1102 final
occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus -New car = beeping until you buckle your seatbelt -Reinforces good behavior with annoying things
Negative Reinforcement
Conditioned Response (CR)
Learned response
-attention -retention -motivation -reproduction
Learning and Reproduction Contingencies
Latent Learning
Learning that occurs but remains hidden until there is a need to use it.
Observational Learning
Learning that occurs through observing and imitating another's behavior. Relies on mental processes: attention, retention, motor reproduction, and reinforcement.
Massed Learning
Learning/studying/preparing happens all at once
Distributed Learning
Learning/studying/preparing is spread out over a certain time frame
Gestation Period
Length of Pregnancy
What is an effective drug for Bipolar Disorder?
Lithium salt
Explain the Rosenzweig and Krech rat experiment
MArk Rosenzweig and David Krech raised rats either alone in an environment without play-things, or with other rats in an environment enriched with playthings changed daily. In the experiment, rats in the enriched environment developed significantly more cerebral cortex (relative to the rest of the brain's tissue) than did those in the impoverished environment.
Histrionic Personality Disorder
Marked by emotional ATTENTION-SEEKING behavior in which the person needs to be the center of attention. The person with histrionic personality disorder is impulsive and melodramatic and may act flirtatious or provocative
goals, link
Martin and Tesser believe _____ are structured in hierarchies and that people pursue lower-level goals in order to reach higher level ones. The hierarchies are very subjective and people differ in how much they _____ lower and higher order goals.
According to surveys, who wants sex more: men or women?
Men
What are the female and male landmarks of puberty?
Menarche and spermarche
What happens mid-life in women?
Menopause, less likely to get pregnant after a single act of intercourse.
Cognitive Psychology ( The scientific study of information processing, thinking, and memory.)
Miller (1920- ). Piaget (1896-1980)
Why do racial groups differ in mental ability scores?
Minorities typically are more impoverished and are victims of discrimination. these attribute to decreased scores.
What is the promise of molecular genetics research?
Molecular geneticists study the molecular structure and function of genes, including those that affect behaviour. Psychologists and molecular geneticists are cooperating to identify specific genes - or more often, teams of genes - that put people at risk for disorders.
Harlows' Mothers Experiment
Monkeys were raised with two artificial mothers - one a bare wire cylinder with a wooden head and an attached feeding bottle, the other a cylinder with no bottle but covered with foam rubber and wrapped with terry cloth. The Harlows' discovery surprised many psychologists: the infants much preferred contact with the comfortable cloth mother, even while feeding from the nourishing mother.
reproducing learned responses if they pay-off (reinforcement) -Must care in order to reproduce
Motivation
What is the hindsight effect?
"I knew it all along" effect
Endorphins
"morphine within"--natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.
L Witmer
(1867-1956)
Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development
(not on MT, on FINAL)
Experimental group
(or treatment group) a group that receives the manipulation of the independent variable
What are the major advantages and disadvantages of descriptive/correlative research methods?
- *advantages:* broadens scope of phenomena that psychologists are able to study - *disadvantages:* investigators cannot control event to isolate cause and effect and therefore cannot demonstrate conclusively that two variables are casually related
sensory (afferent) neurons
- detect information from the physical world and pass that information along the brain - provide information from the skin and muscles
case study
- in-depth investigation of an individual subject - data collection techniques include: interviewing the subject, people who are close to the subjects, direct observation of the subject, examination of records, and psychological testing
positive correlation
- indicates that two variables co-vary in the same direction - if correlation is positive a plus sign (+) is used
confounding of variables
- occurs when two variables are linked together in a way that makes it difficult to separate an extraneous variable from a independent variable - as a result the specific effect of the independent variable is unclear
replication
- the repetition of a study to see whether the earlier results are duplicated - process helps identify and purge erroneous findings
examination of archival records
- the researcher analyzes existing institutional records (the archives), such as census, economic, medical, legal educational, and business records
Personality Inventories as trait
...
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
1) Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
Social
1)Social forces in behavior of individuals, 2) behavior of groups and individuals within a group ! inter-personal relationships 3) attitude formation & change
Four Parenting Styles
1. Authoritarian 2. Permissive 3. Uninvolved 4. Authoritative
Psychology goals
1. Description what is happening? 2. Explanation why is it happening? 3. Production will it happen again? 4. Control how can it be changed?
What are the different anxiety disorders?
1. Generalized Anxiety Disorder 2. Panic disorder 3. phobia 4. OCD 5. PTSD
the 6 steps to the scientific method
1. review the literature 2. formulate a hypothesis 3. design the study 4. collect the data 5. draw conclusion 6. report the findings
How many locations are there on the genome linked with schizophrenia?
108
When does self awareness happen?
15-18 months.
Early Adulthood
20 - 40 years (approx)
Middle Adulthood
40-65 years
Late Adulthood
65 years and up
Rooting Reflex
A baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple
the initial phase of learning something
Acquisition
expertise (as a component of creativity)
Acquisition of extensive knowledge in a field or endeavor.
Aerobic Exercise and Depression
Aerobic exercise might be even better than drugs for mild depression and anxiety. It also increases mood and energy levels. Mildly depressed college women who participated in an aerobic exercise program showed markedly reduced depression, compared with those who did relaxation exercises or received no treatment.
Social Cognitive Theories
Albert Bandura's theory of personality, which emphasizes the importance of observational learning, conscious cognitive processes, social experiences, self-efficacy beliefs, and reciprocal determinism. Theory that adds concerns with cognitive factors such as beliefs, self-perceptions, and expectation to social learning theory. Social cognitive theory distinguishes between enactive and vicarious learning
Self-concept
All our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"
What three elements are shared by all forms of psychotherapy?
All psychotherapies offer new hope for demoralized people; a fresh perspective; and (if the therapist is effective) an empathic, trusting and caring relationship. The emotional bond of trust and understanding between therapist and client - the therapeutic alliance - is an important element in effective therapy.
What is overactive in people with anxiety disorders?
Amygdala
Self Focus and Memory
Any information linked to the self is remembered better than other information.
Disadvantages of laboratory observation
Artificial situation that may result in artificial behavior
What happens to the brain as we age?
Atrophy, Speed of info processes decreases, the frontal lobes are the first to shrink.
Unconditioned Response (UR)
Automatic Response
Behavioral perspective's
Became a major force in the 20th century
Christine Wagner
Behavioral Neuroscience: effects of the maternal/ fetal interactions on neural development
What drug family do xanax and valium belong to?
Benzodiazepine
Compared to girls, what are boys better at?
Boys outperform girls in tests of spatial ability and complex math problems, but in math computation and overall math performance there is no difference between the sexes.
Willowbrook study
Children intentionally given hepatitis in an attempt to track the development of the viral infection
Categories of vulnerable patients
Children, elderly, mentally ill, etc
S Freud
Clinical Psychology & Psychiatry: the study of Psychopathology.
What is random assignment?
Critical to an experiment's success.
The effects of a teratogen depends on what four things?
Dose, time of exposure (during which stage), genetic susceptibility (some ppl more susceptible than others), and gender (males more vulnerable than females).
Active listening
Empathic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies. A feature of Rogers' client-centered therapy.
Correlation
Exists when two variables are related
Spontaneous Recovery
Extinct responses reappear
Practitioner
Focus is mainly on practice only, not research
Type A
Friedman and Rosenman's term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people
Type B
Friedman and Rosenman's term for easygoing, relaxed people.
Cognitive (people)
G. Miller (1920- ). J. Piaget (1896-1980)
communication, verbally, left
Gazzaniga's speculates that the two hemispheres may not be in complete ________. You may feel sad but not know why because it wasn't encoded _______.... the _____ hemisphere is left searching for a reason for your sadness.
What is associated with lowered levels of serotonin and GABA?
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Individualism
Giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications
Gestalt Psych
Good figure psychology started with Wertheimer who studied sensation and perception
Humanist
Held the view that people have free will
Stastical power
If we assume that error is random then the more data we collect, the more it will cancel itself out
Variability in data
If we follow the assumptions of the normal curve , then we understand that the mean of our sample is an approximate value of the population mean
Shaping
In operant conditioning, a procedure in which reinforcement guides behavior toward closer approximations of the desired goal.
Free Association
In psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing.
What does Paulus mean by the term innumerancy?
Indicates our inability to deal comfortably with numbers and probability
does not originally produce a specific response -green star
Neutral Stimulus
During mania, you will find increased levels of what two neurotransmitters?
Norepinephrine and glutamate.
Put the following cell structures from smallest to biggest: Chromosome, DNA, Gene, Nucleotide
Nucleotide, DNA, Gene, Chromosome
Object permanence, pretend play, conservation, and abstract logic are developmental milestones for which of Piaget's stages, respectively?
Object permanence for the sensorimotor stage, pretend play for the preoperational stage, conservation for the concrete operational stage, and abstract logic for the formal operational stage.
Behavior
Observable and measurable actions of people and animals
Assumptions about error
Our data are distributed normally in a bell shaped curve distribution
Digital Dementia
Our modern day reliance on technology is negatively influencing and affecting cognitive functioning. Memory, learning, attention and concentration isn't as good as it used to be.
Blind observer
People who do not know what the research question is
Data Collection Techniques
Procedures for making empirical observations and measurements
Data Collection Techniques
Procedures for making empirical observations and measurements.
Stimulus Generalization
Process by which a conditioned response becomes associated with a stimulus that is similar but not identical to the original conditioned stimulus. (scared by golden retriever, scared of all dogs now).
Self-Actualization
Process by which people achieve their full potential. The right environment is essential for you to reach your full potential.
What are the Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors?
Prozac (fluoxetine), Zoloft, and Paxil.
What has achieved success with depression and anxiety?
Psychodynamic therapy
Behaviorism:
Psychology as the science of behavior Ivan P Pavlov (1849-1936) John Broadus Watson (1878-1958) B. Frederic Skinner (1904-1990)
converting the mental image into an overt behavior -May learn intellectually, but not physically = need to convert
Reproduction
Longitudinal study
Research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period
a reaction to a specific stimulus (e.g. salivation)
Response
cortex, experience
Roswenzwig's Paradigm: - 3 male rats hosen from each litter - Enriched cage, impoverished cage, control cage - Euthanized and brains measured and weighed - ________ increases in weight readily in response to ________ but the rest of the brain doesn't change much
-continuous reinforcement -intermittent/partial reinforcement
Schedules of Reinforcement
Behaviorism
Science of behavior that focuses on observable behavior only. Must be directly seeing and measured
events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforces -Penny and chocolate
Secondary Reinforcement
Terminal buttons
Small knobs at the end of axons that secrete chemicals called neurotransmitters
How did humanistic psychologists assess a person's sense of self?
Some rejected any standardized assessments and relied on interviews and conversations. Rogers sometimes used questionnaires in which people described their ideal and actual selves, which he later used to judge progress during therapy.
the reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of non-exposure to the conditioned stimulus -Hillary in LA building = when she hears the bell = feels anxiety again
Spontaneous Recovery
Linear additive model
States that the sample mean observed is equal to the population mean + the error to the population mean + error observed in that sample
Inferential Statistics
Statistics that are used to interpret data and draw conclusions
Inferential Statistics
Statistics that are used to interpret data and draw conclusions.
Relationship between stress and cancer
Stress suppresses the immune system. So those who are stressed are more likely to develop cancer.
Robert Rosenthal
Studied experimenter bias, a researcher's unintended influence on the behavior of subjects
Freud's patients
Suffered from nervous system orders with no apparent physical cause
Descriptive statistics
Summative methods to depict data in succinct ways
Tuskegee study
Syphilis study in Alabama, many blacks died and wives were infected
Scientific method
System of gathering data so the bias and error in measurement are reduced
Causes of Alzheimer's
Tangles and Plaque, Genetics, Cardiovascular DIsease, Inflammation, Free Radicals, Diet, Weight, Early Retirement.
Case of Little Albert
Taught to fear a white rat
two stimuli are paired close in time
Temporal Contiguity
Observer bias
Tendency of the observer to see what they are expected to see
Sign Tracking
Tendency to become more attached to CS than to the US, indicates an unusually high level of attachment to the CS.
DSM
The American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders
Which traits seem to provide the most useful information about personality variation?
The Big Five personality factors - conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness and extraversion (CANOE) - currently offer the clearest picture of personality. These factors are stable and appear to be found in all cultures.
corpus callosum
The ______ _______ separates the two hemisperes
neurogenesis
The formation of new neurons.
Correlation
The relationship between variable
Mode
The score that occurs most frequently in a distribution
Are SSRIs 1st, 2nd, 3rd, or 4th generation antidepressant drugs?
Third
Buspar
This medication (antianxiety), a non-benzodiazepine anti-anxiety med, does not appear to have any addictive potential.
Thorndike's Law of Effect
Thorndike's law stating that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened and that behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened.
How do psychologists use traits to describe personality?
Trait theorists see personality as stable and enduring patterns of behavior. They describe our differences rather than trying to explain them. Using factor analysis, they identify clusters of behaviour tendencies that occur together. Genetic predispositions influence many traits.
Psychotherapy
Treatment involving psychological techniques; consists of interactions between a trained therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth
Lithium Salt
Treats bipolar disorder. IT work ons depression AND mania. It works by keeping Glutamate levels in check.
Advantages of case study
Tremendous amount of detail
What are the first generation antidepressant drugs?
Tricyclics and MAO Inhibitors.
an unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning -something happens naturally = throwing up because of bad food
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
invokes a natural response without previous conditioning -spider with knives for hands
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
Latent Learning
Unreinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior. Learning is latent, stored cognitively in their memories but not yet expressed behaviorally.
Survey
Used to directly ask people about their thoughts and behaviors
Is attachment style the result of parenting or genetically influenced temperament?
VAn Den Boom (1994) recruited 100 babies and separated them into two groups and either sent kids moms to be trained on parenting or not. 68% of babies moms who got training became securely attached and 28% of the other group. So it's the parenting NOT the temperament.
Gender differences between men and women and hormones.
Verbal abilities linked with estrogen. During menstrual cycle, when there is increased estrogen, there are increased verbal abilities. In men, there is a link between testosterone and spatial ability. Decreased levels of estrogen equal increased spatial abilities.
Vivid case
Vivid (violent) cases are readily available to our memory and then influence our judgments of a group. estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind we presume such events are common.
Laboratory observation
Watching animals or human in a laboratory setting
What are two examples of anti-anxiety meds?
Xanax and valium
Are identical twins reared apart more similar than fraternal twins reared apart?
Yes
Electroconvulsive Therapy
a biomedical therapy for severely depressed patients in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient.
correlation
a measure of the relationship between two variables.
Temperament
a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity
Hypothesis
a specific, researchable prediction about what you expect to happen in your study
scatterplots
a visual description of correlational data negative, positive , zero, strong positive and strong negative
Cognitive-Behaviour Therapy
a widely practice integrative therapy that aims, not only to alter the way people think (cognitive therapy), but also to alter the way they act (behaviour therapy).
Sternberg's three intelligences
analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, practical intelligence
confounding variable
another difference between groups (extraneous variables)
variable
any factor that can take on more than one value
correlation
association between variables, not cause and effect
Anecdotal information
case studies are comprised of _______ which is a compilation of subjective opinions
Excitatory neurotransmitters
chemical secreted at terminal button that causes the neuron on the other side of the synapse to fire
Inhibitory neurotransmitters
chemical secreted at terminal button that prevents (or reduces ability of) the neuron on the other side of the synapse from firing
What are the Big Five personality factors and what are the strengths of using these factors?
conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism (emotional stability vs. instability), openness, and extraversion (CANOE). These factors may be objectively measured, with validity, and research suggests that these factors are relatively stable across the life span and apply to all cultures in which they have been studied.
animal research
controversial, strike a balance
What are some causes of antisocial personality disorder?
decreased serotonin levels, increased testosterone levels, neglect and abuse, alcoholic parent.
In the brains of people with bipolar disorder, you will find _____ axonal white matter or ____ fluid-filled ventricles.
decreased, enlarged.
motor neurons
direct muscles to contract or relax
measure
do the experiment
The Genain Quadruplets
female quadruplets who ALL developed schizophrenia, although each had different symptoms and severity (the odds of any 4 randomly selected people having schizophrenia is 1 in 100 million
Zygote
fertilized egg; called this during first two weeks
In the psychoanalytic view, conflicts unresolved during the first three psychosexual stages may lead to ___ at that stage
fixation
What are the negative symptoms of schizophrenia?
flat affect, alogia, avolition, attentional deficit.
biological (with example, Dona)
focus on how our biological systems interact with the learning environment and its influence on us. ex: problem with development of her brain
Interpersonal Psychotherapy
form of psychodyanamic treatment that focuses on helping clients improve current relationships
Violent criminals/psychopaths have smaller and less active ____ ____
frontal lobes
Aim of psychoanalysis
help patients reclaim their unconscious thoughts and feelings and give them insight into the origins of their disorders
Ask
hypothesis
Replication
inability to replicate a study is looked upon as a weakness
sample
is the collection of subjects selected for observation in an empirical study
operant conditioning
learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its favorable consequences in other words, a response from our environment to something that we choose to do
Latent Learning
learning that remains hidden until it is needed
observational
learning that takes place through the observation and imitations of another's behavior
observational learning
learning through observing the behavior of another person, Albert bandora, may be innate and genetic, learn through imitation, good thing for humans
Freud defined the healthy adult as one who is able to ____ and ___.
love, work.
Average of numbers within a given set
mean
Therapy is more likely to be helpful in those with the __(most/least) defined problems.
most. the more specific the problem, the greater the hope.
Does the control group receive treatment?
no
naturalistic observation
observing individuals' behaviors in a normal environment without trying to control/change the situation
Confounding variable
occurs when an uncontrolled variable (but related to the IV) obscures the real effect and gives a false impression that the IV is producing the changes, but is not.
