the boxing match. It is this very Prince Laodamas, a handsome man, by the way, who invites Odysseus to join in the games. When he proves reluctant, Euryalos (another competitor) jokingly says he doesn't look like the athletic type. This is literary foreshadowing for Odysseus kicking some serious butt. Odysseus proceeds to hurl a discus further than any man present has managed so far. (Athene, disguised as a Phaiakian, is the one to measure the distance and announce as much.) Odysseus proudly asks for any man to challenge him. He will take on anyone except his gracious host, Prince Laodamas; and he'll win any contest except the running race, since his long days at sea have weakened his legs. Alkinoös wisely decides to diffuse the situation by switching things up; he asks for Demodokos to come back and sing some more. Demodokos sings the story of the affair between Ares (god of war) and Aphrodite (goddess of love), and of how Hephaistos, Aphrodite's crippled blacksmith husband, got jealous when he found out. The scorned husband wove a net, spread it over the bed, caught the lovers in the act, and shamed them in front of all the other gods. Well, apparently that was enough storytelling for the King. Alkinoös orders some dancing to entertain Odysseus and bestows on his guest a few gifts. Euryalos approaches Odysseus and offers him a lovely sword in repentance for his rash words earlier. It's cool, man. Later, after being given a nice bath, Odysseus asks Demodokos to sing about that great man Odysseus in the Trojan horse. We're not sure why he asked for this song, since it makes him cry. Again. Alkinoös sees and begs Demodokos to stop since it is upsetting his guest. Finally, Alkinoös asks who his guest is and why he grieves so much when hearing about the Trojan War. He silences his bard and invites him to tell his tale, but not before a complete non sequitur in which he tells everyone of a prophecy that one of his ships will be turned to stone and mountains thrown up around his city. Everyone is all, "Um...OK" and then gets ready to hear Odysseus's story. Get the popcorn, folks. This is going to be a long tale.

The Odyssey: Book V

Athene begs Zeus to have mercy on Odysseus, so he sends messenger Hermes to Kalypso's islands with instructions to let Odysseus go and, adding insult to injury, to help him build a sturdy escape raft. Gee, our dad won't even buy us that Jetta we've been asking for. He then announced that Odysseus, after some trials at sea, will reach the island of Scheria alone, where the Phaiakians will befriend him and provide transport home. Hermes takes Zeus's message to Kalypso. Her island home is exotic and lovely, and we're guessing she is too, but Odysseus has the seven-year itch and spends all his time roaming the shore and looking broken-heartedly out to sea. Kalypso, recognizing Hermes as a God, greets him with hospitality... ...Until he delivers his news. Kalypso, afraid of losing Odysseus, gets quite spiteful. She accuses the gods of hating it when immortal women (like herself) lie with mortal men (like Odysseus). What she means, of course, is that Zeus and other immortal men sleep with mortal women all the time, and no one ever gets upset over that. She points out that she rescued Odysseus... before she decided to imprison him, that is. Hermes wisely lets Kalypso gripe until she gets exhausted and grudgingly agrees to let Odysseus go. But Odysseus won't accept her help until she vows not to work any more magic against him. She obeys, and everything's dandy between them again. No hard feelings. Really. Together, the couple builds a raft and supplies it with food and water. It takes them four days. On the fifth day Odysseus departs. He's got food, water, and a map. Next stop, Ithaka! Well, until Poseidon returns from hanging out at the end of the world and is not pleased to see Odysseus roaming the open seas again. He sends a storm Odysseus's raft and almost drowns him. Odysseus despairs, wishing he could've died a glorious death at Troy rather than alone and dishonored at sea. Just in the nick of time, divine help arrives. The nereid (a.k.a. sea-nymph) Ino springs up to give Odysseus some advice. Unfortunately, the advice is to abandon the raft and swim. To help Odysseus, Ino gives him her veil. If he wears it as a sash, it will keep him afloat and prevent him from drowning. (Kind of like a life vest.) Odysseus doubts her (not that you can blame him) and doesn't jump ship (raft?) after Ino leaves. But then a big wave crests over him (like a sign from above!) and he decides he'd better listen to the pretty lady. It's looking bad for Odysseus, and Poseidon seems content to just let the storm do its thing. Athene very wisely waits for a self-satisfied Poseidon to leave before she arrives and calms the seas. She then sets up a wind to blow Odysseus toward land. This is what those English majors call a deus ex machina, when a god comes out of nowhere and helps like that. (Technically, the phrase means "a god out of the machine." In ancient theatrical performances, they would sometimes use a "machine"—basically an elevator operated by a pulley—to have a god descend from the "heavens." Who need CGI, right? Odysseus floats for two days at sea before spotting land. Rocky land. Odysseus is afraid he might cut himself on the jagged edges, so he holds out for smoother shores. Athene guides him to the mouth of a cushy stream, where he prays to the river god to let him rest. Granted. As he climbs ashore, he complains about how much he suffered. He only stops complaining when Athene eases his mind and helps him find some thick bushes under which he digs and falls asleep exhausted in a bed of leaves. Nice and cozy.

