1. The Sociological Perspective

Verstehen

(German for "understanding" or "insight") to gain the ability to see the world as others see it.

Functionalist Perspective

(also known as functionalism and structural functionalism) the sociological approach that views society as a stable, orderly system.

Feminist Approch

(or "feminism") directs attention to women's experiences and the importance of gender as an element of social structure.

Capitalist Class

(or bourgeoisie) comprises those who own and control the means of production—the tools, land, factories, and money for investment that form the economic basis of a society.

Working Class

(or proletariat) is composed of those who must sell their labor because they have no other means to earn a livelihood.

Middle-Income Countries

(sometimes referred to as developing countries) nations with industrializing economies, particularly in urban areas, and moderate levels of national and personal income.

High-Income Countries

(sometimes referred to as industrial countries) nations with highly industrialized economies; technologically advanced industrial, administrative, and service occupations; and relatively high levels of national and personal income.

Low-Income Countries

(sometimes referred to as underdeveloped countries) primarily agrarian nations with little industrialization and low levels of national and personal income.

Early Social Thinkers

(such as Auguste Comte, Harriet Martineau, Herbert Spencer, and Emile Durkheim) were interested in analyzing social order and stability, and many of their ideas had a dramatic influence on modern sociology.

Commonsense Knowledge

guides ordinary conduct in everyday life.

Weak Economy

has a negative influence on people's opportunities and spending patterns.

Three Major Theoretical Perspectives

have emerged in sociology: the functionalist, conflict, and symbolic interactionist perspectives.

The First Department of Sociology

in the United States was established at the University of Chicago, where the faculty was instrumental in starting the American Sociological Society (now known as the American Sociological Association).

The Second Department of Sociology

in the United States was founded by W. E. B. Du Bois (1868-1963) at Atlanta University.

Expressive Tasks

including housework, caring for the children, and providing emotional support for the entire family.

Myth

is a popular but false notion that may be used, either intentionally or unintentionally, to perpetuate certain beliefs or "theories" even in the light of conclusive evidence to the contrary.

Symbolic Interactionism

is a sociological perspective that is influential in many areas of the sociological discipline. It is particularly important in micro-sociology and social psychology.

Race

is a term used by many people to specify groups of people distinguished by physical characteristics such as skin color; in fact, there are no "pure" racial types, and the concept of race is considered by most sociologists to be a social construction that people use to justify existing social inequalities.

Symbol

is anything that meaningfully represents something else. Examples of symbols include signs, gestures, written language, and shared values.

Technological Control

is apparent in the credit card industry. These technologies range from the computerized system that determines whether a new credit card will be issued to cards embedded with computer chips, ATM machines, and online systems that permit instantaneous transfers of funds.

Calculability

is demonstrated by scorecards that allow lenders to score potential borrowers based on prior statistics of other people's performance in paying their bills.

Jane Addams (1860-1935)

is one of the best-known early women sociologists in the United States because she founded Hull House, one of the most famous settlement houses, in an impoverished area of Chicago. Throughout her career, she was actively engaged in sociological endeavors: She lectured at numerous colleges, was a charter member of the American Sociological Society, and published a number of articles and books.

Class

is the relative location of a person or group within the larger society, based on wealth, power, prestige, or other valued resources.

Class Conflict

is the struggle between the capitalist class and the working class.

Efficiency

means reaching a specific end rapidly while using the least amount of cost and effort.

Predictability of Credit Cards

means that if the cardholder is current on paying bills and the merchant accepts that kind of card, the cardholder will not be turned down on a purchase.

Symbolic Communication

occurs in a variety of forms, including facial gestures, posture, tone of voice, and other symbolic gestures (such as a handshake or a clenched fist).

Symbolic Interaction

occurs when people communicate through the use of symbols; for example, a gift of food—a cake or a casserole—to a newcomer in a neighborhood is a symbol of welcome and friendship.

Talcott Parsons (1902-1979)

perhaps the most influential contemporary advocate of the functionalist perspective, stressed that all societies must provide for meeting social needs in order to survive.

Inconspicuous Consumption

perhaps to maintain a low public profile or out of fear for their own safety or that of other family members.

Commodities

products that workers produce.

Sociological Studies

range in size from a focus on entire nations and large-scale organizations and institutions to an analysis of small groups and individual interactions.