Prosocial Behaviour
positive, constructive, helpful behaviour. This is regardless of any motivation.
Increase in dopamine means more ____ symptoms where a decrease in dopamine means more ___ symptoms.
positive, negative.
armchair psychology
practice of answering questions about human behavior and mental processes through observation and speculation
because she was autistic, we knew that she would be educated in special classes
predict
predict (with examples, Dona)
predict how organisms will behave in certain situations, ex: tries to predict when she will freeze because of too much stimuli in her environment
choose
random selection
Subordinate Goals
shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation
Mental Operation
solving problems by manipulating images in one's mind
right skewed distribution
some unusual high scores mean greater than the median
left skewed distribution
some unusual low scores mean less than the median
A creative environment (as a component of creativity)
sparks, supports, and refines creative ideas
Behavior
speech and physical movement
Broca's area
speech production
double-blind study
study in which neither the experimenter nor the subjects know if the subjects are in the experimental or the control group.
Teratology
study of birth defects
The Medical model
the concept that diseases have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and in most cases cured, for psychological disorders people are cured through therapy and hospitals.
conditioned response
the conditioned response is what is learned, a response that after being learned follows a previously neutral stimulus
Social Clock
the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement
Lobes
the different regions into which the cerebral cortex is divided
Mean
the mathematical (arithmetic) average. advantage: extremely useful information. disadvantage: very high or low scores can considerably mislead.
analyze
using statistics
concept of external factors
with this you are looking at outside factors that impact behavior and mental processes. Whether that be sociocultural which deals with how people and cultural things impact our behavior and mental processing or observable which is external environmental events
CPA's ethical guidelines
• Principle 1: Respect for the dignity of persons • Principle 2: Responsible caring • Principle 3: Integrity in relationships • Principle 4: Responsibility to society
Imprinting
The process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life.
Biological perspective
The psychological perspective thus emphasizes the influence of biology on behavior
Leaning perspective
The psychological point of view that emphasizes the effects of experience on behavior
Placebo group
a special type of "no treatment group in the sense that participants are aware they are involved in an experiment, but do not know which group they are in.
Dissociative Disorders
Disorders in which conscious awareness becomes separated (dissociated) from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings.
What does Stanovich contend the "Achilles heel" of cognition?
How our own though processes steer us wrong
Similarity in attraction
Not in personality. But in similarity of world view, number of kids you wanna have and sexal preference etc.
Crystallized Intelligence
One's accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age
Self-esteem
One's feelings of high or low self-worth
Behavior
Outward or overt actions and reactions
Spotlight Effect
Overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us)
-fixed ratio -variable ratio
Ratio Schedule
Attitudes-follow-behaviour principle
implies that although we cannot directly control all our feelings, we can influence them by altering our behavior (by torturing, our behaviours change our attitudes and make us believe they are more and more deserving of it)
EEG (electroencephalogram)
records brain waves
Through our ___ ___ we associate ourselves with certain groups and contrast ourselves with others.
social identities
Charles Osgood
social psychologist who advocated GRIT for conflict resolution
which approach, Japan has a particular kind of social phobia that doesn't exist in the U.S.
sociocultural
what is cross-cultural approach
sociocultural approach
inferential statistics
statistical analysis that allow researcher to draw conclusions about the results of there studies
Rene Descartes (1596-1650): A Radical Proposal.
1) Mind - Rational & Voluntary behavior 2) Body - Mechanistic & Involuntary Behavior 3) Mind-Body Interaction -- Hydraulic Model of brain function
The Science of Psychology naturalistic account of the cosmos
1) Socrates (460-399BC) 2) Plato (427-347BC) 3) Aristotle (384-322BC)
What influences and affects the timing of puberty?
genes, health, body size, physical activity, hormones/environmental factors, household functionality.
Humanistic therapists display what three things?
genuineness, acceptance and empathy.
___ are more likely to play in small groups.
girls
On orders from the cerebral cortex (via the hypothalamus and pituitary gland), the outer part of the adrenal glands secrete ______ stress hormones such as ____.
glucocorticoid, cortisol.
What are the key criticisms of evolutionary psychology?
1) Start with an effect and work backward to an explanation. 2) Don't recognize social and cultural influences. 3) absolve people from taking responsibility for their sexual behaviour. Evolutionary Psychologists respond that understanding our predisposition can help us overcome them. they also cite the value of testable predictions based on evolutionary principles as well as the coherence and explanatory power of those principles.
Developmental
1)Study of Human and animal development across the life span 2)Child psychology and early development 3)Adolescent Psychology 4) Geriatric Psychology
Three clusters of personality disorders
1. Avoidant Personality Disorder 2. Schizoid Personality Disorder 3. Histrionic Personality Disorder
Four Ways researchers studied infants' mental abilities
1. Brainwaves - attached electrodes to brain 2. Sucking Response - use sucking to see what babies do/don't like 3. Orienting Reflex - babies orient attention to new stimuli 4. Habituation - how much attention is given to a neutral stimulus, over time the attention given decreases
Advantages of laboratory observation
1. Controls over environment 2. Allows use of specialized equipment
What are the three techniques of classical conditioning?
1. Counterconditioning 2. systematic desensitization 3. aversive conditioning
Advantages of surveys
1. Data from a large number of people 2. study convert behaviors
participant observation
goal: description, observer becomes part of the group being observed
correlational study
goal: prediction, measure two variables to see if they are related
Einstein's brain
had larger than normal inferior parietal cortex, an area linked with mathematical and spatial reasoning. His frontal lobes had more convolutions, meaning it was more complex.
Therapeutic drugs that block dopamine receptors are most likely to reduce
hallucinations
How do you make a diagnosis of depression?
have five or more symptoms and have at least two weeks of the intense sadness.
What are the four components of emotional intelligence?
1. Perceiving emotions - to recognize them in faces, music and stories 2. Understanding emotions - to predict them and how they change and blend 3. Managing emotions - to know how to express them in varied situations 4. Using emotions to enable adaptive or creative thinking
Kohlberg's Three Stages of Moral Development
1. Preconventional 2. Conventional 3. Post conventional
Two dimensions to judge parenting style:
1. Warmth 2. Control
Two vital components for maintaining companionate love:
1. equity 2. self-disclosure
Counter-conditioning
A classical conditioning procedure for changing the relationship between a conditioned stimulus and its conditioned response.
self-fulfilling prophecy
having a strong belief or statement about a future behavior, and then trying to fulfill it (could be unconsciously)
Jigsaw Classroom
A classroom setting designed to reduce prejudice and raise the self-esteem of children by placing them in small, desegregated groups and making each child dependent on the other children in the group to learn the course material and do well in the class
Schema
A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.
Savant syndrome
A condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing
Relaxation Response
A condition of reduced muscle tension, cortical activity, heart rate, breathing rate, and blood pressure.
Confounding Variables
A condition that exists whenever two variables are linked in a way that makes it difficult to sort out their independent effects
Confounding of Variables
A condition that exists whenever two variables are linked together in a way that makes it difficult to sort out their independent effects.
Learned Helplessness
A condition that occurs after a period of negative consequences where the person begins to believe they have no control.
Thurstone
A critic of Spearman; analyzed his subjects NOT on a single scale of general intelligence, but on seven clusters of primary mental abilities including: Word Fluency, Verbal Comprehension, Spatial Ability, Perceptual Speed, Numerical Ability, Inductive Reasoning, and Memory.
Habituation
A decrease in responsiveness to repeated presentations of a stimulus; most often used to describe a reduction of respondent behavior as a function of repeated presentation of the eliciting stimulus over a short span of time.
Alogia
A decrease in speech or speech content; a symptom of schizophrenia. Also known as poverty of speech.
Immunosuppression
A decrease in the production of antibodies, which can lower a person's ability to fight disease.
Dysthmic Disorder
A depression but of lesser severity. It is characterized by chronic sadness. It is a sadness that permeate through all activities but does not interfere with activities.
Survey
A descriptive research method in which researchers use questionnaires or interviews to gather information about specific aspects of subjects' behaviour.
Naturalistic Observation
A descriptive research method in which the researcher engages in careful, usually prolonged, observation of behavior without intervening directly with the subjects.
Naturalistic Observation
A descriptive research method in which the researcher engages in careful, usually prolonged, observation of behaviour without intervening directly with the subjects.
Autism
A disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others' states of mind.
Negatively Skewed Distribution
A distribution in which most scores pile up at the high end of the scale.
Positively Skewed Distribution
A distribution in which scores pile up at the low end of the scale.
Peripheral nervous system
A division of the nervous system consisting of all nerves that are not part of the brain or spinal cord.
Variable
A factor that is measured or controlled in a scientific study
Cerebellum
A large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills.
Myelin sheath
A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.
Self esteem
A measure of how much you value and respect yourself
Mental age
A measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance
Recall
A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.
Correlation
A measure of the relationship between two variables
Dopamine
A monoamine neurotransmitter involved in motivation, reward, and motor control over voluntary movement.
cyclothymic disorder
A mood disorder characterized by moderate but frequent mood swings that are not severe enough to qualify as bipolar disorder.
Reticular formation
A nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal.
Hippocampus
A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.
Action potential
A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.
Hypothalamus
A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.
Dopamine
A neurotransmitter associated with movement, attention and learning and the brain's pleasure and reward system.
Secure attachment
A parent-infant relationship in which the baby is secure when the parent is present, distressed by separation, and delighted by reunion. Positive outcomes. Child thinks it does matter.
Conflict
A perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.
Journal
A periodical that publishes technical and scholarly material, usually in a narrowly defined area of inquiry.
Journal
A periodical that publishes technical and scholarly material, usually in a narrowly-defined area of inquiry
Symbolism
A person, place or thing that has meaning but also represents or stands for something else as well
Avoidant Personality Disorder
A personality disorder characterized by inhibition in social situations; feelings of inadequacy; oversensitivity to criticism. they want friends but avoid them because they are scared of criticism and judgment.
Antisocial Personality Disorder
A personality disorder in which the person (usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members. May be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist. Low levels of anxiety.
Experimenter Bias
A phenomenon that occurs when a researcher's expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained
Experimenter Bias
A phenomenon that occurs when a researcher's expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
A previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned Stimulus
A previously neutral stimulus that, because of pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, now causes a conditioned response.
What is peer review?
A procedure in which scientific papers are submitted to a journal and critiqued by several scientists who then submit their criticisms to an editor.
Stress
A process that involves an environmental event (a stressor), it's appraisal by the individual (is it challenging or threatening?) the various responses of the organism (physiological, emotional, cognitive, behavioral), and the re-evaluations that occur as a result f these responses and changes in the stressor.
Learning Perspective
A psychological approach that emphasizes how the environment and experience affect a person's or animal's actions; it includes behaviorism and social- cognitive learning theories.
Psychosis
A psychological disorder in which a person loses contact with reality, experiencing irrational ideas and distorted perceptions.
Self-serving bias
A readiness to perceive oneself favorably. For example, Card players who attribute their wins to their own skill and their losses to bad luck. We couldn't possibly have lost because someone is better than us.
Secondary Reinforcer
A reinforcer that acquires its positive value through an organism's experience; a secondary reinforcer is a learned or conditioned reinforcer.
Experiment
A research method in which the investigator manipulates a variable under carefully controlled conditions and observes whether any changes occur in a second variable as a result
Double-Blind Procedure
A research strategy in which neither subjects nor experimenters know which subjects are in the experimental or control groups
Double-Blind Procedure
A research strategy in which neither subjects nor the experimenters know which subjects are in the experimental or control groups.
Randomized control Trials
A research study in which participants are randomly assigned to the experimental group (which receives the intervention or treatment being evaluated) or to the control group (which does not receive the treatment).
id
A reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, acc to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.
Stratified sample
A sample drawn in such a way that known subgroups within a population are represented in proportion to their numbers in the general population
Theory
A series of interrelated ideas that is used to explain a set of observations.
Heritability
A statistical estimate of the proportion of the total variance in some trait that is attributable to genetic differences among individuals within a group
Factor Analysis
A statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie one's total score.
Reinforcement
A stimulus or event that follows a response and increases the frequency of that response.
Neutral Stimulus
A stimulus that has no signal value at all.
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
A stimulus that produces a response without prior learning.
Thalamus
A structure in the forebrain through which all sensory information (except smell) must pass to get to the cerebral cortex.
Response Set
A tendency to respond to questions in a particular way that is unrelated to the content of the questions
Response Set
A tendency to respond to questions in a particular way that is unrelated to the content of the questions.
Hypothesis
A tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables.
Achievement Test
A test designed to assess what a person has learned
Aptitude Test
A test designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn.
Behaviorism
A theory of learning that focuses solely on observable behaviors, discounting the importance of mental activity such as thinking, wishing, and hoping.
Counterconditioning
A therapy procedure based on classical conditioning that replaces a negative response to a stimulus with a positive response.
Axon
A threadlike extension of a neuron that carries nerve impulses away from the cell body.
Longitudinal study
A type of research in which the same people are studied over a long time period
Paranoid Schizophrenia
A type of schizophrenia that is dominated by delusions of persecution along with delusions of grandeur.
insight therapies
A variety of therapies which aim to improve psychological functioning by increasing the client's awareness of underlying motives and defenses
Centration
A young child's tendency to focus only on his or her own perspective of a specific object and a failure to understand that others may see things differently. So they may think a piece of chocolate is bigger but they fail to think about depth of the piece
code ethics
APA rules for research
Reliability
Ability of a test to yield very similar scores for the same individual over repeated testings
Central limit theorem
Ability to estimate the population mean. Means of a number of samples randomly drawn from any sort of distribution will themselves approximate a normal distribution, even if the population distribution is Not a normal distribution
Oedipus complex
According to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father.
Self Actualization
According to Maslow, the ultimate psychological need that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential
Accomodation
Adapting one's current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information.
Conformity
Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.
Inferiority Complex
Adler's conception of a basic feeling of inadequacy stemming from childhood experiences
Imaginary Audience
Adolescents' belief that they are the focus of everyone else's attention and concern.
Dual-Reuptake inhibitors
Affect Serotonin and Norepinephrine reuptake
Chronological Age
Age as measured in years from date of birth.
Alfred Adler
An Austrian medical doctor, psychotherapist, and founder of the school of individual psychology. His emphasis on the importance of the feelings of inferiority (inferiority complex) is an important part of personality development.
Agoraphobia
An abnormal fear of open or public places
Case study
An in-depth study of a single person or group to reveal some universal principle
Standard Deviation
An index of the amount of variability in a set of data
Standard Deveation
An index of the amount of variability in a set of data.
GABA
An inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.
Response
An observable reaction to a stimulus.
Token Economy
An operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats.
Avoidance Learning
An organism's learning that it can altogether avoid a negative stimulus by making a particular response.
Unconditioned Response (UR)
An unlearned reaction that is automatically elicited by the unconditioned stimulus.
Negative Reinforcers
An unpleasant stimulus that increases the frequency of behavior when it is removed.
obsession
An unwanted thought, word, phrase, or image that persistently and repeatedly comes into a person's mind and causes distress.
self
Anterior cingulate matures from ages 3-8, and _____-regulatory skills develop along with it.
Cross-cultural Psych
Anthropology: scientific study of evolution of human culture
SSRIs, reuptake, synapse
Antidepressants that affect only serotonin are called ______ (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors). They work by preventing the _______ of serotonin (and norepinepherine), thus leaving more of it in the ______ for the brain to use.
Variables
Any measurable conditions, events, characteristics, or behaviors that are controlled or observed in a study.
Variables
Any measurable conditions, events, characteristics, or behaviours that are controlled or observed in a study.
flat affect
Apparently emotionless demeanor (including toneless speech and can ant gaze) when a reaction would be expected.
Stereotype threat
Apprehension about confirming negative stereotypes related to one's own group. Being aware of such negative stereotype causes for us to perform worse.
Variables
Are any measurable conditions, events, characteristics, or behaviours that are controlled or observed in a study.
What might a psychodynamic therapist say about Mowrer's therapy for bed-wetting? How might a behaviour therapist reply?
he might be more interested in helping the child develop insight about the underlying problems that have CAUSED the bedwetting response; a behaviour therapist would be more likely to agree with Mowrer that the bedwetting symptom is the problem, and that COUNTERCONDITIONING the unwanted behaviour would indeed bring emotional relief
Heterogenous Group vs Homogenous Group
heterogenous - The group with which you belong has enough similarities to form a group but we know that within our group that we are all different. homogenous - all persons are all the same of the opposite group.
Are crime rates higher or lower in countries with greater disparities between rich and poor?
higher
If an identical twin has schizophrenia, the co-twin's chances of being similarly afflicted are higher if they shared a placenta, or if they had separate placentas like how fraternal twins do?
higher if they shared a placenta.
Pruning Process
highly used neural pathways strengthen, infrequently used pathways weaken
Receptor sites
holes in the surface of the dendrites or certain cells of the muscles and glands, which are shaped to fit only certain neurotransmitters
biopsychosocial (with example, Dona)
how biological, psychological, and social factors influences human health and illness. ex: are her symptoms a result of any of these influences
Warmth
how encouraging, supportive, responsive a parent is versus shaming
Cognitive (with example, Dona)
how we process, store, and using the information and who we react to this information. ex: developed her own signaling system
Validity (content)
how well the test measures the behavior for which it is intended
which approach, she tries very hard to control her autistic behaviors so she can learn and get a college degree
humanistic
which approach, Phobias can keep people from choosing certain careers
humanistic approach
a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables
hypothesis
Check point 3 #3: Explain the relationship between the mean and median in a right skewed distribution and in a left skewed distribution
in a right skewed the mean is greater than the median because the unusually high scores in the distribution distort it, the opposite is true for the left skewed distribution, the mean is less than the median because of the unusually low scores in the distribution distort it
Explain the relationship between environment and heritability.