The Odyssey: Book XV

Athene makes her way to Sparta, where Telemachos is in bed but not yet asleep. She urges him to leave immediately for Ithaka because Eurymachos is going to marry Penelope. (Not true.) He should go to Eumaios the swineherd as soon as he reaches Ithaka, and have Eumaios tell Penelope he's back. (Remember, the suitors are all ready to kill Telemachos if he shows his face, so some discretion is required.) All worked up by Athene's lie, Telemachos tells Peisistratos that they need to get going. At dawn, Menelaos rushes to get Telemachos gifts and transportation ready. Menelaos, Helen, and Peisistratos each choose a gift for him. Helen' is sweet—a beautiful gown woven by her own hands for Telemachos's future bride. Aw. Just then, Zeus sends a sign—an eagle flying with a dead farmyard goose in its talons. Helen interprets this to mean that the god-favored Odysseus has returned to Ithaka and will remove the household pests—the suitors—from his home. Um, sure. Telemachos and Peisistratos drive the whole day and sleep that night at Pherai. The following morning, Telemachos requests that Peisistratos take him straight to his ships and send word for his men to join him. He wants to avoid meeting Nestor and waiting for more gifts, which as we've seen takes forever in ancient Greece. Sounds good. Just as Telemachos is about to set sail, a stranger approaches him, a descendent of Melampous and a man gifted with prophetic abilities. Time for some back story. Okay, so Melampous was a rich, happy Lord until King Neleus exiled him and took over his house. We don't know exactly why, other than the vague mention that it had something to do with Neleus's beautiful daughter. (The fact that this story is thrown in without a lot of details probably means Homer's audience was already pretty familiar with it.) Melampous was held captive in his exile by yet another man, Phylakos. Somehow he escaped, took back his lands, carried off Neleus's daughter and gave her in marriage to his brother, and then, because it was his destiny, went to Argos to be ruler. Done and done. Several generations later, Theoklymenos was born; he is the prophetic man who's asking Telemachos for a ride home. His reasons for hitchhiking are: (1) he killed his cousin in Argos, and (2) he is being hunted for the murder. Telemachos says sure, come on board. Back in Ithaka, Odysseus tests Eumaios's hospitality, until Eumaios takes offense at the beggar's insinuations of being a burden and welcomes him to stay until Telemachos returns. Then beggar Odysseus asks for information about the Queen and Odysseus's father, Laertes. Laertes is alive, but wishes he were dead because he grieves so much for his son. We learn that Eumaios grew up as Laertes's ward in the household and was a playmate to the Princess Ktimene, Laertes daughter (who therefore was Odysseus's sister). When Ktimene married and left Ithaka, Eumaios was sent to the forest to work as a swineherd. (As far as we can tell, this wasn't intended as a punishment of any sort, though it does seem like this guy got the short end of the stick.) Want some more backstory? Eumaios was the son of a Syrian lord. Where he lived, there was a Sidonian slave woman who was tempted into exchanging sex for passage back to her homeland. (Well, you work with what you've got.) Little Eumaios came with her on the ship. When she died barely a week into the voyage, the sailors sold Eumaios to Laertes. Odysseus feels sorry for the guy so the two men talk night the night away and trade stories. Aboard Telemachos's ship, the fugitive guy Theoklymenos asks the prince where he could stay in Ithaka. Telemachos says he would offer his own house, but unfortunately it's currently occupied by swarms of suitors. He tells Theoklymenos briefly about his lost father. Zeus sends a sign, a hawk flying by with a dove in its talons. Theoklymenos interprets this to mean Odysseus's family will rule Ithaka forever. Telemachos asks one of his crewmen, Peiraios, if Theoklymenos can stay with him. Peiraios sportingly agrees. When they land in Ithaka, Telemachos makes his way to the swineherd's hut.