Max Weber (1864-1920)

recognized the importance of economic conditions in producing inequality and conflict in society but added power and prestige as other sources of inequality. Weber (1968/1922) defined power as the ability of a person within a social relationship to carry out his or her own will despite resistance from others, and prestige as a positive or negative social estimation of honor (Weber, 1968/1922).

Use Value

refers to objects that people produce to meet their personal needs or the needs of those in their immediate surroundings.

Sex

refers to the biological and anatomical differences between females and males.

Ethnicity

refers to the cultural heritage or identity of a group and is based on factors such as language or country of origin.

Gender

refers to the meanings, beliefs, and practices associated with sex differences, referred to as femininity and masculinity.

Subjective Reality

refers to the reality inside your mind.

Exchange Value

refers to the value that a commodity has when it is exchanged for money in the open market. In turn, this money is used to acquire other use values, and the cycle continues.

Macro-Level Analysis

roach that examines whole societies, large-scale social structures, and social systems.

Micro-Level Analysis

sociological theory and research that focus on small groups rather than on large-scale social structures.

Sociological Imagination

C. Wright Mills's term for the ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and the larger society.

Anomie

Emile Durkheim's designation for a condition in which social control becomes ineffective as a result of the loss of shared values and of a sense of purpose in society.

Social Facts

Emile Durkheim's term for patterned ways of acting, thinking, and feeling that exist outside any one individual but that exert social control over each person.

Social Darwinism

Herbert Spencer's belief that those species of animals, including human beings, best adapted to their environment survive and prosper, whereas those poorly adapted die out.

Harriet Martineau (1802-1876)

Until recently, Martineau received no recognition in the field of sociology, partly because she was a woman in a male-dominated discipline and society. Not only did she translate and condense Comte's work, but she was also an active sociologist in her own right. Martineau studied the social customs of Britain and the United States and analyzed the consequences of industrialization and capitalism.

Alienation

a feeling of powerlessness and estrangement from other people and from themselves.

C. Wright Mills (1916-1962)

a key figure in the development of contemporary conflict theory, encouraged sociologists to get involved in social reform. Mills encouraged everyone to look beneath everyday events in order to observe the major resource and power inequalities that exist in society.

Society

a large social grouping that shares the same geographical territory and is subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations.

Robert E. Park (1864-1944)

a member of the Chicago faculty, asserted that urbanization had a disintegrating influence on social life by producing an increase in the crime rate and in racial and class antagonisms that contributed to the segregation and isolation of neighborhoods (Ross, 1991).

Theory

a set of logically interrelated statements that attempts to describe, explain, and (occasionally) predict social events.

Power Elite

a small clique composed of the top corporate, political, and military officials.

Triad

a social group with three members.

Dyad

a social group with two members.

Consumer Society

a society in which discretionary consumption is a mass phenomenon among people across diverse income categories.

Patriarchy

a system in which men dominate women and in which things that are considered to be "male" or "masculine" are more highly valued than those considered to be "female" or "feminine."

Positivism

a term describing Auguste Comte's belief that the world can best be understood through scientific inquiry.

Strong Economy

also makes it possible for more people to purchase more goods and services.

Salon

an open house held to stimulate discussion and intellectual debate.

George Herbert Mead (1863-1931)

another member of the faculty at Chicago, founded the symbolic interaction perspective, which is discussed later in this chapter. Mead made many significant contributions to sociology. Among these were his emphasis on the importance of studying the group ("the social") rather than starting with separate individuals. Mead also called our attention to the importance of shared communication among people based on language and gestures.

Postmodern Theories

are based on the assumption that the rapid social change that occurs as societies move from modern to postmodern (or postindustrial) conditions has a harmful effect on people. One evident change is the significant decline in the influence of social institutions such as the family, religion, and education on people's lives.

Personal Troubles

are private problems that affect individuals and the networks of people with which they regularly associate.

Public Issues

are problems that affect large numbers of people and often require solutions at the societal level.

Dysfunctions

are the undesirable consequences of any element of a society. A dysfunction of education in the United States is the perpetuation of gender, racial-ethnic, and class inequalities.

Feminist Perspective

assumes that gender is socially created, rather than determined by one's biological inheritance, and that change is essential in order for people to achieve their human potential without limits based on gender.

W. E. B. Du Bois (1868-1963)

at Atlanta University. He created a laboratory of sociology, instituted a program of systematic research, founded and conducted regular sociological conferences on research, founded two journals, and established a record of valuable publications.