As environments become more similar, heredity as a source of differences necessarily becomes more important. If all schools were of uniform quality, all families equally loving, and all neighbourhoods equally healthy, then heritability would increase (because differences due to environment would decrease). At the other extreme, if all people had similar heredities but were raised in drastically different environments (some in barrels, some in luxury homes), heritability would be much lower.
Curriculum Vita
As long as needed. Three major sections are research, teaching, and service. Only has academic items
Asch's Conformity Experiment
Asch asks subjects which lines are the same length. When asking people alone, 99% of people answer correctly; When in group 74% of people get wrong answer.
Neal Miller
Asserted the benefits of animal research outweigh the harm done
How is memory of bad and good events as we age?
At all ages, the bad feelings we associated with negative events fade faster than the positive. This contributes to most older people's sense that life, on balance has been mostly good.
What distinguishes imprinting from attachment?
Attachment is the normal process by which we form emotional ties with important others. Imprinting Occurs in animals that have a critical period very early in their development during which they must form their attachments and they do so in an inflexible manner.
Emotion-focused coping
Attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction. This is where you have no control over the problem, you zoom in on your emotions and deal with those.
Problem-focused coping
Attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor. This is where you have control over the problem, you zoom in on it and solve it.
social Control
Attempts by society to regulate people's thoughts and behavior (the power of the situation).
Flooding
Based on the principles of classical conditioning, a fear-reduction technique that involves exposing the individual to a harmless stimulus until fear responses to that stimulus are extinguished.
John B Watson
Based on the work of Ivan Pavlou who demonstrated that reflects could be learned
emotional, superficial, traumatic, crying, valuable
Basic Writing Paradigm: - Ss randomly assigned to two or more groups - wrote about either _____ or _______ topics 3-5 consecutive days for 15-30 mins - disclosed ______ events - many report _____/being upset afterward but most report that the experience was _______
Why is falsifiability important to science ?
Because it tells us what should happen, therefore showing us faults in our theories
Standard deviation
in a single number, it tells us how much the data are dispersed away from the mean. calculating it is one of the most useful and widely used statistical tools. the SMALLER the _______ the more accurate the picture is. A small _____ and a large sample size, is the best of all situations, giving a very accurate situation. If a _____ is 15, then that means it deviates from the average by 15 in each tier.
Animism
Belief that inanimate objects are alive
Culture
Beliefs, customs, and traditions of a specific group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.
What did Watson believe?
Believe that phobias were learned
After George learned that Mrs. Min suffered from schizophrenia, he mistakenly concluded that her tendencies to laugh easily and smile frequently were symptoms of her disorder. This best illustrates the:
Biasing Power. Labels will power us to start judging people based on that label.
Researchers believe that anxiety disorders are influenced by conditioning, observational learning and cognition. What biological factors contribute to these disorders?
Biological factors include inherited temperament differences; learned fears that have altered brain pathways; and outdated, inherited responses that had survival value for our distant ancestors.
Maturation
Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience (eg. learn to roll over before walking).
What biological factors make us prone to hurt one another?
Biology influences our threshold for aggressive behaviour at three levels: genetic (inherited traits), neural (activity in key brain areas), and biochemical (such as alcohol or excess testosterone of biology and experience).
Behavioral Neuroscience
Biology: scientific study of life processes
Central nervous system
Brain and spinal cord
Dendrites
Branchlike parts of a neuron that are specialized to receive information.
Walter Cannon
Came up with the flight-or-fight response; the instinctive physiological response preparing the body, when confronted with a threat to either fight or flee; an evolutionary survival dynamic.
Collective Unconscious
Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history
Collective Unconsciousness
Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history
Person-Centered Perspective
Carl Rogers; unconditional positive regard, an attitude of acceptance despite our failings, nurtures our growth and helps us develop a positive concept by being empathic
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
Causes an automatic response
Free Radicals
Chemicals that harm the bodies tissues by starting destructive chain reactions in the molecules of the bodies cells, such reactions are believed to trigger or worsen some diseases
Compare children with autism to children who do not have autism in terms of the theory of mind
Children with autism have difficulty understanding that in the Sally Experiment, Sally's state of mind differs from their own - that Sally, not knowing the ball has been moved, will return to the red cupboard. They also have difficulty reflecting on their own mental states and are less likely to use the pronouns I and Me.
Evidence-based Practice
Clinical decision-making that integrates the best available research with clinical expertise and patient characteristics and preferences
Edelgard Wulfet
Clinical program - gambling and alcohol abuse
Drew Anderson
Clinical program- eating-related issues
fMRI (functional MRI)
Combination of the MRI and PET scan
Downward social comparison
Comparing ourselves to people who are worse than we are with regard to a particular trait or ability
What criteria do true experiments have to have?
Comparison, control, and manipulation
a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning -cat salivating at the sound of any type of can being opened because it sounds like cat food being opened -Jim teaching Dwight to take an altoid whenever Jim turns off his computer (UCS = altoid, CS = turning off of the computer) -Hillary gets cookies/fudge whenever she goes to her parents' house = mouth waters when she goes to her parents' house (UCS = cookies/fudge, CS = parents' house, CR = mouth watering, NS = going to parents' house)
Conditioned Response (CR)
a previously neutral stimulus that has been paired with an UCS to produce the same response as the UCS -green star + knife spider = green star will evoke the same fear/horror as the knife spider did initially
Conditioned Stimulus
Involves learning associations between events Three types: Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Observational Learning
Conditioning
Mower's two-factor theory of learning: -We learn the fear through classical conditioning -We maintain the fear through operant conditioning -We avoid the thing we are afraid of = never exposed and don't have to deal with it
Conditioning and Phobia
-temporal contiguity -forward conditioning -backward conditioning
Conditioning and Time for Classical Conditioning
The Control Group
Consists of similar subjects who do not receive the special treatment given to the experimental group.
The Experimental Group
Consists of the subjects who receive some special treatment in regard to the independent variable.
Stroop test
Controlled vs. Automatic processing , color word task
Seasonal Affective Disorder
Controversial disorder in which a person experiences depression during winter months and improved mood during spring. Can be treated using light exposure therapy, phototherapy, using bright light and high levels of negative ions.
Faith factor
Correlation between the health and healing that postulates that religiously active people tend to live longer than those who are not religiously active.
energy, immune, memories, healing, damage
Cortisol is the stress hormone. Immediate benefits: spike in ______, activated ______ response, actives fear ______, and promotes wound _______. Over time, though, it causes ________. (increase blood pressure, lower immune system, insomnia)
context, persistance, distress, handicap, functioning
Criteria for Determining Mental Illness: 1) _______ of the behavior: appropriate or odd? 2) _______ of the behavior: infrequent bizarre behavior is one thing, but it's not okay to keep at it. 3) Subjective _______: are your thoughts, feelings, or behavior causing you or your loved ones distress? 4) Psychological ______: is the problem impacting your life satisfaction? 5) Effect on _______: does the problem impair how you function in life? may be the most important factor in diagnosis.
Walter Mischel
Critic of trait theories of personality; behavior determined by situation rather than by disposition. Traits are a poor predictors of behaviour.
integrate, synergistic effects, one
Critics of hemispheric dominance question this because each hemisphere has separate functions that the brain must ________ them instead of separating them. Hemispheres have _________ _______ - the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. No human activity uses only ____ side of the brain.
How do cultural norms affect our behaviour?
Cultural norms are understood rules that inform members of a culture about accepted and expected behaviours.
higher, depression, psychological
Current Study on Rumination: - Hypothesis: those with major depression would show ______ scores of measures of goal linking and rumination compared to both the other groups. --- those with major ______. --- those with _________ distress but without current major depression. --- control group
How has modern research developed our understanding of the unconscious?
Current research confirms that we do not have full access to all that goes on in our mind. but the current view of the unconscious is not that of a hidden storehouse filled with repressed feelings and thoughts. Rather, researchers see the unconscious as a separate and parallel track of information processing; priming; implicit memories of learned skills; instantly activated emotions; and self-concepts and stereotypes that filter information about ourselves and others.
Disorganized Schizophrenia
Disorganized speech or behavior, or flat or inappropriate emotion.
Ph.D.
Doctorate degree , a psychologist
Ed.D
Doctorate granted by a university based education dept rather than a psychology dept
What are bidirectionality problems ?
Does variable A cause variable B, or does B cause A?
Antianxiety Drugs
Drugs used to control anxiety and agitation.
Antidepressant drugs
Drugs used to treat depression; also increasingly prescribed for anxiety. Different types work by altering the availability of various neurotransmitters
How do parents and peers influence adolescents?
During adolescence, parental influence diminishes and peer influence increases. Adolescents adopt their peers' ways of dressing, acting and communicating. Parents have more influence in religion, politics and college and career choices.
How is EMDR in comparison to no treatment? Other treatments?
EMDR works better than no treatment but it is not as good as any other existing treatments out there.
-suppresses incorrect behavior -does not teach correct behavior -person delivering the punishment may become an aversive stimulus -models undesired behaviors
Effects of Punishment
reemerge, undermine
Effects of Suppression: - Many emotions associated with the unwanted thought _____ even more when the thought surges back into mind. - Eventually, the effort of suppression can lead the person to be overwrought with emotion and actually ______ bodily immune response.
When stressed, what is released?
Epinephrine and norepinephrine.
the gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response -High school intercom uses bell = free to go to next class/dread about going to next class -Physiological arousal (heart rate increases) -Now = no response = Hillary doesn't respond to bell ringing because she is so accustomed to its absence = hasn't been around it for a while
Extinction
when reinforcement is no longer presented after the behavior, the behavior eventually stops -Didn't show up for school when younger = got scolded; college = no consequence for not showing up = not as studious
Extinction (with reinforcement)
How do the flaws in the studies ultimately strengthen our body of knowledge?
Fact that all of the experiments are slightly different with different flaws contributes to the robustness of the findings and is a strength
Primary Reinforcers
Factors necessary to live such as food, water, adequate warmth
Secondary Reinforcers
Factors that have a learned value such as money, attention, social approval
delusions
False beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders
hallucinations
False sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus.
Albert Bandura
Famous for the Bobo Doll experiments on observational learning & influence in the Socio-Cognitive Perspective
Attitude
Feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people and events.
reinforce given for the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval -Get presents on Christmas every year if you're good
Fixed Interval
reinforce given after a fixed number of responses -Number of things you are able to sell = get reward
Fixed Ratio
What type of intelligence declines after young adulthood?
Fluid intelligence
Cognitive perspective
Focuses on memory intelligence perception problem solving and learning
Evolutionary perspectives
Focuses on the biological bases of universal mental characteristics that all humans share looks at the way the mind works and why it works as it does behavioral is seen as having an adaptive or survival value
HOw did Freud think People defended themselves against anxiety?
For freud, anxiety was the product of tensions between the demands of the id and super ego. The ego copes by using unconscious defense mechanisms, such as repressions, which he viewed as the basic mechanism underlying and enabling all the others.
B Lymphocytes
Form in the bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections.
T Lymphocytes
Form in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances
Classical Conditioning
Form of learning where one stimulus calls forth the response that is usually caused by another stimulus. Occurs when two stimuli have been associated with each other. HINT: Ivan Pavlov, Pavlov's Dog
Witmer
Founder first psychological clinic- university of pensivania- clinical psychology
What was Freud's view of personality?
Freud believe that personality results from conflict arising from the interaction among the mond's three systems: the id (pleasure-seeking impulses), ego (reality-oriented executive), and superego (internalized set of ideals, or conscience).
Six Defense Mechanisms
Freud believed that repression, the basic mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing impulses, enables other defence mechanisms, six of which are listed here.
What are three values that Freud's work in psychoanalytic theory has contributed? What are three ways in which Freud's work has been criticized?
Freud first drew attention to (1) the importance of childhood experiences, (2) the existence of the unconscious mind, and (3) our self-protective defense mechanisms. Freud's work has been criticized as (1) not scientifically testable (2) focusing too much on sexual conflicts in childhood and (3) based upon the idea of repression, which has not been supported by modern research.
Latency Stage (Freud's Psychosexual Stages)
Freud's fourth stage of psychosexual development where sexuality is repressed in the unconscious and children focus on identifying with their same sex parent and interact with same sex peers.
Genital Stage (Freud's Psychosexual Stages)
Freud's last stage of personality development, from the onset of puberty through adulthood, during which the sexual conflicts of childhood resurface (at puberty) and are often resolved during adolescence.
Pleasure Principle
Freud's theory regarding the id's desire to maximize pleasure and minimize pain in order to achieve immediate gratification.
Super Ego
Freud; "moral watchdog"; governs behavior by reality and morality, often taught by parents, church and/or community; standards develop through interaction; conscience; ego ideal
depression
Generalization of Seligman's Dog Study: - Learned helplessness is evident in humans and is a factor of ________. - elders in nursing home, increased risk of cancer in people who suffer loss, patients in hospitals
Wilhelm Wundt's psychology laboratory
Germany in 1879 develop the technique of object of introspection
Systematic Desensitization
Gradually exposed to fearful stimuli to overcome a fear while using relaxation techniques
GRIT
Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction -- a strategy designed to decrease international tensions.
Harlows' Blanket Experiment
Harlow took baby monkeys away from moms and raised them isolated. He gave them blankets and the monkey got very attached to them. This shows that attachment has nothing to do with food. It has to do with security.
Functionalism
How the mind allows people to adapt live work and play
Describe Bouchard's Experiment about Identical Twins
Identical Twins Jim Lewis and Jim Springer were separated shortly after birth and raised in different homes without awareness of each other. Research has shown remarkable similarities in the life choices of separated identical twins - they had dogs with the same names! This supports the idea that genes influence personality.
Epstein
If you're gonna use traits to predict behaviours than traits are poor predictors. If you gonna use them as an average prediction of how they're gonna behave, they're good predictors of behaviour.
experience, memories, memory loss
Implications for Roswenzwig's study: - changes in brain due to _______ might lead to more understanding of how ________ are stored in the brain. - could lead to interventions to prevent age-related ______ ____
Authoritarian Parenting
Impose rules and expect obedience. High control, low warmth.
Kitty Genovese
In 1964 a young women was attacked outside her NY apartment late at night . Despite fighting and shouting for help. No one came to her rescue and she was murdered. At least 40 neighbors heard he screams for help but nobody came to her aid. No one even called the police. When interviewed later the neighbors stated they felt it was lovers quarrel or none of my business. They passed the buck so to speak. This process is called diffusion of responsibility.
hippocampus
In 1968, it was discovered that glucocorticoids attach to the ______, where they influence a variety of cognitive functions and energy conserving bodily processes.
Intimacy
In Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood.
Oral Fixation
In Freud's personality theory, an excessive need for oral pleasures (such as eating, gum-chewing, or talking) that results from extreme denial or excessive indulgence of them during the first stage; may also be expressed through excessive dependence
Preconscious Area
In Freud's theory, an area where we temporarily store some thoughts which we can retrieve into conscious awareness. This is the surface of the water in the iceberg metaphor. AKA subconsciousness; where we can retrieve unconscious thoughts into our conscious awareness.
Dependent Variable
In an experiment, the variable that is thought to be affected by the manipulation of the independent variable
How do chronic and acute schizophrenia differ?
In chronic (or process) schizophrenia, the disorder develops gradually and recovery is doubtful. In acute (or reactive) schizophrenia, the onset is sudden, in reaction to stress and the prospects for recovery are brighter.
Unconditioned Stimulus
In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits an unlearned, naturally occurring response.
Unconditioned Response
In classical conditioning, an unlearned response.
Discrimination
In classical conditioning, the ability to distinguish the conditioned stimulus from other stimuli that are similar.
Extinction
In classical conditioning, the disappearance of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus no longer follows a conditioned stimulus.
Free association
In psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing.
Interpretation
In psychoanalysis, the analyst's noting supposed dream meanings, resistances, and other significant behaviors and events in order to promote insight
How did Sigmund Freud's treatment of psychological disorders lead to his view of the unconscious mind?
In treating patients whose disorders had no clear physical explanatation, Freud concluded that these problems reflected unacceptable thoughts and feelings, hidden away in the unconscious mind. To explore this hidden part of a patient's mind, Freud used free association and dream analysis.
what is one reason for the delay in effectiveness of antidepressants?
Increased serotonin promotes neurogenesis - the birth of new brain cells, perhaps reversing stress-induced loss of neurons.
Percentile Score
Indicates the percentage of people who score at or below a particular score.
Informational Social Influence
Influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality
Practical intelligence
Intelligence that is required for everyday tasks (e.g. street smarts).
Creative intelligence
Intelligence that makes us adapt to novel situations, generating novel ideas.
Case study
Intensive examinations of individual lives and organizations
Mental Processes
Internal convert activity of our minds
Assimilation
Interpreting one's new experience in terms of one's existing schemas.
-fixed interval -variable interval
Interval Schedule
Acc to Erik Erikson, what are the two basic aspects that dominate adulthood?
Intimacy and Generativity
Group Think
Irving Janis's term for social process in which members of a group attempt to conform their opinions to what they believe to be the consensus of the group, even if, as individuals, they may consider that opinion wrong or unwise.
Frequency Polygon
Is a line figure used to present data from a frequency distribution.
Double-Blind Procedure
Is a research strategy to which neither subjects nor experimenters know which subjects are in the experimental or control groups.
Frequency Distribution
Is an orderly arrangement of scores indicating the frequency of each score or a group of scores.
Mean
Is the arithmetic average of the scores in the distribution.
Sample
Is the collection of subjects selected for observation in an empirical study.
Meta-Analysis
Is the combination of the statistical results of many studies of the same question, yielding an estimate of the size and consistency of a variables effects.
Independent Variable
Is the condition or event that an experimenter varies in order to see its impact on another variable.
Dependent Variable
Is the variable that is thought to be affected by manipulation of the independent variable.
How does the perspective explain anxiety disorders?