The Epic of Gilgamesh: Gods & Goddesses

Anu- The father of the Sumerian gods. The cosmic mountain, created from the primeval sea, had two parts: heaven (An) and earth (Ki), divided by the god Enlil, who proceeded to manage the affairs of the Earth, with Anu overseeing the affairs of heaven. A temple in Uruk bore his name. Bull of Heaven- Figure of drought created by Anu for Ishtar as a punishment for Gilgamesh's arrogance. Ea- God of fresh springs; patron of the arts; friend of mankind Enlil- God of Earth, wind, and spirit.made Humbaba the guardian of the Cedar Forest Humbaba- Guardian of the cedar forest; nature divinity Ishtar- Godddess of love and fertility, and of war; the daughter of Anu; patroness of Uruk. Ninsun -Mother of Gilgamesh;minor goddess known for wisdom. Shamash- The sun; husband and brother of Ishtar (King Hammurabi claims to have recieved his code of laws from this god) Siduri- The goddess of wine-making and brewing. She is the veiled tavern keeper who comforts Gilgamesh and who, though she knows his quest is futile, helps him on his way to Utnapishtim. Ninurta- god of war and of irrigation Nergal- Underworld god, husband of Ereshkigal. During Utnapishtim's flood, he pulled out the dams of the nether waters. Aruru- A goddess of creation who fashioned Enkidu from clay and her spittle Anunnaki- Gods of the underworld or the seven judges of hell. Their sacred dwellings are in the forest of cedars guarded by Humbaba. Adad- the god of storms and weather

Oedipus the King: Gods

Apollo is the Greek god who appears most frequently in "Oedipus Rex" by Sophocles (495 B.C.E. - 405 B.C.E.). He is the god of prophecy, which is one of the most repeated words by the characters and the chorus. The following lists the gods who may be found in addition to Apollo: 1. Amphitrite- the sea goddess; 2. Aphrodite- the goddess of love; 3. Ares- the war god; 4. Artemis- the goddess of the hunt; 5. Athena- the goddess of wisdom; 6. Dionysus- the wine god; 7. Furies- the goddesses of fate and revenge; 8. Hades- the Underworld god; 9. Helios- the sun god; 10. Pan- the nature god; 11. Zeus- the chief god.

The Epic of Gilgamesh: Places

Mesopotamia-Culture responsible for The Epic of Gilgamesh Uruk- Biblical Erech in Sumer (the southern part of Mesopotamia); seat of an important dynasty of kings following the flood. Shurrupak- Utnapishtim's home and one of the five most ancient cities. Mountain of Nisir- Where does the boat land? Mashu- The mountain that was home to the gods Dilmun- The distant abode of the gods, also where Utnapishtim lives.