Systematic Study

because sociologists apply both theoretical perspectives and research methods (or orderly approaches) to examinations of social behavior.

Booming Economy

benefits other social institutions, including the family (members are gainfully employed), religion (churches, mosques, synagogues, and temples receive larger contributions), and education (school taxes are higher when property values are higher).

Auguste Comte (1798-1857)

coined the term sociology from the Latin socius ("social, being with others") and the Greek logos ("study of") to describe a new science that would engage in the study of society. Even though he never actually conducted sociological research, Comte is considered by some to be the "founder of sociology."

Scientific (Positivistic) Stage

explanations are based on systematic observation, experimentation, comparison, and historical analysis.

Metaphysical Stage

explanations were based on abstract philosophical speculation.

Theological Stage

explanations were based on religion and the supernatural.

Social Dynamics

forces for conflict and change.

Social Statics

forces for social order and stability.

Manifest Functions

functions that are intended and/or overtly recognized by the participants in a social unit.

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)

was an avowed critic of some of Spencer's views while incorporating others into his own writing. Durkheim stressed that people are the product of their social environment and that behavior cannot be fully understood in terms of individual biological and psychological traits. He believed that the limits of human potential are socially based, not biologically based. As Durkheim saw religious traditions evaporating in his society, he searched for a scientific, rational way to provide for societal integration and stability (Hadden, 1997).

Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)

was born in a more peaceful and optimistic period in his country's history. Spencer's major contribution to sociology was an evolutionary perspective on social order and social change.

Georg Simmel (1858-1918)

was theorizing about society as a web of patterned interactions among people. The main purpose of sociology, according to Simmel, is to examine social interaction processes within groups.

Dramaturgical Analysis

which envisions that individuals go through their life somewhat like actors performing on a stage, playing out their roles before other people.

Instrumental Tasks

which involve leadership and decision-making responsibilities in the home and employment outside the home to support the family.

Robert K. Merton (1910-2003)

who distinguished between manifest and latent functions of social institutions.

George Herbert Mead (1863-1931) and Herbert Blumer (1900-1986)

who is credited with coining the term symbolic interactionism.

Karl Marx (1818-1883)

stressed that history is a continuous clash between conflicting ideas and forces. He believed that conflict—especially class conflict—is necessary in order to produce social change and a better society. For Marx, the most important changes were economic. He concluded that the capitalist economic system was responsible for the overwhelming poverty that he observed in London at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution (Marx and Engels, 1967/1848).

Scociologists

study human societies and their social interactions to develop theories of how human behavior is shaped by group life and how, in turn, group life is affected by individuals.

Methodological Dimensions

the application of scientific knowledge to both physical and social phenomena.

Conspicuous Consumption

the continuous public display of one's wealth and status through purchases such as expensive houses, clothing, motor vehicles, and other consumer goods.

Status Quo

the existing state of society.

Double-Consciousness

the identity conflict of being both a black and an American.

Urbanization

the process by which an increasing proportion of a population lives in cities rather than in rural areas.

Industrialization

the process by which societies are transformed from dependence on agriculture and handmade products to an emphasis on manufacturing and related industries.

Postmodern Perspectives

the sociological approach that attempts to explain social life in contemporary societies that are characterized by postindustrialization, consumerism, and global communications.

Conflict Perspectives

the sociological approach that views groups in society as engaged in a continuous power struggle for control of scarce resources.

Symbolic Interactionist Pespectives

the sociological approach that views society as the sum of the interactions of individuals and groups.

Sociology

the systematic study of human society and social interaction.

Law of the Three Stages

the theological, metaphysical, and scientific (or positivistic) stages.

Social and Political Dimensions

the use of such knowledge to predict the likely results of different policies so that the best one could be chosen.

Fetishism of Commodities

to describe the situation in which workers fail to recognize that their labor gives the commodity its value and instead come to believe that a commodity's value is based on the natural properties of the thing itself.

Latent Functions

unintended functions that are hidden and remain unacknowledged by participants.

Max Weber (1864-1920)

was also concerned about the changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution. Although he disagreed with Marx's idea that economics is the central force in social change, Weber acknowledged that economic interests are important in shaping human action. Even so, he thought that economic systems are heavily influenced by other factors, such as religion, in a society.

Thorstein Veblen (1857-1929)

was an American economist and sociologist, and leader of the institutional economics movement. Veblen is credited for the main technical principle used by institutional economists, known as the Veblenian dichotomy.