It considers the role that fears of life-threatening animals, objects or situations played in natural selection and evolution; genetic predispositions for high levels of emotional reactivity and neurotransmitter production; and abnormal responses.
How does peer review protect us from pseudoscience?
It helps because our paper will not get published by a legitimate journal if not scientific
Psychology as the science of behavior ( Big three)
Ivan P Pavlov (1849-1936) John Broads Watson (1878-1958) Frederic Skinner (1904-1990)
Behavioral Neuroscience ( people)
K. Lashley (1890 - 1958) D. Hebb (1905-1985)
Negative reinforcement good? -Yes, because it creates a good outcome Love/affection primary or secondary? -Primary reinforce = basic need Docked 5 pts for forgetting name; what type of reinforcement? -Negative reinforcement
Knowledge Check
Laboratory Observation
Laboratory observations involve watching animals or people in an artificial but controlled situation, such as a laboratory. Laboratory settings have the disadvantage of being an artificial situation that might result in artificial behavior.
Infantile Amnesia
Lack of memory for experiences that occurred prior to 3 years of age.
Cell body
Largest part of a typical neuron; contains the nucleus and much of the cytoplasm
When and why were intelligence tests created?
Late 1800's- Francis Galton believed genius was inherited; attempted but failed to construct a simple IT. France, 1904, Alfred Binet leaned toward enviro explanation, started the modern IT movement by developing questions that predict children's progress in school. 20th century, Lewis Terman revised Binet's work: intelligence is inherited, IT used to doc scientists assumptions about innate inferiority of certain ethnic and immigrant groups.
Classical Conditioning
Learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an innately meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response. (Ivan Pavlov and stimulus pairing)
Conditioning
Learning that involves stimulus-response connections
Operant Conditioninhg
Learning that is strengthened when behavior is followed by positive reinforcement
Associative learning (Classical and Operant Conditioning)
Learning that occurs when an organism makes a connection, or an association, between two events.
Scientifically acceptable p value to determine statistical significance
Less than .05
Probability value
Level of marginal significance within a statistical hypothesis test
greater, catastrophize, negative
Linkers report _____ rumination, negative affect, and unhappiness. They tend to _______ events and experience a greater _____ impact of daily hassles/stress on their mood and symptoms of physical health compared to nonlinkers.
Why does perceived loss of control predict health problems?
Losing control provokes an outpouring of stress hormones. When humans feel unable to control their environment, stress hormone levels rise, blood pressure increase and immune responses drop.
complex
Malacarne studied pairs of dogs and birds from the same litter/nest. He trained one pair and left the other untrained. He autopsied their brains and discovered that the trained animal's brains were more _______.
genetic, generations
Maternal Care and Early Life Stress: - Study on rats: maternal caretaking can change the way ______ information is expressed,and this can persists across ________.
IV. Gestalt: Psychology as the study of holistic behavioral and perceptual processes:
Max Wertheimer (1880-1943) Kurt Koffka (1886-1941) WolfgangKohler(1887-1967)
Three measures of central tendency
Mean, median, mode
Psychiatrist
Medical Doctor Who has specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders
In terms of physical aggression, and not relational aggression (excluding people), who is more likely to be aggressive?
Men
Who is more likely to commit suicide or have alcohol dependence?
Men
Intelligence
Mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.
Edward B Titchner (1867-1927)
Method of Introspection to uncover the nature of consciousness
cognitive perspective
Modern perspective in psychology that focuses on memory, intelligence, perception, problem solving, and learning.
Psychodynamic perspectives
Modern version of psychoanalysis
psychodynamic perspective
Modern version of psychoanalysis that is more focused on the development of a sense of self and the discovery of motivations behind a person's behavior other than sexual motivations.
brain, spinal cord
Name the two components of the CNS.
Naturalistic Observation
Naturalistic observations involve watching animals or people in their natural environments but have the disadvantage of lack of control.
Neuron
Nerve cell
Will a pair of adopted children or identical twins have more similar religious beliefs if reared apart?
No, it will be more similar if reared together.
Do the experiences of identical twins rather than their genes account for similarity?
No, studies have shown that identical twins whose parents treated them alike were not psychologically more alike than identical twins who treated less similarly. This means that it comes down to genes.
Are psychological factors directly related to schizophrenia?
No, they may trigger the onset though.
Are we most likely to conform when we are in groups of 2+?
No, three or more.
Are we most likely to conform when we have made a commitment to a response?
No.
Do terminally ill and bereaved people go through identical predictable stages?
No. However one study found that yearning for a loved one reach a peak four months after the loss, with anger peaking about a month later.
Does research support the idea of mid-life crisis?
No. Job dissatisfaction, unhappiness, marital dissatisfaction, divorce, anxiety and suicide do not surge during the early forties.
How does rTMS work?
Not sure. It stimulates the brain's left frontal lobe, which is relatively inactive during depression. Repeated stimulation may cause nerve cells to form new functioning circuits through the process of long-term potentiation.
responding is influenced by observing others model behavior (vicarious reinforcement) -monkey see monkey do -Albert Bandura and the "Bobo Doll Experiment"
Observational Learning
Placebo Effects
Occur when participants expectations lead them to experience some change even though they receive empty, fake, or ineffectual treatment.
Frontal Lobe Maturation
Occurs during late adolescent or early adulthood. Frontal lobes are the seed of higher mental functioning. Lawyers use this as a defense in court.
Reactivity
Occurs when a subjects behaviour is altered by the presence of an observer.
Confounding of Variables
Occurs when two variables are linked together in a way that makes it difficult to sort out their specific effects.
What is random sampling ?
One in which all people in a population being studied have an equal chance of being selected for the study. External validity
Fluid Intelligence
One's ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood
fluid intelligence
One's ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood
Gender Identity
One's sense of being male or female
emotions occur in pairs of opposites -fear/relief -pain/pleasure -Ex: Christmas = super happy, but when it's over = sad/sick of it
Opponent Process Theory
How well do personality test scores predict our behaviour?
Our scores on personality tests predict our average behavior across many situations much better than they predict our specific behavior in any given situation
Operant Conditioning
People and animals learn to do something (or not to do something) by the consequences of the actions
A loved one's death triggers what range of reactions?
People do not grieve in predictable stages, as was once supposed. Strong expression of emotion do not purge grief, and bereavement therapy is not significantly more effective than grieving without such aid. Erikson viewed the late-adulthood psychosocial task as developing a sense of integrity (vs despair).
Double Depression
People who flip back and forth between major depressive episodes to dysthmic depression. A moderately depressed mood that persists for at least 2 years and is punctuated by periods of major depression
analytical, wrong
People who ruminate remain stuck in ______ mode and worry about future events and imagine everything that could go ______.
Philosophers
People who seek wisdom and knowledge through thinking and discussion.
How does the existence of savant syndrome support Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences?
People with savant syndrome have limited mental ability overall but one or more exceptional skills, which , according to Howard Gardner, suggest that our abilities come in separate packages rather than being fully expressed by one general intelligence that encompasses all of our talents.
Theory of Mind
People's ideas about their own and others' mental states -- about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts and the behavior these might predict.
What is apophenia?
Perceiving meaningful connections between random phenomena
Anecdotal Evidence
Personal stories about specific incidents and experiences.
Schizoid Personality Disorder
Pervasive pattern of detachment for social relationships. A type of personality disorder characterized by social aloofness and limited range of emotional expression
Scientists
PhD level researchers, statisticians and Prof in specific content areas
Stanford Prison Experiment
Philip Zimbardo's study of the effect of roles on behavior. Participants were randomly assigned to play either prisoners or guards in a mock prison. The study was ended early because of the "guards'" role-induced cruelty.
What was a famous case study
Phineas Gage
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions.
Conservation
Piaget's term for the awareness that physical quantities remain constant in spite of changes in their shape or appearance.
Violent Video Games
Playing violent video games increased aggression, they become more hostile, display desensitization to violence, and they become more likely to express dehumanized perceptions of immigrant outgroups.
adding or applying an aversive stimulus -Speeding ticket -Hillary trying to make her ex clean up
Positive Punishment
occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus -Penny and chocolate
Positive Reinforcement
Positive Support
Positive interactions should outnumber the negative ones by a ratio of 5:1
Post-Traumatic Growth
Positive psychological changes as a result of struggling with extremely challenging circumstances and life crises
What are the ages at which the stages of Moral Development occur?
Preconventional - before age nine. Conventional - early adolescence. Post-conventional - adolescence and beyond.
Biomedical Therapy
Prescribed medications or medical procedures that act directly on the patient's nervous system
Psychology is a science
Prevents possible biases from leading to faulty observations for precise and careful measurements
What are projective tests, how are they used and what are some criticisms of them?
Projective tests attempt to assess personality by showing people vague stimuli with many possible interpretations; answers reveal unconscious motives. One such test, the Rorschach inkblot test, has low reliability and validity.
Two main categories of therapies
Psychological Therapies and Biomedical therapies
Freud's idea of the mind structure
Psychologists have used an iceberg image to illustrate Freud's idea that the mind is mostly hidden beneath the conscious surface. Note that the id is totally unconscious, but ego and superego operate both consciously and unconsciously. Unlike the parts of a frozen iceberg, however, the id, ego and superego interact.
Functionalism
Psychology as the study of the function of consciousness & behavior: William James (1842-1910) Edward L Thorndike (1874-1949)
any consequence that weakens a response -I do not like the cone of shame
Punishment
How does day care affect children?
Quality day care, with responsive adults interacting with children in a safe and stimulating environment, does not appear to harm children's thinking and language skills. Some studies have linked extensive time in daycare with increased aggressiveness and defiance, but other factors - the child's temperament, the parents' sensitivity and the family's economic and educational levels and culture-also matter.
Advantages of natural observation
Realistic picture of behavior
Diffusion of responsibility
Reduction in sense of responsibility often felt by individuals in a group; may be responsible for the bystander effect
Variability
Refers to how much the scores in a data set vary from each other and from the mean.
What is illusion of control?
Refers to our tendency to think that we can actually control events that are due to chance
Sucking Reflex
Reflex that causes a newborn to make sucking motions when a finger or nipple if placed in the mouth
Stepping Reflex
Reflex that causes newborn babies to make little stepping motions if they are held upright with their feet just touching a surface
Fixed-Interval
Reinforcement occurs after a set amount of time. Long pause in responses after a reward, followed by a high rate of response at the end of period.
Basic research
Research that is conducted for its own sake, that is, without seeking a solution to a specific problem
Broca's aphasia
Results from damage to Broca's area in the primary motor cortex. People with this can't find the words they want to express themselves.
Self-disclosure
Revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others
IRB
Review research plan to be sure it meets criteria in federal regulations
Shaping
Rewarding successive approximations of a desired behavior.
Running head
Right side of the paper, page number on left
ill, healthy, consequences
Rosenhan's research sought to find answers by determining if mental health professionals really able to distinguish mentally ___ and _______ people. Also, what are the ______ of these mistakes?
Criteria for an experimental study
Sample groups Assigned randomly, viable control group, only one variable can be manipulated and tested.
Negative Symptoms
Schizophrenic symptoms that involve behavioral deficits, such as flattened emotions (flat affect), social withdrawal, apathy, impaired attention, avolition and poverty of speech (slow speech).
What is falsifiability?
Scientific theories must be stated in a way that predictions derived from them can be potentially shown to be false
Physiologists
Scientists who study the physical working of the body and its systems.
Participants
See Subjects.
A venturesome personality (as a component of creativity)
Seeks new experiences rather than following the pack, tolerates ambiguity and risk, and perseveres in overcoming obstacles.
Preconventional Stage of Moral Development
Self interest; a stage of moral development in which the morality of an action is primarily determined by its consequences for the actor.Obey rules to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards.
How do children's self-concept develop?
Self-concept emerges gradually. AT 15-18 months, children recognize themselves in a mirror. By school age, they can describe many of their own traits, and by age 8-10 their self-image is stable.
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases—alarm, resistance, exhaustion.
What are the ages for which each of the cognitive development stages occur?
Sensorimotor: 0-2 years old. Preoperational: 2-7 years old. Concrete Operational: 7-11 years old. Formal Operational: 12+ years old.
Low levels of ___ are linked to aggression, violence and depression.
Serotonin
What neurotransmitters are associated with OCD?
Serotonin and Norepinephrine.
PET scan (positron emission tomography)
Shows researchers which areas of the brain are most active during certain tasks
Social Psychology
Sociology: scientific study of human social systems
CT scan (computerized axial tomography)
Sophisticated x-ray
s factor
Spearman's idea of the ability to excel in certain areas, or specific intelligences (like music, art, business)
Schedules of Reinforcement
Specific patterns that determine when a behavior will be reinforced.
Descriptive Statistics
Statistics that are used to organize and summarize data
Descriptive Statistics
Statistics that are used to organize and summarize data.
Secondary Reinforcers
Stimuli that increase the probability of a response because of their association with a primary reinforcer.
Primary Reinforcers
Stimuli, such as food or warmth, that have reinforcement value without learning.
any detectable input from the environment (e.g. bell)
Stimulus
What general effects does stress have on our overall health?
Stress tends to reduce our immune system's ability to function properly, so that higher stress generally leads to greater incidence of physical illness.
social facilitation
Stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others. (What you do well, you are likely to do even better in front of an audience, especially a friendly audience. What you normally find difficult may seem all but impossible when you are being watched).
What's an example of inversion error in probabilistic reasoning ?
Students using hard drugs when smoking pot ...
B.F. Skinner
Studied operant conditioning of voluntary behavior
Stanley Schachter
Studied the effect of anxiety on affiliation
Internet-Mediated Research
Studies in which data collection occurs over the web
What does evidence reveal about environmental influences on intelligence?
Studies of twins, family members, and adoptees together point to a significant hereditary contribution to intelligence scores. Life experiences can affect intelligence test performance.
Case study
Study of one individual in great detail
Control Group
Subjects in a study who do not receive the special treatment given to the experimental group
Control Group
Subjects in a study who do not receive the special treatment given to the experimental group.
Helper T Cells
T cells that help the immune system by increasing the activity of killer cells and stimulating the suppressor T cells. they enhance/regulate activity of immune system.
What destroys or signals other cells to kill?
T lymphocytes
What matures in the thymus although they were born in the bone marrow?
T lymphocytes
British Empiricism & Associationism
Tabula Raza 1) empiricism & associations 2) Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) 3) John Locke (1632-1704) 4) David Hume (1711-1776)
What is the selection effect and how might it affect a teen's decision to join a sports team at school?
Teens tend to select out similar others and sort themselves into like-minded groups. This could lead to a teen who is athletic finding other athletic teens and joining school teams together.
What is the gambler's fallacy?
Tendency for people to seek links between events in the past and events in the future when the 2 are really independent
What is confirmation bias?
Tendency to seek out evidence that supports our hypothesis and ignore evidence that contradicts it.
Contiguity
The CS and US are presented very close together in time-even a mere fraction of a second.
right, comprehend, spatial, artistic, left, analytical, writing
The _____ hemisphere cannot verbalize what it sees, but it can _________ it. It is good at ________ relationships and emotional expression, recognizing faces, symbolic reasoning, and ___________ activities. The _____ hemisphere is the verbal hemisphere and is also good at math and _______ ability, reading, speaking, and ________.
How is recognition and recall affected by age?
The ability to recognize information (memory) is minimally different as we age. The ability to recall information declines as we age significantly.
Safe Haven
The ability to return to the attachment figure for comfort and safety when scared or feeling unsafe or threatened.
Gender Typing
The acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role
repetitive Transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS)
The application of repeated pulses of magnetic energy to the brain; used to stimulate or suppress brain activity.
Mean
The arithmetic average of the scores in a distribution.
Perceived Control
The belief that we can influence our environment in ways that determine whether we experience positive or negative outcomes.
differences, cultures
The benefits of disclosure generalize across settings, most individual _______, and many Western ______, and is independent of social feedback.
medulla, pons, reticular formation, medulla
The brain stem consists of the _______, ______, and the ________ _______. The ______ is responsible for vital functions; breathing, heart rate, coughing, BP, sneezing.
Minority Influence
The case where a minority of group members influences the behavior or beliefs of the majority
Psychosexual stages
The childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones.
Sample
The collection of subjects selected for observation in an empirical study
Sample
The collection of subjects selected for observation in an empirical study.
Meta-analysis
The combination of the statistical results of many studies of the same question, yielding an estimate of the size and consistency of a variable's effects.
What did BF skinnier introduce?
The concept of reinforcement behavior
Random Assignment
The constitution of groups in a study such that all subjects have an equal chance of being assigned to any group or condition.
Random Assignments
The constitution of groups in a study such that all subjects have an equal chance of being assigned to any group or condition.
What are third variable problems?
The correlation between 2 variables may not indicate a casual path in either direction because both variables are related to a third variable that has not been measured
Internal validity
The degree to which your experiment supports clear casual conclusions. This is the focus of basic research .
External validity
The degree to which your results can be generalized to the rest world. Focus of applied research
Concept check 2 #2: Explain the differences between random sampling and random assignment
The difference is that random sampling is a technique in which a sample of participants that is representative of a population is obtained not only to be used in experiments , but also in other research methods such as correlational studies and surveys. While random assignment is only used in experiments.
Group Polarization
The enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group. With time the initial attitude of the group will become stronger.
Personal Control
The extent to which people perceive control over their environment rather than feeling helpless.
Placebo Effects
The fact that subjects' expectations can lead them to experience some change even though they receive an empty, fake, or ineffectual treatment
Placebo Effects
The fact that subjects' expectations can lead them to experience some change even though they receive an empty, fake, or ineffectual treatment.
myelin, localized pain, steady pain
The fatty substance made of glial cells that insulates some axons to transmit information more efficiently is _________. These axons are involved in sharp, past, ______ ______ (help recoil from harmful objects and protect our tissue from damage). Unmyelinated axons send information slowly and are involved in ______ _____ (aid in recuperation by preventing us from using the affected body parts).