The Odyssey: Characters

Odysseus- The protagonist of the Odyssey. Fought in the Trojan war. Father of Telemachus and husband of Penelope Telemachus- Odysseus' son. And obstacle to the suitors. Takes care of Penelope Penelope- Wife of Odysseus. Spends her days pining for the husband who let Troy twenty years earlier and never returned. Eurycleia- Aged and loyal servant of Odysseus and Telemachus. Kept Odysseus' return a secret from Penelope when she discovered it was him and kept Telemachus' journey a secret from her as well Melanthius- Brother of Melantho. Goatheard. Supports Eurymachus, the suitor, and abuses the begar who is actually Odysseus disguised in rags. Melantho- Sister of Melanthius and maidservant in Odysseus's palace. Having an affair with Eurymachus. Eurylochus- One of Odysseus' ship members. Convinces the crew to eat cattle that did not belong to them Polyphemus- One of the giant Cyclopes Laertes- Odysseus' father. Kills Antinous' father Tiresias- A Theban prophet who inhabits the underworld. Shows Odysseus how to get from Hades back to Ithica and how to communicate with the other souls. Nestor- King of Pylos. Former warrior of the Trojan war Menelaus- King of Sparta. Provides Telemachus with many gifts for his journey home Helen- Wife of Menelaus and Queen of Sparta. Offers Telemachus assistance in his quest to find his faher Agamemnon- Former king of Mycenae. Agamemnon murdered his wife, Clytemnestra and her lover, Aegisthus and then saw Odysseus in Hades Laestrygonians- Giant Cannibals that destroy most of Odysseus' fleet Nausicaa- Beautiful daughter of King Alcinous of the Phaeacians. Introduces Odysseus to his parents Alcinous- King of Phaecians. Offers Odysseus hospitality in his island kingdom of Cheria Hemsuis Bard based on Homer Phaeacians- Dancers, close to the gods, honor and save Odysseus Demodocus- Blind, Phaeacian bard Halithereses- From Ithica, Prophet, Friendly to Telemachus Aegisthus- Lover of Clyaemnestra, Killed by Agamemnons son, Orestes Autolychus- Grandfather of Odysseus Mentor- Odysseus close friend. Supports Telemachus Orestes- Son of Agamemnon Proteus- Man of the sea. Consults Menelaus on how to get home Anticleia- Odysseus' mother Argus- Odysseus' old hunting dog Philoetius- Odysseus' cowheard Peisistratus- Accompanies Telemachus on his many journeys Clyaemnestra- Wife of Agamemnon. Has an affair of Aegisthus Irus- Decides to fight the disguised Odysseus and looses Mentes- King of Taphians. Old friend of Odysseus Lacedaemon- King of Sparta Euralus- Phaeacian who insults Odysseus Elpenor- Companion of Odysseus. Dies when he fell of Circes roof Theoclymenus- Caught the ship with Telemachus to escape the villagers who wanted to kill him

The Qu'ran: Mary

Shows intertwining with Judeo-Christian faiths Meccan surah: Recaps the birth of Jesus The Sura opens with the Basmala and five Arabic letters: Kaf Ha Ya 'Ayn Sad. The remaining 97 ayat can then be divided into three primary sections. The first section, verses 2-40, consists of the narrative of the prophet Zachariah and the birth of his son John, the story of Mary and the birth of her son Jesus, and a commentary on Jesus's true identity which rejects the Christian claim that he is God's son. The second section, verses 41-65, tells of Abraham's departure from his family's idolatrous ways and then references many other prophets. The text discusses the various responses of those who heard their prophecy and the fates those hearers met; throughout these descriptions, the oneness of God is emphasized. The third section, verses 66-98, confirms the reality of resurrection and offers depictions of the Day of Judgment alongside depictions of this life. In its original Arabic, the text of Sura 19 progresses through a series of varying rhyme structures that correspond to the content being discussed. Throughout the initial narration of the stories of Zachariah and John, Mary and Jesus, and other prophets, verses rhyme based on the syllable 'ya'. When the text moves on to a commentary on the true identity of Jesus, words rhyme due to a long 'ee' or 'oo' preceding a nasal 'm' or 'n', which is considered to give an air of settledness or finality to the subjects being discussed. The first rhyme scheme is then resumed during further accounts of earlier prophets and changes to a rhyme based on a medium 'a' following a voiced 'd' when the Sura discusses punishments for those who reject truth and the prophets. The strength of this vocalization is exchanged for the stronger still double 'd' sound when denouncing unbelievers for their criticism The text of the sura alludes to many known prophetic figures, including Isaac, Jacob, Moses, Aaron, Ishmael, Idris, Adam, and Noah. According to Sayyid Qutb's commentary, these references serve to emphasize God's oneness and to delineate the various possible responses to prophecy and their consequences