How does specificity or precision figure into hypothesis?
The greater the specificity of the hypothesis, the greater impact when it is confirmed because it had greater chances of falsification
in prosperous country X everyone eats all they want. In country Y the rich are well fed, but the semistarved poor are often thin. In which country will the heritability of body weight be greater?
The heritability (differences due to genes) of body weight will be greater in country X, where environmental differences of available nutrition are minimal.
Conditioned Response (CR)
The learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after conditioned stimulus that occurs after conditioned stimulus-unconditioned stimulus pairing.
Deindividuation
The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity. (halloween example and Haddad with calling out one boy and identifying his mother)
Mode
The most frequent score in a distribution
dendrites, axon, soma
The part of the neuron that receives signals from neighboring neurons is the __________. The part that transmits electrical impulses is the ________, and the part that collects and integrates information is the _______.
What happens when a patient undergoes ECT?
The patient is given a general anesthetic so that they become unconscious and then given a muscle relaxant. An electric shock is provided to one side of the brain and it starts with a lower level shock of about 70 volts.
External Locus of Control
The perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate.
Internal Locus of Control
The perception that one controls one's own fate
Subjects
The persons or animals whose behavior is systematically observed in a study.
Participants
The persons or animals whose behavior is systematicaly observed in a study
Participants
The persons or animals whose behaviour is systematically observed in a study.
Participants or Subjects
The persons or animals whose behaviour is systematically observed in a study.
Subjects
The persons or animals whose behaviour is systematically observed in a study.
Psychoanalytic perspective
The perspective that stresses the influences of unconscious forces on human behavior
Stress reaction
The physical response to stress, consisting mainly of bodily changes related to autonomic nervous system arousal.
Hindbrain
The posterior portion of the brain including cerebellum and brainstem.
Positive Punishment
The presentation of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to decrease the frequency of that behavior.
Reinforcement
The process by which a stimulus or event following a particular behavior increases the probability that the behavior will happen again.
Humanistic perspective
The psychological view that assumes the existence of the self and emphasizes the importance of self-awareness and the freedom to make choices
Spontaneous Recovery
The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after some time has passed.
Why would different studies give different numbers for H^2 for the same traits?
The reason we are getting different numbers is because it depends on how similar or dissimilar the environment of subjects is. So if the environment is similar, H^2 will be higher because the differences are more so about genetics.
Continuous Reinforcement
The reinforcement of a desired response every time it occurs.
Therapeutic alliance
The relationship between therapist and patient that helps many patients feel hopeful and supported.
Negative Punishment
The removal of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to decrease the frequency of that behavior.
Negative Reinforcement
The removal of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to increase the frequency of that behavior. (something removed)
Replication
The repetition of a study to see whether the earlier results are duplicated.
Replication
The repitition of a study to see whether earlier results are duplicated
Flynn Effect
The rise in average IQ scores that has occurred over the decades in many nations
Structuralism
The school of psychology, founded by Wilhelm Wundt, that maintains that conscious experience breaks down into objective sensations and subjective feelings
Functionalism
The school of psychology, founded by William James, that emphasizes the purposes of behavior and mental processes
Social Psychology
The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
Median
The score that falls exactly in the center of a distribution of scores
Median
The score that falls exactly in the center of a distribution of scores.
Median
The score that falls exactly in the centre of a distribution of scores.
Mode
The score that occurs most frequently in a distribution.
Brain lateralization
The specialization of function in each hemisphere.
Generalization (Classical Conditioning)
The tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response. (Little Albert,Watson, bunny)
Fetal Stage
The third stage of prenatal development, lasting from two months through birth. Continued growth, muscles/bones strengthen, massive brain development.
sympathetic, parasympathetic, threat, conserve, calms
The two branches of the autonomic nervous system are the _______ and the _______ divisions. The first mobilizes the body to react in the face of _______ and the second demobilizes the body to _________ energy; it ________ the body down after a stress reaction.
Statistics
The use of mathematics to organize, summarize, and interpret numerical data
Statistics
The use of mathematics to organize, summarize, and interpret numerical data. See also Descriptive Statistics, Inferential Statistics.
Cognitive perspective
The viewpoint that emphasizes the role of thoughts one has in a particular situation
Extinction (Classical Conditioning)
The weakening of the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is absent. Without continued association with the unconditioned stimulus the conditioned stimulus loses its power to produce the conditioned response.
How does actuarial prediction relate to clinical insight?
Their insight leads to even less accurate predictions than relying on acturial info
What does the theory of the mind have to do with autism?
Theory of mind focuses on our ability to understand our own and others' mental states. Those with autism struggle with this ability.
How do culture, gender and values influence the therapist-client relationship?
Therapists have different views on those things and there may be problems if views differ from their clients.
Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR)
Therapy technique in which the client holds a vivid mental image of a troubling event or situation while rapidly moving his or her eyes back and forth in response to the therapist's waving finger or while the therapist administers some other form of bilateral stimulation, such as sounding tones in alternate ears.
Concept check 2 #3: Explain how the scatterplots for correlations coefficients of +.90 and -.90 would differ
There would be the same amount of scatter of the data points in each of the two scatterplots because they are equal in strength. In the +.90 they will go from bottom left of the plot to the top right. -.90 would go from the top left of the plot to the bottom right. So the direction of the scatter will be different in the two scatterplots.
How do older people do with time based (meeting at 3) and habitual tasks (take meds at 9, 12, 2)?
They are both challenging. They need to rely on time management and reminder cues.
Authoritative Parenting
They exert control by setting rules and enforcing them, but they also explain the reasons for rules. And, especially with older children, they encourage open discussion when making the rules and allow exceptions. high control, high warmth.
Permissive Parenting
They make few rules and use little punishment. High warmth, low control.
What do critics say about Bouchard's research?
They say it is possible that it is coincidence that a pair of people have many of the same experiences. They say that he should have had a control group of similar people to see if they came up with as many similar experiences and personality traits. Bouchard argued that the similarities were more prominent in identical twins versus fraternal ones.
How do antidepressants work?
They work by increasing the availability of norepinephrine or serotonin, neurotransmitters that elevate arousal and mood and appear scarce during depression.
Inferential statistics
Used to make generalizations from a sample to a population
reinforce given for the first response after a variable time interval -Hillary makes pot pie when she feels like it, no matter if Hillary asks or not
Variable Interval
reinforce given after a variable number of responses -Number of times a behavior occurs; gambling (win sometimes); eventually will get a response
Variable Ratio
Dependent variable
Variable that is effected by the IV
Psychodynamic theories
View personality with a focus on the unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences. Theories proposing that development is largely determined by how well people resolve conflicts they face at different ages
Naturalistic observation
Watching animals or humans behave in their normal environment
How is innumerancy a threat to science?
We discount data and rely instead on personal testimonies
How does social comparison tie into coping with stress?
We may compare ourselves to others to make us feel better, worse, beat ourselves up, feel thankful, inspired. Many things, depending on how you look at it.
The Case Study: advantages
Wealth of information. very useful for forming hypotheses. A great first step
aging, shortened, hippocampus
Weather Hypothesis: - hard life= accelerated ____. - in rats, increased anxiety and decreased exploration of new environment predicts ______ life span. The _______ is vulnerable to "weathering" with age (memory loss).
brings, surppress, defense
Wegner believed that putting things out of your mind actually ______ them to your mind. Freud believed everyone had things to _______. This is a _______ mechanism in which we deliberately try to stop thinking about something that makes us sad, frightened, etc.. He thought it would be impossible to study suppression scientifically.
Wernickes's aphasia
Wernicke's area is in the temporal lobe. Damage produces inability to recognize speech, understand speech, and convert thought into words
right hemisphere
What hemisphere does this describe?: - Specializes in controlling certain motor movements; comprehension and communication of emotion.
left hemisphere
What hemisphere does this describe?: - The verbal hemisphere that specializes in speech and other verbal tasks.
Relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience
What is Learning?
epinephrine
What neurotransmitter?: - Energy
Glutamate
What neurotransmitter?: - Enhancement of action potentials - Learning and memory
actetylcholine
What neurotransmitter?: - Motor control over mucles - Learning memory - Sleeping - Dreaming
Substance P
What neurotransmitter?: - Pain perception - Mood and anxiety
Endorphins
What neurotransmitter?: - Pain reduction - Reward
dopamine
What neurotransmitter?: - Reward and motivation - Motor control over voluntary movement
reuptake
What process is described as neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending neuron?
Stroop test, color
What test is used to measure self-regulation? This test produces conflict between the name of the word and the _____ of it.... it's easier for people to name a color than the word)
MAOA, DRD4
What two genes are involved with novelty seeking and effectiveness in resolving conflict?
dopamine, serotonin
What two neurotransmitters are involved with effortful control?
Flooding
When a person is exposed to harmless stimuli until fear response is extinct
Counterconditioning
When a pleasant stimulus is paired repeatedly with a fearful stimulus, to counteract the fear
Schedule of Reinforcement
When and how often a reinforcement occurs
How do we tend to explain others' behaviour and our own?
When explaining others' behaviour, we may commit the fundamental attribution error (underestimating the influence of the situation and overestimating the effects of personality). When explaining our own behaviour, we more readily attribute it to the influence of the situation.
What are illusory correlations?
When people believe that 2 types of events should common occur together they tend to see co occurrences more frequently , even when 2 events are actually occurring randomly
Stereotype Lift
When the positive stereotype about group we belong to is activated, we are more likely to do better.
Perfect negative correlation
When variable A and variable B are going in opposite directions (an inverse relationship)
genetic makeup, 5-HTTLPR, depression
Whether you are hardier/more resilient to stress depends on _______ ______, early experiences, and adult life history. The short version of a gene called ________. This has a higher risk of developing ______ and also very stressful lives.
Data Collection Techniques
Which are procedures for making empirical observations and measurements.
Roger Sperry, cats, corpus callosum
Who is considered to the be father of split-brain research? __________. His first test subjects were _______. Which part of the brain did he cut? ________>
General Approaches to Psychology: the Schools of Psychology
Wilhem M. Wundt (1832-1920) *1879 the first Psychological laboratory*
the Schools of Psychology Functionalism
William James (1842-1910) Edward L Thorndike (1874-1949)
Edward Titchener
Wundt's student brought structuralism to America
Are people at increased risk of schizophrenia if during the middle of their fetal development their country experienced a flu epidemic?
Yes
Are we most likely to conform when we knows that others in the group will observe our behaviour?
Yes
Is the HPA Axis overactive in the depressed?
Yes
Are intelligence tests inappropriately biased?
Yes in the sense that they are sensitive to performance differences caused by cultural differences, and no in the sense that they accurately predict performance of one group over the other. Major aptitude test unbiased. Stereotype threat affects performance on all kinds of tests.
Are we most likely to conform when we are in a group in which everyone else agrees?
Yes. If just one other person disagrees, the odds of our disagreeing greatly increase.
GAS Resistance Phase
Your body will do whatever it can to resist or cope with the stress. Your temperature, blood pressure and respiration remain high. Your adrenal glands pump hormones into your bloodstream. You are fully engaged and ready to meet the challenge ahead.
Single blind
____ experiment/study is when participants don't know which treatment they received
Double blind
_____ experiment/study is when neither the researchers who gather the data directly from the participants nor the participants themselves are told of the true aims of the experiment. (or who gets the placebo and who doesn't etc.) used to minimize researcher bias and as a control mechanism to minimize confounding variables.
daily hassles
______--> rumination --> depression: there is a link between experiencing daily hassles and depression, but only when people ruminate about them.
linkers, ruminate, rumination, linking
________ maintain that lower-level goals are necessary for the attainment of higher level goals, and linking causes them to _______ in response to threats to low-level goals because the threat is perceived as an obstacle to the higher-order goal. __________ is thought to mediate the relationship between ________ and negative affect.
Unconditional Positive Regard
a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed to be conducive to developing self-awareness and self-acceptance.
DNA
a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosome
International Classification of Disease
a comprehensive listing of diseases and disorders of human body
Rational-Emotive-Behaviour Therapy (REBT)
a confrontational cognitive therapy, developed by Albert Ellis, that vigorously challenges people's illogical, self-defeating attitudes and assumptions
double blind procedure
a control measure in the experiment where neither participant nor experimenter know which participants are in the experimental group or control groups
Longitudinal study
a correlational research technique that studies the same group of people over an extended amount of time.
experiment
a deliberate manipulation of a variable to see if corresponding changes in behavior result, allowing the determination of cause-and-effect relationships.
operational definition
a description of the operations or procedure that a researcher uses to manipulate or measure a variable ex: aerobic class the operational would deal with the type and duration of the class
Catatonia
a form of schizophrenia characterized by a tendency to remain in a fixed stuporous state for long periods. You would go into a physical position and stay in it (like being weirdly bent over).
savant
a high functioning autistic
unconditioned response
a natural innate response that is not associated with previous learning, not learned ex: the dog salivating because it doesn't have to be taught
participant observation
a naturalistic observation in which the observer becomes a participant in the group being observed.
nocebo effect (Latin for "I will harm")
a negative placebo effect due to the adverse consequence from receiving treatment
Adrenal glands
a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.
Grandiose Delusion
a person's false belief that he or she possesses great wealth, intelligence, or power
Dependent Personality
a personality disorder characterized by helplessness; excessive need to be taken care of; submissive and clinging behavior; difficulty in making decisions. A person who has an extreme lack of self-confidence and who allows others to run his or her life
Borderline Personality Disorder
a personality disorder characterized by lack of stability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and emotion; impulsivity; angry outbursts; intense fear of abandonment; recurring suicidal gestures
learning
a relatively permanent change in behavior that is brought by experience, NOT due to nature or short term changes
Behavioral Perspective
a research perspective whose major explanatory focus is how external environmental events condition observable behavior (external factors) (external environment events condition our behavior)
Cognitive Perspective
a research perspective whose major explanatory focus is how mental processes such as perception and memory and problem solving, work and impact behavior. (internal factor)
Biological Perspective
a research perspective whose major explanatory focus is how the brain, nervous system, and other physiological mechanisms produce behavior and mental processes. (internal factors)
Sociocultural Perspective
a research perspective whose major explanatory focus is on how other people and the cultural context impact behavior and mental processes (external factors)
longitudinal study: advantages
a rich source of data
Representative sample
a sample that proportionally matches the larger population
Social Trap
a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior
Freudian Slip
a slip-up that (according to Sigmund Freud) results from the operation of unconscious wishes or conflicts and can reveal unconscious processes in normal healthy individuals
Reinforcement
a stimulus that increases a behavior to repeat
Behaviour modification
a systematic approach to changing behaviour through the application of the principles of conditioning
Progressive relaxation
a technique of learning to relax by focusing on relaxing each of the body's muscle groups in turn
Emperically derived Test
a test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups
Surveys
a type of correlational research. a large number of participants are asked a set of standardized questions, usually in the form of a questionnaire or oral interview.
Observations
a type of correlational research. the behavior of a human or animal is observed in the environment in which it occurs naturally. There is NO ATTEMPT TO MANIPULATE or control the situation (similar to an experiment)
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response ex: sight of Mcdonald's sign or golden arches make you hungry even though you weren't initially
Independent variable
a variable which is actively manipulated by researchers. the manipulation of the ____ is the thing that will CAUSE something to happen.
Variable-Interval Schedule
a varying amount of time passes between each reinforcement
autism
abnormal development in social interactions, difficultly in communications, and long periods of repeated behavior.
Placebo effect
about 25 to 30% of the time a temporary and/or slight change in their placebo group's condition.
Self-actualization
according to Maslow, the ultimate psychological need that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential
Unconditional Positive REgard
according to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person
Unconditional Positive regard
according to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person
Conscious Cognitive Processes
according to this perspective we aren't passive learner. we also analyze and develop beliefs as we learn. All of these will influence and affect behaviours.
Observations: advantages
accurate info because the participant's behavior is natural.
Observational Learning
acquiring knowledge and skills by observing and imitating others
Disadvantages and advantages of early maturation for males
advantages: More muscular, will engage in more sports, more assertive. Parents trust them more and give more freedom. disadvantages: They are more likely to engage in risk taking behaviours.
Statistical significance
after sending numbers through statistical tests, we can "infer" there is a mathematical probability that something did not occur by chance alone.
h^2=1.0
all variance can be explained with genes
The ___ is hyperactive in those with depression.
amygdala
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
an anxiety disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience
Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy
an anxiety treatment that progressively exposes people to simulations of their greatest fears, such as airplane flying, spiders, or public speaking
Motor cortex
an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
Fixed-Interval Schedule
an exact amount of time passes between each reinforcement
social responsibility norm
an expectation that peopel will help those dependent upon them
third -variable problem
another variable may be responsible for the relationship observed between two variables
negative
any stimulus that is removed from the environment, something taken away
Implicit Racial Association
are negative cognitive reactions that may occur in people who claim no prejudice. You are prejudice but you don't know it.
Participants / Subjects
are the persons or animals whose behaviour is systematically observed in a study.
What is an indicator of marital success?
at least a five-to-one ratio of positive to negative interactions.
Pavlov's experiment
attached tube to dog's salivary gland, rang a bell and then presented food, dogs soon began to salivate when the bell rang even when the food wasn't prepared
cross-sectional study
attempts to capture one gigantic "frozen frame" of several groups, usually of different age groups, captured at a single point in time.
Peripheral Route Persuasion
attitude change path in which people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness
disadvantages of early maturation for females
attract more older male attention. more likely to be sexually harassed, engage in risk taking behaviour. lower self esteem. high risk of mental illness, weight gain. Parents are more controlling. Don't fit in right.
Scientific Method
based on gathering observable, empirical, and measurable evidence
How does being physically attractive influence others' perceptions?
being physically attractive tends to elicit positive first impression. People tend to assume that attractive people are healthier, happier, and more socially skilled than others are.
Johnathan Haidt
believed that much of our morality is rooted in moral intuitions (our gut feelings).
Freud's Psychosexual Stages
better chart page 516.
which approach, phobias tent to run in families
biological approach
Extraverts seek stimulation because their normal ___ ___ is relatively low.
brain arousal
What areas of the brain are smaller than normal in persons with schizophrenia?
brain is generally smaller overall, cortex, frontal lobes, hippocampus, corpus callosum, thalamus.
How do the humanistic and cognitive therapies differ?
by reflecting clients' feelings in a nondirective setting, humanistic therapies attempt to foster personal growth by helping clients become more self-aware and self-accepting. By making clients aware of self-defeating patterns of thinking, cognitive therapies guide people toward a more adaptive ways of thinking about themselves and their world.
Scatterplot/scattergram
can give us a general idea if a correlation exists and how strong it is. In this graph there is a slight exponential correlation, but if there was not one, points would be scattered all over the graph.
Three main types of stressors:
catastrophes, significant life changes and daily hassles
placebo effect
change in physiology or behavior based on placebo (placebo works)
Narcissistic Personality Disorder
characterized by a grandiose sense of self-importance, a preoccupation with fantasies of success or power, and a need for constant attention or admiration
which approach, for 13 years she was quietly storing information without a way to communicate it
cognitive
which approach, people with phobias tend to think of the worst outcome when faced with the object/situation they fear
cognitive
What has effectiveness in coping with anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder and depression?
cognitive and cognitive-behavioural therapy
Napolitan and Goethals' Experiment
college students talked to a woman; 1/2 was told her behavior was spontaneous, the other 1/2 was told that she was told to act (un)friendly; the students disregarded the info; if she acted unfriendly, they assumed she was a cold person.
Romanian orphanage
communism; Nicolae Ceausecu; high birth rates; extreme poverty; child abandonment; orphanages understaffed/ no resources
Left hemisphere
controls the right side of the body; analytical, language, math
According to Kohlberg, _____ morality focuses on upholding laws and social rules, _____ morality focuses on self-interest, and _____ morality focuses on self-defined ethical principles.
conventional, preconventional, postconventional.
HPA Pathway
cortex -> hypothalamus -> pituitary gland -> adrenal cortex -> cortisol
Erik Erikson
created an 8-stage theory to show how people evolve through the life span. Each stage is marked by a psychological crisis that involves confronting "Who am I?"
What type of intelligence increases with age?
crystallized intelligence
Social script
culturally provided mental instructions for how to act in various situations
A decrease or increase in serotonin leads to aggression?
decrease
What happens mid-life in men?
decrease in production of testosterone, number and speed of erections decrease, erectile dysfunction increases.
manipulate
double blind: neither subject or researcher knows
What direction does a graph with a negative correlation go?
down/right
Mary Cover Jones
"mother of behavioral therapy". treated a 3 year old named Peter who was afraid of a rabbit. Jones used counterconditioning to modify Peter's behavior by associating his favorite snack of milk and crackers with the rabbit. As Jones slowly inched the rabbit closer to Peter in the presence of his favorite food he grew more comfortable with the rabbit and soon had no fear of the rabbit.
Tabula Rasa
"the idea that something or someone is entirely unmarked and uninfluenced"- this phrase from latin means "blank slate." The philosopher John Locke referred to the mind of a young person unaffected by experience as a tabula rasa.
Hindsight Bias
( I knew it all along phenomenon) - the tendency, after learning about an outcome, to be overconfident in ones ability to have predicted it
Control group
("no-treatment group) a group that doesn't receive the manipulation of the independent variable.
Neuritic Plaques
(1) Found outside the neuron, result in malfunctioning protein. Choke Neuron to death. (2) damaged and dying neurons that collect around a core of protein, that interfere with normal neuron functioning, associated with dementia.
four common flaws in experimental research
(1) sampling bias (2) placebo effects (3) distortions in self-report data (4) experimenter bias
Anal Stage (Freud's Psychosexual Stages)
(18-36 months) Freud's second stage of psychosexual development where the primary sexual focus is on the elimination or holding onto feces. The stage is often thought of as representing a child's ability to control his or her own world.
Jean Piaget
(1896-1980) Pioneer in the study of developmental psychology who introduced a stage theory of cognitive development that led to a better understanding of children's thought process.
Carl Jung
(Psychodynamic)neo-Freudian, adopted ideas such as ego and superego from Freud, but disagreed on his theory of unconscious, and proposed collective unconscious that contains collective archetypes or representations; inherited from previous generations and contains universally shared ancestral experiences and ideas
WAIS
(Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale) Verbal & performance scores. Most widely used intelligence test today
Rationalization
(psychiatry) a defense mechanism by which your true motivation is concealed by explaining your actions and feelings in a way that is not threatening
independent variable
- a condition or event that an experimenter varies (controls or manipulates) in order to see its impact on another variable
correlation coefficient
- a numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables - indicates: (1) *direction* (positive or negative) of the relationship (2) *strength* of the variable's relationship
placebo
- a substance that resembles a drug but has no actual pharmacological effect
social desirability bias
- a tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself
response set
- a tendency to respond to questions in a particular way (ex. positively or negatively) regardless of content
extraneous variables
- any variables other than the independent variable that seem likely to influence the dependent variable in a specific study
variables
- are any measurable conditions, events, characteristics, or behaviours that are controlled or observed in a study
correlation and prediction
- as a correlation increases in strength (get's closer to +1.00 or -1.00), the ability to predict one variable based on the knowledge of the other variable increases
critics of deceptions
- assert that deception is lying, which is inherently immoral - deceiving unsuspecting participants, psychologist may undermine many individuals' trust in others - deceptive studies produce distress for participants who were not forewarned
abstracts
- concise (75-175 words) descriptions of hypothesis, methods, results, conclusions of a study
evidence-based decision making
- considers the overall experiences of a large sample
(Step 4) Analyze the Data
- convert observations in numbers or raw data for statistical evidence that proves or refutes hypothesis - use statistics to analyze the data and make conjectures as to what the data implies
correlation and causation
- correlation is not equivalent to causation - cannot tell whether a cause-and-effect relationship exists between two variables - two variables can be highly correlated even though they are not causally related
operational definition
- describes the actions or operations that will be used to measure or control a variable - establishes precisely what is meant by each variable in the context of a study
What are the methods to access the unconscious?
- free association - resistance analysis - dream analysis -transference analysis - interpretation
❶ measurement and description
- goal of scientific enterprise to develop measurement techniques that make it possible to describe behaviour clearly and precisely
❸ application and control
- goal of scientific enterprise to give a practical value to their understanding of a phenomenon and control it
Neural firing
electrochemical process where electricity travels within the cell and neurotransmitters travel between cells and the synapse.
Correlational Research
employs statistical methods to examine the relationship between two or more variables. (ex. does the amount of time spent on facebook correlate with students' GPAs?)
Surveys: advantage
enables an immense amount of data to be gathered quickly and cheaply. All you need is pencil and paper.
Longitudinal study: disadvantages
extremely expensive and difficult to conduct (dropout potential is high)
emerging adulthood
for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid-twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood (18-25?).
How humanistic therapists differ from psychoanalytic therapists
- humanistic therapists aim to boost people's self-fulfillment by helping them grow in self-awareness and self-acceptance. - promoting this growth, not curing illness is the focus of therapy. - the path to growth is taking immediate responsibility for one's feelings and actions, rather than uncovering hidden determinants - conscious thoughts are more important than the unconscious - the present and future are more important than the past
negative correlation
- indicates that two variables co-vary in opposite directions - if correlation is negative a negative sign (-) is used
population
- is the much larger collection of animals or people (from which the sample is drawn) that researchers want to generalize about
OCD is associated with high levels of activity in:
frontal lobes, caudate nucleus and the anterior cingulate nucleus.
random assignment of subjects
- occurs when all subjects have an equal chance of being assigned to any group or condition in the study - increases likeliness of similarity between the control group and the experimental group
participants (or subjects)
- persons or animals whose behaviour is systematically observed in a study
variability
- refers to how much the scores in a data set vary from each other and from the mean
deception in psychological research
- research enterprise presents scientists with difficult ethical dilemmas regarding the possibility for inflicting harm on participants - major ethical concerns centre on the use of deception and guidelines for the participation of humans and animals in psychological reseach
two advantages of the scientific approach
- results in more accurate and dependable information (1) using *clarity and precision* to formulate hypotheses, which enhances communication and accuracy about important ideas (2) an *intolerance of error* scientist must be skeptical, subject ideas to empirical tests, demand objective data and thorough documentation when conducting research
statistical vs practical significance of research findings
- statistical significance simply indicates results that are unlikely due to chance - practical or theoretical significance refers to findings that are significant to hypothesis or theory
psychological tests
- subjects are administered a standardized measure to obtain a sample of their behaviour - tests are usually used to assess mental abilities or personality traits
self report data
- subjects' verbal accounts of their behaviour - occurs in questionnaires, interviews, or personality inventories
null hypothesis
- the assumption in an experiment that any difference between groups is due merely to chance - when rejected, the conclusion is that the results are statistically significant and unlikely to be due to chance
median
- the score that falls exactly in the centre of a distribution of scores (half fall above the median and half are below)
strength of correlation
- the size of the coefficient indicates the strength of association between two variables - coefficient can vary between -1.00 to +1.00 - a coefficient of 0 indicates no relationship between the variables - a coefficient of +1.00 or -1.00 indicates a perfect 1:1 ratio
Descartes Hydraulic Model of Reflex Action
1) Fluid flow through nerves 2) Mechanistic account of behavior 3) at least one type of human behavior - involuntary
A decrease or increase in testosterone leads to an increase in aggression?
increase
mania symptoms
increased physical and mental activity, excessive irritability, aggressive behavior and impatient, poor judgement, reckless behavior, difficulty concentrating, inflated sense of self importance
Mental processes
internal mental processes such as remembering and thinking, which can't be directly observed
independent variable
is the hypothesized cause, experimenter manipulates it
Persons with schizophrenia have ____ activity in frontal lobes.
low
critical thinking
making reasoned judgments about claims.
Male Answer Syndrome
men are more likely than women to hazard answers rather than admit they don't know
If you have a lower IQ, do you use more or less glucose?
more
An increase in Endorphins leads to:
natural pain killing
Afferent neuron
nerve cell that sends messages to brain or spinal cord from other parts of the body; also called sensory neurons
Families of bulimia patients have a higher-than-usual incidence of childhood ___ and ____ self-evaluation.
obesity, negative.
Sampling
one of the most critical issues in psychological studies. the ideal ____ is one in which the participants are large, random, and representative
Categorization (in terms of race)
organize people into groups and assume that all people within each group are the same
learned helplessness
our perceptions of power and control are based on experience; if you repeatedly fail to control your environment, you may stop trying altogether
Erogenous Zones
parts of the body that are especially sensitive to sexual or pleasurable stimulation
Comparing Biomedical Therapies
pg 684
Survey
surveys involve asking standardized questions of large groups of people that represent a sample of the population of interest. People responding to surveys may not always tell the truth or remember information correctly.
Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
the WAIS is the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (non verbal) subtests.
Experiments
the best way to determine a cause-and-effect relationship. ("gold" in terms of psychological research)
Gene
the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein
Coronary Heart Disease
the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in many developed countries
Social intelligence
the know-how involved in comprehending social situations and managing oneself successfully.
Mode
the most frequently occuring score. advantage: informational- not much more. disadvantage: distorted picture
Mere Exposure Effect
the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them
Person-Situation Controversy
the question of whether behavior is caused more by personality or by situational factors
Psychology is
the scientific study of behavior and experience and their physiological and cognitive underpinnings
sample
the subset of people in a population participating in a study
psychology
the systematic, scientific study of behaviors and mental processes
social exchange theory
the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs
dependent variable
the variable being hypothesized to be affected by the independent variable, is what is being measured by the experimenter
Dependent variable
the variable that is measured to see how it has been effected or changed by the manipulations of the other variable.
Stanford Binet
the widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet's original intelligence test
Cognitive therapy
therapy that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking and acting; based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions
Cross-sectional study: advantages
they are cheap to conduct, take little time to complete, and have almost no dropouts.
Trolley Dilemma
trolley approaching fork in tracks and is set to go left. On the left, there are 5 workmen that will die if you go left, but if you switch to the right, you will kill one person. Most people flip the switch.
true or false. People are more trusting and cooperative when the other person's image had some of their own facial features morphed into it.
true
Freud believed that our defense mechanisms operate (consciously/unconsciously) ____ and defend us against ____?
unconsciously, anxiety.
Altruism
unselfish regard for the welfare of others
independent variable
variable in an experiment that is manipulated by the experimenter.
dependent variable
variable in an experiment that represents the measurable response or behavior of the subjects in the experiment.
Epigenome
what will activate or deactivate genetic instructions
Skewed
when statistical frequencies are distorted (not evenly distributed about the mean). In expressing wether scores are _____ to right or left, you reference the TAIL not the hump. The above graph is _____ to the RIGHT, despite the fact that the "hump " is on the left. In a perfect bell curve, the mean, median and mode will be on the SAME EXACT LINE.
Who has a greater risk for depression, men or women?
women, it's double
three goals of the scientific enterprise
❶ measurement and description ❷ understanding and prediction ❸ application and control
Gender Role
Expectations about what is appropriate behavior for each sex.
The Beginning of Experimental Psychology
Experimental investigation of psychological issues. The focus on sensation & perception. ErnsHeinrichWeber(1795-1878) GustavTFechner(1801-1887)
Placebo effect
Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent.
Jewish Chronic Diseases
Experiments were performed on chronically ill, mostly demented patients in Jewish Chronic disease hospital , purpose to determine how a weakened immune systems influences the spread of cancer, live cancer cells injected into bloodstream of subjects.
Five components of creativity
Expertise, Imaginative Thinking Skills, A Venturesome Personality, Intrinsic Motivation, A Creative Environment
which goal of psychology, I want to know why I do weird awful autistic things I don't want to do
Explain
Extraneous variable
Factors in an experiment but are not being studied
Macrophages
- a type of white blood cell that helps defend the body by engulfing and destroying bacteria and other invaders
❷ understanding and prediction
- goal of scientific enterprise to understand an event and explain the reasons for it's occurrence - to evaluate their understanding they make a hypothesis about the relationship between two or more variables
What is required of a scientific theory?
- a scientific theory must be testable
(Step 3) Collect the Data
- collect the data in an empirical manner
PsycINFO
- huge, online database, which is updated constantly, contains abstracts of journal articles, books, and chapters in edited books, reporting, reviewing, or theorizing about psychological research
theory
- is a system of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations
placebo effects
- occur when participants' expectations lead them to experience some change even though they receive empty, fake, or ineffectual treatment
experimenter bias
- occurs when a researcher's expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained - see what they want to see
Which measure is unduly influenced by extreme scores?
- the mean is sensitive to extreme scores in a distribution, which can result in a misleading mean
Which of the three measures of central tendency is most useful?
- the mean, because additional statistical manipulations can be performed on it that are not possible with the median or the mode
mode
- the most frequent score in a distribution
case study research
- typically involves investigators analyzing a collection of case studies to look for patterns that permit general conclusions - *advantages:* well suite for investigating certain phenomena, which are real-life illustrations - *disadvantages:* can be highly subjective; information from several sources must used to form data
inferential statistics
- used to interpret data and draw conclusions - work with probability to evaluate the possibility of whether the results are due to chance or statistically significant
descriptive statistics
- used to organize and summarize data - provide an overview of numerical data - include central tendency, measures of variability, and the coefficient of correlation
dependent variable
- variable that is thought to be affected by manipulation of the independent variable - in psychology usually the measure of some aspect of the participants' behaviour
What does standard deviation indicate about variability?
- when variability is great, the standard of deviation will be relatively large - when variability is low, the standard of deviation will be relatively small
(Step 5) Report the Findings
- write up a concise summary of the study and its findings - prepare a report to submit to a journal for publication - publishing scientific studies allows other experts to evaluate and critique new research findings
Clinical
1)Normal & abnormal behavior 2)Focus on emotional difficulties 3)Development and testing of therapeutic techniques
Stanley Schachter
1922-present Field: Emotion Contributions: Stated that in order to experience emotions a person must be physically aroused and know the emotion before you experience it
Robert Rosenthal
1933-present Field: Social Psychology Contributions: Focus on nonverbal communication, self-fulfilling prophecies Studies: Pygmalion Effect-effect of teacher's expectations on students
Five Major Questions of Developmental Psychology
1. Nature vs Nurture? 2. Continuity vs Stages? (take place lil by lil or stages of major transformations) 3. Stability vs Change? (characteristics we display as kids carry into adulthood) 4. Critical Periods (age range where certain experiences must take place or development will be stunted eg. perception must develop as a child) 5. The Impact of Early Experience (neglected child affect adulthood)
list the 5 types of scientific method
1. survey 2.naturalistic observation 3.case study 4.correlation 5.experiment
when is obedience highest?
1. the person giving the orders was close at hand and was perceived to be a legitimate authority figure. 2. the authority figure was supported by a prestigious institution. 3. the victim was depersonalized or at a distance, even in another room 4. there were no role models for defiance
According to Rogers, the right environment has what three parts to it?
1. unconditional positive regard 2. genuineness 3. empathetic understanding
what are the 8 modern approaches to psychological problems
1.biological 2.cognitive 3.behavioral 4.psychoanalytic 5.humanistic 6.sociocultural 7.evolutionary 8.biosychosocial
Wilhem M. Wundt (1832-1920)
1879 the first Psychological laboratory
Carl Rogers
1902-1987; Field: humanistic; Contributions: founded person-centered therapy, theory that emphasizes the unique quality of humans especially their freedom and potential for personal growth, unconditional positive regard, fully functioning person
Neal Miller
1909-2002 Field: Psychologist Contributions: He conducted an experiment that showed that animals could be conditioned to control autonomic responses (e.g. heart rate)
Nuremberg trials
23 German doctors charged with crimes against humanity....
At what age do we reach our peak?