The Odyssey: Book XIII

Alkinoös, moved by Odysseus's harrowing tale, promises that each Phaiakian man will give him a gift to build up wealth for his return to Ithaka. They feast all the next day while Alkinoös's men prepare the ships. Odysseus is impatient to leave. Alkinoös's men row him to Ithaka during the night as Odysseus sleeps on the ship, and we're kind of surprised he actually made it home this time. They land on a rocky grotto, unload the still sleeping Odysseus, and leave him on the shore with all his treasure. Up in the clouds, or wherever it is that gods hang out, Poseidon sees Odysseus in Ithaka and approaches Zeus angrily. He wants Odysseus to suffer—more! Mwah-hah-hah. Zeus tells him that he is a god and therefore may take his revenge against a mortal any time he wants. So Poseidon finds the Phaiakians' returning ship, which is almost back to its homeland, and turns it into stone. Where it promptly sinks. He'd like to throw up some mountains around their city as well, but Zeus says that would be overkill. Alkinoös, seeing this happen, remembers the prophecy we heard in Book VIII (that his ship would be turned to stone and mountains thrown up around his island if his people were nice to strangers) and promptly whacks himself on the forehead. Meanwhile, Athene, up to her old tricks again, conjures a grey mist to hide Odysseus while he sleeps. When he wakes, Odysseus doesn't recognize his home and has no idea where he is. He thinks the Phaiakians have deceived him. After he counts his treasure and realizes none of it is stolen, Athene tarts herself as a shepherd and approaches him. They have a little exchange, and Odysseus makes up an elaborate story about being a hunted man from Crete who fought in the Trojan War and just escaped a ship of pirates. Athene, highly amused, reveals her true form and has a hearty laugh. Then she comments that Odysseus is indeed a master liar. Which is a compliment. We think. We learn that Odysseus thought himself abandoned by the goddess after the Trojan War, but is pleased to discover that she's been the one following him around and putting protective clouds over him. Athene reaffirms that this land is Ithaka. She lifts the protective cloud so he can see clearly that this is indeed his beloved homeland. They stash the treasure safely in the grotto and start planning revenge. Athene tells Odysseus she will disguise him as a beggar, because she is the master of disguises and no one likes to look too closely at beggars anyway. She orders him to go see his swineherd in the forest while she flies to Sparta to call Telemachos home.

Oedipus the King: Summary

King Oedipus, aware that a terrible curse has befallen Thebes, sends his brother-in-law, Creon, to seek the advice of Apollo. Creon informs Oedipus that the curse will be lifted if the murderer of Laius, the former king, is found and prosecuted. Laius was murdered many years ago at a crossroads. Oedipus dedicates himself to the discovery and prosecution of Laius's murderer. Oedipus subjects a series of unwilling citizens to questioning, including a blind prophet. Teiresias, the blind prophet, informs Oedipus that Oedipus himself killed Laius. This news really bothers Oedipus, but his wife Jocasta tells him not to believe in prophets—they've been wrong before. As an example, she tells Oedipus about how she and King Laius had a son who was prophesied to kill Laius and sleep with her. Well, she and Laius had the child killed, so obviously that prophecy didn't come true, right? Jocasta's story doesn't comfort Oedipus. As a child, an old man told Oedipus that he was adopted, and that he would eventually kill his biological father and sleep with his biological mother. Not to mention, Oedipus once killed a man at a crossroads, which sounds a lot like the way Laius died. Jocasta urges Oedipus not to look into the past any further, but he stubbornly ignores her. Oedipus goes on to question a messenger and a shepherd, both of whom have information about how Oedipus was abandoned as an infant and adopted by a new family. In a moment of insight, Jocasta realizes that she is Oedipus's mother and that Laius was his father. Horrified at what has happened, she kills herself. Shortly thereafter, Oedipus, too, realizes that he was Laius's murderer and that he's been married to (and having children with) his mother. In horror and despair, he gouges his eyes out and is exiled from Thebes.

The Odyssey: Book VII

Nausikaa arrives at home, while Athene disguises Odysseus in a cloud of sea mist so nobody can see him as he wanders the city. It's sure convenient to have a god(dess) on your side. Because she can't help pretending to be other people, Athene comes to Odysseus in the form of a child. Odysseus asks the adorable little girl for directions to the palace, and she leads him there. Along the way, she tells him all about the land and the ruling family. (This is a very informed child. Think Hermione, but immortal and in disguise.) Here's the 411: the Queen's name is Arete and the King's Alkinoös (not to be confused with the icky suitor Antinoös). Also, we are reminded that the Queen is calling the shots, so she's the one to talk up once Odysseus gets to the palace. Which is apparently just as stunning as Menelaos's palace that we saw back in Book IV. Athene/the suspiciously knowledgeable little girl takes Odysseus directly to Queen Arete. Odysseus, who is really good at following directions, falls and hugs her knees. At that moment, his protective mist cloud disappears and everyone sees him. Stunned silence. Odysseus makes his plea. More stunned silence. Then, the King's oracle nervously clears his throat. All eyes turn to him, and he scolds the King for not showing this beggar some hospitality. This breaks the ice and everyone rushes to serve Odysseus. Alkinoös even makes one of the princes give up his seat for Odysseus and declares that tomorrow will be a feast in honor of this guest. That is quite a welcome for an oddly-clothed stranger. After much eating and fuss, Alkinoös gets around to asking of Odysseus the question that's on everyone's mind: "Hey, any chance you're a god?" Odysseus assures everyone that no, he isn't, but can he have a ship so he can go home. Everyone is all, "Sure!" The Queen, however, is busy looking at Odysseus's clothes, which appear suspiciously similar to the ones she had made for her daughter Nausikaa. So she asks Odysseus as politely as one can ask, "Hey, big strange man; what are you doing wearing my daughter's clothes?" Odysseus realizes that his story better not include the virginal princess taking off her clothes at any point. So he says something along the lines of, "Well, that's a long story." Except that isn't going to cut it, so he launches into the quick and dirty, starting with Kalypso and ending with Nausikaa, without revealing who he is. Everyone is moved by his words. Very moved. King Alkinoös offers up Nausikaa's hand in marriage. Squee! But it's cool. If Odysseus doesn't want to marry the princess, the King will make sure his men row him wherever he wants to go. Odysseus decides to go home. Bed time for all.

The Epic of Gilgamesh: Tablet VI

When Gilgamesh gets back to Uruk, he does what anyone would do after making a journey to distant lands and doing battle with a horrible monster: he has a bath. When that's done, he puts on his nicest duds, and gets ready for some royal chillaxin'. While he's hanging out in his finery, he catches the eye of the goddess Ishtar. She instantly develops a serious crush on him. Ishtar calls out to Gilgamesh, and asks him to take her as his wife. She promises him all sorts of crazy riches if he will only accept her offer. But Gilgamesh doesn't take the bait. First of all, he says he's afraid of becoming Ishtar's husband because she's probably super high-maintenance. (Because, you know, she's a goddess and all.) Second of all, Gilgamesh doesn't like Ishtar's track record. According to him, Ishtar has a long history of picking up various men (and animals), loving them for a while, and then abandoning them to horribly painful fates. Ishtar doesn't like that one bit. She can't stand being accused of having killed her former lovers. So what's she going to do about it? She is going to kill Gilgamesh, that's what! Ishtar goes up to the heavens to speak to her father, the god Anu, and her mother, the goddess Antum. "Daddy," Ishtar says, "Can I borrow the Bull of Heaven tonight? I just want it to kill Gilgamesh, then I'll bring it right back, I promise." "Now, now dear," says Anu, "don't you think you're overreacting a bit? After all, you're the one who provoked Gilgamesh in the first place..." "NO!" says Ishtar, "I have to punish him! Give me the Bull of Heaven now! And if you don't, I'll go down to the underworld and release all the dead people so that they can take over the earth. Then you'll be sorry!" When Anu hears these words, he starts to give in. But, like any good father, he first wants to make sure that Ishtar is ready for the responsibility. "You know, sweetie," he says, "if you unleash the Bull of Heaven, it will destroy the land of Uruk, and the crops won't grow for seven years. Have you collected enough food for the people and animals for the next seven years?" "Of course, Daddy," Ishtar says. "Don't you trust me?" With that, Anu gives Ishtar the keys—that is, the nose-ring of the Bull. Ishtar leads the Bull of Heaven down to the earth. Once the Bull reaches Uruk, it goes on a rampage. The first time it stamps its foot, a huge crevice opens in the ground, and 100 warriors of Uruk fall into it. The second time it stamps its foot, another giant crevice opens up, and 200 warriors fall into it. The third time it stamps its foot, another giant crevice opens up, and Enkidu falls into it up to the waist. But Enkidu thinks fast: he jumps out of the pit and grabs the Bull by the horns. Enkidu calls out to Gilgamesh for help. Gilgamesh stabs the Bull in the neck, killing it. After killing the Bull of Heaven, Enkidu and Gilgamesh rip its heart out and present it as an offering to Shamash, the sun god. In the meantime, Ishtar climbs up onto the wall of Uruk. She is seriously bummed out that she's totally wrecked her dad's Bull of Heaven. (The Gods: they're just like us.) Obviously, she blames Gilgamesh. When Enkidu hears this, he does something shocking: he tears off one of the Bull's back legs and throws it in Ishtar's face. Then he says that he would tear her to pieces too, if he could. We think this is basically the heroic equivalent of a "NO GIRLS ALLOWED" sign. After this incident, Ishtar assembles all of the women (!) in the city who are devoted to her, and leads them in mourning over the leg of the Bull. Um. Is it just us, or do you get the feeling that sometimes the leg of a Bull isn't just the leg of a Bull? If you know what we mean. Meanwhile, Gilgamesh organizes a victory party for himself and Enkidu. He marches through the streets proclaiming how great he is—and what a loser Ishtar is. That night, while Enkidu is sleeping, he has a dream. Finally, Enkidu gets to dream! He wakes up and tells it to Gilgamesh.