25
Theory
A set of assumptions about why something is the way it is and happens the way it does
What is pseudoscience?
A set of claims that seems scientific but isn't
Role
A set of explanations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.
h^2=0.4
40% of difference between us due to genetics and 60% is due to environment
Are Dual-reuptake inhibitors 1st, 2nd, 3rd, or 4th generation antidepressant drugs?
4th
What did Bem's 2011 article about PSI include?
5 studies purporting to show evidence of ESP but the results were criticized on methodological and statistical grounds
By the time we reach 100 years old, what is the female to male ratio?
5:1
by what age is it clear the baby has formed an attachment?
7-8 months
Operational Definition
A definition that describes the actions or operations that will be made to measure or control a variable
Operational Definition
A definition that describes the actions or operations that will be made to measure or control a variable.
Phillippe Pinel
A French physician who advocate humane treatment for mentally ill patients in the late 1700s. insisted that madness was not due to demonic possession but by the mental ailment. He asked patients to be unchained and treated humanely. By just that alone, many recovered.
Counterconditioning
A behavior therapy procedure that conditions new responses to stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviors; based on classical conditioning. Includes exposure therapies and aversive conditioning.
Developmental psychology
A branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span.
Trait
A characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports.
Lymphocytes
A class of white blood cells that consist of small and large lymphocytes. The small lymphocytes bear variable cell-surface receptors for antigen and are responsible for adaptive immune responses. There are two main classes of small lymphocyte—B lymphocytes (B cells) and T lymphocytes (T cells). Large granular lymphocytes are natural killer (NK) cells, lymphocytes of innate immunity.
Hypothesis
A condition in which people appear to be highly suggestible and to behave as if they are in a trance
Fear Conditioning
A form of classical conditioning in which a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unpleasant stimulus, like foot shock, until the previously neutral stimulus alone elicits the responses seen in fear.
Stress Inoculation Training
A form of cognitive behavior modification developed by Donald Meichenbaum that Teaches people to restructure their thinking in stressful situations
Obedience
A form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority
Insight Learning
A form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight into or understanding of a problem's solution.
Aversive Conditioning
A form of treatment that consists of repeated pairings of a stimulus with a very unpleasant stimulus.
g factor
A general ability, proposed by Spearman as the main factor underlying all intelligent mental activity
Stereotype
A generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief a group of people.
Schizophrenia
A group of severe disorders characterized by disorganized and delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions
Client-centered therapy
A humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within a genuine accepting, empathic environment to facilitate clients' growth. (Also called person-centered therapy).
Synapse
A junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to the next.
Taste Aversion
A learned avoidance of a particular food
Conditioned Response
A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.
effortful control
A single overall factor indicating the ability to inhibit a dominant response and perform a subdominant one, detect errors, and plan behavior is called? This _______ with age and the anterior cingulate nucleus matures.
Taste Aversion
A type of classical conditioning in which a previously desirable or neutral food comes to be perceived as repugnant because it is associated with negative stimulation.
Partial Reinforcement
A type of conditioned learning in which some of the responses are reinforced.
Aversive conditioning
A type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol).
Systematic Desensitization
A type of counterconditioning, used to treat phobias, in which a pleasant, relaxed state is associated with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli.
Reaction Formation
A type of defense mechanism whereby unacceptable, anxiety-causing emotions or impulses are masked by an exaggerated version of the opposite emotions or impulses.
Systematic desensitization
A type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias. (can't be anxious and relaxed at same time so focus on relaxed part)
Operant Conditioning
A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.
Fixation
According to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved
fixation
According to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved
Validity
Ability of a test to measure what it is supposed to measure and to predict what it is supposed to predict
Unconscious
According to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.
Ego
According to Freud, the decision-making component of personality that operates according to the reality principle.
Reality Principle
According to Freud, the principle on which the ego operates, which seeks to delay gratification of the id's urges until appropriate outlets and situations can be found.
Manifest Content
According to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream
Phallic Stage (Freud's Psychosexual Stages)
According to Freud, the third psychosexual stage (from 3 to 6 years) in which gratification is focused on the genitals. Coping with incestuous feelings.
Latent Content
According to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content). Freud believed that a dream's latent content functions as a safety valve.
reduced, control
According to Langer and Rodin's hypothesis: in a stressful situation, the negative effects of the stress can be _____ if we perceive we have some _____ over it.
Self-transcendence
According to Maslow, the striving for identity, meaning, and purpose beyond the self.
Who first proposed the social-cognitive perspective and how do these theorists view personality development?
Albert Bandura first proposed the social-cognitive perspective, which views personality as the product of the interaction between a person's traits (including thinking) and the situation - the social context. Social-cognitive researchers apply principles of learning, cognition, and social behaviour to personality. Reciprocal determinism is a term describing the interaction and mutual influence of behaviour, internal personal factors, and environmental factors. By studying how people vary in their perceived locus of control (external or internal), researchers have found that a sense of personal control helps people to cope with life. Research on learned helplessness evolved into research on the effects of optimism and pessimism, which led to a broader positive psychology.
Why is it that alcohol abuse increases likelihood of aggression?
Alcohol inhibits the frontal lobes and frontal lobes are required for inhibition.
Reactivity
Alternation of a subject's behaviour as a result of the presence of an observer.
Environment and its relationship with Temperament
Although an Easy baby is most likely to grow up to have an easy going personality, If it grows up in a conflict environment, it won't be as easy going anymore.
Generalized anxiety disorder
An anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal
Phobia
An anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object or situation.
Panic Disorder
An anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations.
Eclectic Approach
An approach to psychotherapy that, depending on the client's problems, uses techniques from various forms of therapy
Passionate Love
An aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship
Myers-Briggs TYpe Indicator
An attempt to sort people according to Carl Jung's personality types; it has 126 questions. Most people agree with their assigned type, as each trait has strengths. However, though it is widely used for job assessment, it probably is not well-suited for that purpose.
Idealism
An attitude based on desire or hope
Bulimia Nervosa
An eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise
Anorexia Nervosa
An eating disorder in which a person (usually an adolescent female) maintains a starvation diet despite being significantly (15% or more) underweight.
action potential
An electrical impulse sent down the length of the axon that causes the release of neurotransmitters into the synapse is called the _______ ________.
Attachment
An emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation.
Stressor
An environmental stimulus that affects an organism in physically or psychologically injurious ways, usually producing anxiety, tension, and physiological arousal
Reinforcement
An event following a response that strengthens the tendency to make that response.
Reinforcement
An event following a response that strengthens the tendency to make that response. (so if scared of something and you walk away from the thing you are scared of, you are reinforcing that fear).
Punishment
An event that decreases the behavior that it follows.
Introspection
An examination of one's own thoughts and feelings
reciprocity norm
An expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them
What makes antibodies?
B lymphocytes
what are some newborn abilities, and how do researchers explore infants' mental abilities?
Babies are born with sensory equipment and reflexes that facilitate their survival and their social interactions with adults. For example, they quickly learn to discriminate their mother's smell and sound. REsearchers use techniques that test habituation, such as the novelty-preference technique.
occurs when a conditioned stimulus immediately follows an unconditioned stimulus -present food, take it away, then ring bell
Backward Conditioning
Research Methods
Differing approaches to the manipulation and control of variables in empirical studies.
How do antipsychotics work?
By blocking dopamine receptors, and some affect on cholinergic, histaminergic, and a-adrenergic receptors. They stop the excess dopamine receptor activation, which increases the enzyme activity and hence increases the second messenger amounts in the cells.
Conventional Stage of Moral Development
By early adolescence, social rules and laws are upheld for their own sake. If an action is in line with societal rules, then it is moral.
suppression, face
By relaxing thought _______, this could work the same as systematic desensitization in treatment of phobias. Learn to ______ the thoughts and fears that you're trying to suppress.
Significant Life Changes
Can be positive or negative. Like getting married or death. This can be a stressor.
What are the limitations or dangers of case studies or testimonials?
Cannot be used to test evidence scientifically because they are isolated events and lack the ability to rule out alternative explanations
Footbridge Dilemma
Cannot switch tracks, 5 kids are strapped to the tracks, do you push over a large stranger onto the tracks to save the five kids? Most people respond no because emotions kick in and our actions and decision making are affected.
Informational Social Influence
Conforming to group pressure out of a need for direction and information
Personality
Consistency in an individual's behavior and the factors which influence it.
Which type of baby has an increased Blood Pressure?
Difficult babies
Extinction (Operant Conditioning)
Decreases in the frequency of a behavior when the behavior is no longer reinforced.
Repression
Defense mechanism by which anxiety-provoking thoughts and feelings are forced to the unconscious.
Reaction Formation
Defense mechanism by which people behave in a way opposite to what their true but anxiety-provoking feelings would dictate.
Displacement
Defense mechanism by which people divert sexual or aggressive feelings for one person onto another person.
Displacement
Defense mechanism by which people divert sexual or aggressive feelings for one person onto another person. A defense mechanism that involves shifting unacceptable wishes or drives to a neutral or less threatening alternative.
Denial
Defense mechanism by which people refuse to accept reality.
Standardization
Defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group.
Operational definition
Definition of a variable of interest that allows it to be directly measured aggressive play
self-regulatory, subcortical
Depression: - Cognitive behavioral therapy can help restore ______-______ functions of the cerebral cortex and anterior cingulate. - Drugs work primarily upon _______ ares that connect to the cingulate and show deficient activation during depression.
which goal of psychology, what is autism?
Describe
Correlation
Describe patterns of behavior
Operational Definition
Describes the actions or operations that will be used to measure or control a variable
Components of an experimental paper
Description of experimental research
Binet
Developed the idea of an intelligence quotient so that students in France could be standardized and they could figure out if they were in need of special education.
errors, correct
Developmental Timeline of Anterior Cingulate Nucleus: - Infants as young as 7 months pay more attention to visual displays containing ______ than displays that are ______.
Residual Schizophrenia
Diagnostic category for people who have experienced at least one episode of schizophrenia and who no longer display its major symptoms but still show some bizarre thoughts or social withdrawal.
Research Methods
Differing approaches to the manipulation and control of variables in empirical studies
Antipsychotic drugs
Drugs used to treat schizophrenia and other forms of severe thought disorder. They block dopamine receptors. (positive symptoms are associated with dopamine activity)
Psychoanalyst
Either a psychiatrist or a psychologist who has specialized training in the theories of Sigmund Freud and his method of psychoanalysis
How does the two-factor theory of emotion help explain passionate love?
Emotions consist of (1) physical arousal and (2) our interpretation of that arousal. Researchers have found that any source of arousal (running, fear, laughter) will be interpreted as passion in the presence of a desirable person.
Humanistic perspectives
Emphasis the human potential and ability of each person to become the best they can be
Resume
Emphasize success, leadership, skills, and background. Limit to one page
Positive Reinforcers
Encouraging stimuli that increase the frequency of a behavior when they are presented.
Intrinsic Motivation (as a component of creativity)
Engaging in activities because they are personally rewarding or because they fulfill our beliefs and expectations
What are some examples of lifestyle changes we can make to improve our resilience and enhance our mental health?
Exercise regularly, get enough sleep, get more exposure to light (get outside and/or use a light box), nurture important relationships, redirect negative thinking, and eat a diet rich in omega-3 fatty acids.
Sampling Bias
Exists when a sample is not representative of the population from which it was drawn.
Spermarche
First ejaculation (can be sexual or a wet dream).
Three things required of a growth-promoting climate:
Genuineness, Acceptance, Empathhy
How does sample size relate to variability and reliability of the data?
Higher samples yield greater reliability and less variability of the data
Sensorimotor Stage
In Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities
development
In Roswenzwig's study, artificially enriched rats could not match the wild in terms of _________.
Cognitive
Human learning & memory Attention Information processing
hierarchy of needs
Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active
Health Psychology
Medicine study, prevent, treat disease
Geocentric view
Ptolemy (85 - 165)
What is the danger of "person who" statistics?
Refers to outliers in trend
Grasping Reflex
Reflex that causes a newborn to grasp vigorously any object touching the palm or fingers or placed in the hand
Psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud's therapeutic technique. Freud believed the patient's free associations, resistances, dreams and transferences - and the therapist's interpretations of them - released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self-insight.
Emotional Intelligence
The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions.
Correlation
The extent to which two variables are related to each other
Behaviour therapy
Therapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviours
Instinctive Drift
The tendency of animals to revert to instinctive behavior that interferes with learning.
Compared to boys, what are girls better at?
They are better spellers, more verbally fluent, better at locating objects, better at detecting emotions, and more sensitive to touch, taste and colour.
Which groups of people will benefit in the short term from psychotherapy but will relapse later?
Those who experience phobias, or panic, who are unassertive or those who are frustrated by sexual performance
Margaret Washburn
Titchener's student first woman to earn a PhD in psychology
Catastrophe
a large-scale disaster, misfortune, or failure. This can lead to stress because of its unknown nature and large scale. eg. hurricane Katrina.
testimonial
a statement in support of a viewpoint based on the person's experience
case study
an in-depth analysis of thoughts, feelings, beliefs, or behaviors of a single person
Social Phobia
an intense fear of being scrutinized by others, avoid potentially embarrassing social situations, such as speaking up, eating out, or going to parties - or will sweat or tremble when doing so
Case Study
an intense study of an individual situation for a long period of time
placebo
an intervention w/ no actual effect
Association area
areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking
concept check 2 #1: Explain why the results of a case study cannot be generalized to a population
because they are specific to a individual who has been studied. To generalize to a population you need a representative sample of the population in the study -but this does allow researches to hypothesis about cause and effect relationships that can be tested in an experimental research to see if they apply to the population
Upward social comparison
comparing ourselves to people who are better than we are on a particular trait or ability
Irrational acts a person feels driven to repeat are called __________. They help control anxiety caused by __________.
compulsions; obsessions
SAM Pathway
cortex-> hypothalamus -> spinal cord -> this activates sympathetic nerves -> adrenal medulla -> Norepinephrine and Epinephrine
What did cross-sectional and longitudinal studies reveal about intelligence?
cross-sectional: intelligence decreases with age. longitudinal: it does not decrease with age.
Howard Gardner (9) (BILLSMINE)
devised theory of multiple intelligences: 1. logical-mathematic, 2. spatial, 3. bodily-kinesthetic, 4. intrapersonal, 5. linguistic, 6. musical, 7. interpersonal, 8. naturalistic, 9. existential.
schedules of reinforcement
different patterns of frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired behavior
random sampling & why is it used
each individual in the population has an equal chance of being in the sample used because a survey study must have a representative sample in order to generalize the research findings to the population
humanistic (with example, Dona)
each person has the freedom to decide their future and success. ex: she created beautiful paintings and stories
Random sampling
every member of the largest population has an equal chance of being selected.
continuous reinforcement
ex: rat pushing the lever down reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs, best when learning, vending machine
when a researcher's expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained
experimental bias
Explanatory Style and Depression
individuals who explain bad things that happen as the result of internal, global, and stable factors have an elevated risk of depression. the cycle is described as stable - global - internal - depression, or temporary- specific - external - successful coping.
primary reinforcer
innately satisfying and no learning needed ex: food, water, shelter
Psychodynamic and humanistic therapies are often referred to as ___ ___
insight therapies
score that appears the most often
mode
Comparing Modern Psychotherapies
pg 666
Occipital lobe's
portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.
Parietal lobe's
portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position.
scientific method
system of gathering data so that bias and error in measurement are reduced.
Gender Schema Theory
the theory that children learn from their cultures a concept of what it means to be male and female and that they adjust their behavior accordingly
Control
to what extent children are motivated
The Case Study: disadvantages
too subjective and too uncontrolled (not taken from a representative sample and researcher bias is a potential problem); cannot be replicated and extremely inefficient (lots of time and money!!!)
Monozygotic twins
twins who are genetically identical
Hemispheres
we have two, right and left, and some brain functions seem to centered in one or the other
mode
what is showing up the most
Aptitude Test v. Achievement Test assessment tools
...
Industrial-Organizational
1) Behavior of individuals in organizations, 2) Factors influencing 3) Personnel selection, job satisfaction, productivity etc.
Heliocentric view
1) Copernicus (1473-1542) 2) Galileo (1564-1642) 3) Newton (1642-1727)
Four Different Types of Temperaments in Babies
1) Easy Babies 2) Slow to warm babies 3) Difficult babies 4) Combination Babies
Career Options in Psychology: But can I get a job once I graduate?
1) Professional Settings: ! Academia: 2) Research and Teaching ! Research: 3) pharmaceutical, consumer research, government, etc ! Professional Private Practice 4) Clinical 5 Industrial-Organizational 6) Some additional professional specialties (Kalat)
Three Stages of Prenatal Development
1. Germinal Stage 2. Embryonic Stage 3. Fetal Stage
list the goals of psychology
1. describe 2. explain 3 predict 4. control
Two assumptions of the two-factor theory of emotion:
1. emotions have two ingredients - physical arousal plus cognitive appraisal 2. arousal from any source can enhance one emotion or another, depending on how we interpret and label the arousal.
Two factor theory of emotion and how it relates to attraction
According to the two factor theory, physiological arousal from situation A (scared of snake) spills over to situation B (interpersonal interaction) and it's gonna increase positive feelings we have towards the person.
Case Study
An in-depth investigation of an individual subject
Standard Deviation
An index of the amount of variability in a set of data.
Mary cover Jones
And early pioneer in behavior theory
What is the Preoperational Stage Characterized by?
Animism. Egocentrism. Literal thinking. Symbolism.