The Odyssey: Book XIV

When Odysseus arrives at the swineherd's home in the forest, he is nearly attacked by the dogs. Luckily, swineherd Eumaios shows up just in time and welcomes him into his hut and offers him what little food and comfort he has. While serving his guest, Eumaios talks all about the history of the land—King Odysseus's leaving to fight in Troy, the suitors' uncouth takeover of Odysseus's home, Penelope's staunch loyalty despite her suffering, and Telemachos's helplessness against the suitors. So, basically, nothing new. Still disguised as a beggar, Odysseus tries to tell Eumaios that Odysseus is not dead and will come back. The swineherd kind of rolls his eyes, and changes the subject. Odysseus makes up an elaborate story about being a commoner from Crete, who coincidentally has suffered many of the same trials that Odysseus did. In his made-up story, he that he's heard Odysseus had just left an island when the beggar arrived. Odysseus is going to head home just as soon as he consults an oracle. Eumaios isn't convinced but it's pretty clear that the beggar's story has planted a seed of hope. He brings the beggar more food, making a big deal about treating his guest as Odysseus would've wished. Beggar Odysseus is touched. After dinner, Odysseus wants to beg for a cloak so he can sleep, but tells a witty story instead. Ah, but this is the kind of story that carries a subtle message, in this case, "Give me a cloak please." Eumaios, who is one sharp swineherd, gets the message and gives the beggar a fine heavy cloak. He tells him to stay at the hut until Telemachos returns and can give him passage wherever he wishes.

Author Notes: Sophocles (Oedipus)

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Author Notes: Virgil (The Aeneid)

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Important Terms

apostrophe- character speaks to or about an entity that is not there; usually during an emotional time catharsis- purgation of pity and fear; an emotional purging that is the end goal of tragedy tragedy (in drama)- a play written in verse or prose that recounts an important and related series of events in the life of a person of significance, usually of Noble birth. (Such events culminate [or end] in a catastrophe.) The tone of the play as a whole is one of seriousness and great dignity. tragic hero- the protagonist of the play, someone who is better then the average person (both by birth and in character) who is taken from happiness to misery in the course of the play. tragic flaw- a defect or inconsistency in the character of the hero which, combined with circumstances beyond his or her control, leads to the protagonist's misery and/or destruction. kommos- in Greek literature it is a scene of lamentation, structured in lyrical meters, that takes place between one character and the chorus.