Variables
Any measureable conditions, events, characteristics, or behaviors that are controlled or observed in a study
Extraneous Variables
Are any variables other than the independent variable that seem likely to influence the dependent variable in a specific study.
must observe another's behavior and its consquences -must be paying attention first in order to make associations
Attention
Medulla
Base of brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
Disadvantages of case study
Cannot apply to others
when every instance of a response is reinforced -Dog sits when told = give cookie every time
Continuous Reinforcement
Regression
(psychiatry) a defense mechanism in which you flee from reality by assuming a more infantile state
Subtypes of Schizophrenia
(table 15.4 in book on pg 633)
experiment
- a research method that manipulates a variable under carefully controlled conditions and observes whether any changes occur in a second variable as a result - to detect cause-and-effect relationships
representative sample
- a sample is representative if its composition is similar to the composition of the population
statistical significance
- data is said to be significant when the probability that the the observed findings are due to chance is "very low" (less 5/100 or .05 level of significance)
within-subjects design
- does not require a separate control group. In this design, one group of subjects (or even a single subject) acts as their own control - useful because they show the effects of a variable on an individual subject rather than on a hypothetical "average subject."
standard deviation
- is an index of the amount of variability in a set of data
Neuron
- nerve cells that specialize in communicating information - present from birth - number about 100 billion - basic building blocks of the nervous system
direct observation
- observers are trained to watch and record behaviour as objectively and precisely as possible
Resistance
In psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anxiety-laden material.
Transference
In psychoanalysis, the patient's transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationships (such as love or hatred for a parent).
Normative social Influence
Influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval
Statistics
Is the use of mathematics to organize, summarize and interpret numerical data.
What is the best way to predict a person's future behaviour?
Examine the person's past behaviour patterns in similar situations
Menarche
First menstrual period.
What are gender roles, and what do their variations tell us about our human capacity for learning and adaptation?
Gender roles are social rules or norms for accepted and expected behaviour for each sex. The norms associated with various roles, including gender roles, vary widely in different cultures which is proof that we are very capable of learning and adapting to the social demands of different environments.
What did Freud do?
He proposed the existence of an unaware mind into which we push or repress all of the threatening urges and desires
Experimental group
In a study, the participants who receive the treatment
three advantages of a within-subject design
(1) ensures that the participants in the experimental and control conditions would be alike on any extraneous variables involving their personal characteristics (2) it's possible to manipulate more than one independent variable in a single experiment to examine their joint effects on the dependent variable (3) it's possible to use more than one dependent variable in a single study
The "Big Five" Personality FActors
(CANOE)
Oral Stage (Freud's Psychosexual Stages)
(Freud) The first sexual and social stage of an infant's development (from about age 0 to 1). Libidinal energy is centered around the mouth.
How do (a) the placebo effect and (b) the regression toward the mean bias client's and clinician's appraisals of the effectiveness of psychotherapies?
(a) The placebo effect is the healing power or belief in a treatment. Patients and therapists who expect a treatment to be effective may believe it was. (b) GIven the natural tendency of extraordinary happenings to regress back to ordinary ones, patients and clinicians may attribute a normal regression to successful treatment.
Projection
(psychiatry) a defense mechanism by which your own traits and emotions are attributed to someone else
IV. Gestalt:
- Psychology as the study of holistic behavioral and perceptual processes:
interviews
- a face-to-face dialogue is conducted to obtain information about specific aspects of a subject's behaviour
theory construction
- a gradual, iterative process following tests of successful or unsuccessful research of a particular hypotheses - always subject to revision
journal
- a periodical that publishes technical and scholarly material, usually in a narrowly defined area of inquiry
technical journals
- a periodical that publishes technical and scholarly material, usually in narrowly defined are that field - represent the core of intellectual activity in any academic discipline - written in special language unique to a particular discipline - permit researchers to disseminate their findings to the scientific community
naturalistic observation
- a researcher engages in careful observation of behaviour without intervening directly with the subjects - *advantages:* behaviour is allowed to unfold naturally (without interference) in its natural environment - allows researchers to study behaviour under condition that re less artificial than in experiments - *disadvantages:* researchers have trouble making their observations unobtrusively so they don't affect participants behaviour
physiological recordings
- an instrument is used to monitor and record a specific physiological process in a subject - include: blood pressure, heart rate, muscle tension, and brain activity
Neal Miller
- argued the ethics behind animal testing suggested the means - research on animals led to cures of anorexia and bulimia - argued radical activists made a career of misinforming the public about the value of such research
anecdotal evidence
- consists of personal stories about specific incidents and experiences - often influence people because they tend to be concrete, vivid, and memorable
control group
- consists of similar subjects who do *not* receive the special treatment given to the experimental group
experimental group
- consists of the subjects who receive some special treatment in regard to the independent variable
sampling bias
- exists when a sample is not representative of the population from which it was drawn - if it exists, generalizations about the population may be inaccurate
correlation
- exists when two variables are related to each other
major advantages and disadvantages of experimental research
- experiment isa powerful research method that permits conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships between variables - however, often experiments are highly artificial to be controlled appropriately, therefore results are not necessarily realistic - also, *can't be used* to explore research where factors cannot be manipulated because of ethical concerns or practical realities
David Wolfe
- interested in effects of treatment of dating abuse on the part of male and female teens who were at risk of abusive relationships based on their own history of maltreatment - found that the intervention was effective in reducing frequency and severity of the teens' experience of abuse in relationships with others
How are scientific theories constructed?
- investigators test one or two specific hypothesis derived from a theory - if findings support the theory, confidence grows, if findings fail, theory must be revised or discarded
double-blind procedure
- is a research strategy to prevent experimenter bias, in which neither subjects nor experimenters know which subjects are in the experimental or control groups
hypothesis
- is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables
Advantages of group therapy:
- it saves therapists' time and money - it offers a special lab for exploring social behaviours and social skills - it enables people to see that others share their problems - it provides feedback as clients try out new ways of behaving
descriptive/correlational research methods
- permit investigators to only describe patterns of behaviour and discover links or associations between variables - researcher cannot manipulate the variables under study - used to explore research where factors cannot be manipulated because of ethical concerns or practical realities
data collection techniques
- procedures for making empirical observations and measurements, include: - direct observation, questionnaires, interviews, psychological tests, physiological recordings, and examination of archival records
(Step 2) Select the Research Method and Design the Study
- put the hypothesis to an empirical test - select an appropriate and practical research method based to the nature of the question under study - choose type, number, and origin of participants
negative results
- replication research that fails to duplicate the original work - can lead to new theories and advances
surveys
- researchers use questionnaires or interviews to gather information about specific aspects of participants' behaviour - often used to obtain information on aspects of behaviour that are difficult to observe directly - *advantages:* relatively easy to collect data on attitudes and opinions from large samples of the population - *disadvantages:* dependent on self-report data which is very subjective
limitations of anecdotal evidence
- resemble a single case study and cannot be used to generalize a population - similar to self-report data can be distorted by social desirability bias - often inaccurate and unreliable due to hearsay and embellishments - readily manipulated to support data rather than reality
questionnaire
- subjects are administered a series of written questions designed to obtain information about attitudes, opinions, and specific aspects of their behaviour
Robert Rosenthal
- suggests that experimenter bias may lead researchers to unintentionally influence the behaviour of their subjects
central tendency
- summarizes numerical data to give a typical or average score - uses three measures: the median, the mean, and the mode
mean
- the arithmetic average of the scores in a distribution - obtained by: adding all the scores and dividing by the total number of scores
allostatic load, non-linear
- the build-up of damage over time to stress - there's a ____-______ function between allostasis and wear and tear on the body. Stress levels in the middle, not too high or low.
Superego
-the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgement (the conscious) and for future aspirations. It focuses on how we ought to behave
removing a rewarding stimulus -Not allowing a kid go out and play with their friends
Negative Punishment
Anecdotal Evidence
Personal stories about specific incidents and experiences
Difference between prejudice and discrimination
Prejudice is a negative attitude. Discrimination is a negative behaviour.
How many people suffer, or have suffered from a psychological disorder? Is poverty a risk factor?
Psychological disorder rates vary, depending on the time and place of the survey. In one multinational survey, rates for any disorder ranged from less than 5% (Shanghai) to more than 25% (USA). Poverty is a risk factor: conditions and experiences associated with poverty contribute to the development of psychological disorders. But some disorders, such as schizophrenia, can drive people into poverty.
Descriptive Statistics
Statistics that are used to to organize and summarize data.
synapse
The junction between neurons where neurotransmitters are released is the ________.
flynn effect
The rise in average IQ scores that has occurred over the decades in many nations
General formatting rules
Typed, double spaced, 1" margins all sides, 12 pt font times new roman, page header in upper left hand of every page and page number in upper right hand side of every page
Empirically derived test
a test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups
concept check 1 #1: explain how the biological and cognitive research perspectives differ in their explanations of human behavior and mental processing
biological and cognitive perspective focus on internal causes of behavior and mental processing. The biological perspective focuses on the physiological hardware, like the brain and the nervous system while the cognitive perspective focuses more on the mental processes or software of the brain, the "programs" of the brain
concept of internal factors
biological and cognitive perspective focus on internal causes of behavior and mental processing. The biological perspective focuses on the physiological hardware, while the cognitive perspective focuses more on the mental processes or software of the brain, so its all inside
Driving to school one snowy day, Marco narrowly misses a car that slides through a red light. "Slow down! What a terrible driver," he thinks to himself. Moments later MArco himself slops through an intersection and yells, "Wow! These roads are awful. The city plow need to get out here". What social psychology principle has Marco just demonstrated?
fundamental attribution errer
control group
group not exposed to the independent variable
COncrete Operational Stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events.
Wernicke's area
language comprehension
h^2=0.0
no genetic influence
concept check 1 #2: explain how the behavioral and sociocultural research perspectives differ in their explanations of human behavior and mental processing
sociocultural deals with how people and cultural things impact our behavior and mental processing or observable which is external environmental events so they basically deal with two different types of outside factors behavioral deals with more observation of behavior while sociocultural deals with more mental processing
range
subtract highest from the lowest
hypothesis
tentative explanation of a phenomenon based on observations.
Companionate Love
the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined
Range
the simplest measure of variation. the difference between the largest and smallest measurement. Advantage it only measures two scores: the highest and the lowest. In a small sampling size, a big change in these two scores could throw off a true picture of the situation.
Evolutionary Psychology
the study of the evolution of behaviour and the mind, using principles of natural selection. According to EP universal and common behaviour exist because these are behaviours that helped our ancestors survive and so they were transmitted into the future.
Neuroanatomy
the study of the parts and function of neurons
Stanford-Binet
the widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet's original intelligence test.
Chromosome
threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes
psychoanalytic (with example, Dona)
unconscious feelings and who they impact us. ex: she developed alternate personalities
evolutionary (with example, Dona)
who evolutionary ideas explain human behavior and mental processes. ex: how did autism evolve through human history
behavioral (with example, Dona)
who organisms learn new or change behavior based on the environment. ex: she made a rule to have no soap bubbles
Between men and women, who is more immunologically stronger? And who is more susceptible to autoimmune disease?
women and women ..
When perceived to be power hungry, ____ suffer more backlash.
women, this is because they are going against gender norms.
Surveys: disadvantages
wording effect causes great bias. poorly constructed questions can result in answers that aren't clear.
Are increased levels of glutamate associated with increased levels of cognitive function?
yes
Could stress and negative emotions speed the transition from HIV to AIDS?
yes
Do people with higher IQs produce more complex brain waves?
yes
Does the experimental group receive treatment?
yes
Does the hand you use to write with change with DID?
yes sometimes.
Do most major depressive episodes self-terminate?
yes, but when it comes back it's gonna hit harder and be more difficult to come out of.
Might stress predict a faster decline in those with AIDS?
yes, they'll have worse outcomes.
Would efforts to control stress help to control HIV/AIDS?
yes. Meditation decreases the activity of HIV and enhances the immune system.
Explicit Racial Association
you are prejudice and you know it.
Us versus Them
your group vs. other groups; the in group and the out group; ; heterogenous vs homogenous; When people belong to a group which bolsters their self esteem, it creates tension between their group and others.
five steps in scientific investigations
(1) Formulate a Testable Hypothesis (2) Select the Research Method and Design the Study (3) Collect the Data (4) Analyze the Data (5) Report the Findings
Neurofibrillary Tangles
(1) Found inside neuron. Result from malfunctioning of protein. Kill neuron from within. (2) tangled bundles of fibers seen in the cytoplasm of abnormal neurons in those areas of the brain (hippocampus, cerebral cortex) most affected by Alzheimer's disease.
Vicious Cycle of depression
(1) Negative stressful events interpreted through (2) a ruminating, pessimistic explanatory style create (3) a hopeless, depressed state that (4) hampers the way the person thinks and acts. This in turn fuels (1) negative, stressful experiences such as rejection.
Learned Helplessness (when people or animals become conditioned to believe a situation is unavoidable) -Dog on shock floor = gave up and didn't try/consider that the other half was safe -Martin Seligman
Escape and Avoidance
suppression, relax
Evidence shows that preventing _______ lowers the intensity of the psychological disorder. This is tested by instructing subjects to ____ their attempts to suppress thoughts and think about what they want.
Type A and B, who is more likely to have a heart attack and why?
Type A because of their negative emotions - especially the anger associated with anger an aggressively reactive temperament. Those who react with anger over little things are more coronary-prone.
What are reliability and validity?
Validity is the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to, whereas Reliability is the tendency for a measure to produce the same result whenever it is used to measure the same thing
Independent variable
Variable that you manipulate
Negative correlation
Variables are related in opposite direction as one increases the other decreases
amplifier hypothesis
What is the hypothesis that states that we might expect suppression to help briefly, but it will eventually amplify the person's problems? Evidence of this IS consistent.
cerebellum, medulla, pons, motor
What is the structure that is known as the "little brain"? It is located behind the _______ and ______. This structure is concerned with regulation of _______ activities, learning, and motor memory.
norepinephrine
What neurotransmitter?: - Arousal - Vigilance
serotonin
What neurotransmitter?: - Emotional states and impulsiveness - Dreaming
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)
What neurotransmitter?: - Inhibition of action potentials - Anxiety reduction - Intoxication (through alcohol)
When does older people's prospective memory remain strong?
When the events help trigger a memory. For example, as when walking by a convenience store triggers "Pick up Milk!"
Social Desirability Bias
Which is a tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself.
GAS Exhaustion Phase
With no relief from stress, your body's reserves begin to run out. With exhaustion, you become more vulnerable to illness, collapse or death.
How do individualist and collectivist cultures influence people?
Within any culture, the degree of individualism or collectivism varies from person to person. Cultures based on self-reliant individuals, like those found in North America and Western Europe, tend to value personal independence and individual Achievement. They define identity in terms of self-esteem, personal goals and attributes, and personal rights and liberties. Cultures based on socially connected collectivism, like those in many parts of Asia and Africa, tend to value interdependence, tradition, and harmony and they define identity in terms of group goals, commitments and belonging to one's group.
Who lives longer, carries more fat, enters puberty earlier, can become sexually re-aroused right away and is shorter?
Women
According to Evolutionary Psychology, why do men have more comfort with casual sex?
Women's approach to sex is more relational and men's more recreational. In our ancestry, women most often sent their genes into the future by pairing wisely, and men by pairing widely.
Are mothers who report being sick with the flu during pregnancy more likely to bear children who develop schizophrenia?
Yes
Are people born in densely populated areas, where viral diseases spread more readily , at a greater risk for schizophrenia?
Yes
Are those born during the winter and spring months - after the fall-winter flu season - also at increased risk for schizophrenia?
Yes
Are we most likely to conform when we admire the group's status and attractiveness?
Yes
Are we most likely to conform when we are from a culture that strongly encourages respect for social standards?
Yes
Are we most likely to conform when we feel incompetent or insecure?
Yes
Narcissism
Excessive love of one's body or oneself
Is there a correlation between intelligence score and the speed of taking in perceptual information?
Yes, the correlation tends to be about +0.3 to +0.5.
non-depressed, depression, decrease
Findings with Rumination Research: 1) Rumination phrases had no effect on ____-_______ Ss' mood, but the rumination phrases increased _______ short term for the depressed subjects because they are already thinking negatively. 2) The distraction condition would ______ the depressed mood in depressed Ss because they'd be distracted from their normal rumination.
HOw stable are intelligence scores over the lifespan?
Fluid intelligence declines in older adults, in part because neural processing slows. Crystallized intelligence tends to increase. IT scores increase with age. The stability of intelligence test scores increases with age. By age 4, scores fluctuate somewhat but begin to predict adolescent and adult scores. At about age 7, scores become fairly stable and consistent.
Modern perspectives
Focus on development of sense of self and the discovery of other motivation behind a person's behaviors other then sexual motivations
Structuralism
Focus on the structure or basis elements of the mind
Sociocultural perspectives
Focuses on the relationship between social behavior and culture
Why was the APS created ?
Formed by scientists who were tired of an "APA" that was more concerned about Blue Cross payments than with science
plasticity, regenerate
________ is the ability of the brain to change with experience - both positive and negative experiences (learning new languages, doing drugs, traumatic brain injury). Brain can often _______ lost functions other areas of the brain take over.
the CS precedes or begins with the UCS -ring bell as presenting food or a little before presenting food Simultaneous Conditioning: -CS and UCS (bell/food at the same time) Short-Delayed Conditioning (most effective): -CS starts then UCS starts, end together (ring bell, present food, take them both away at the same time) Trace Conditioning: -CS, then after UCS (ring bell, take it away, then present food)
Forward Conditioning
Which of Freud's ideas did his followers accept or reject?
Freud's early followers, the neo-Freudians, accepted many of his ideas. They differed in placing more emphasis on the conscious mind and in stressing social motives more than sex or aggression. Contemporary psychodynamic theorists and therapists reject Freud's emphasis on sexual motivation. They stress, with support from modern research findings, the view that much of our mental life is unconscious, and they believe that our childhood experiences influence our adult personality and attachment patterns.
Psychoanalysis
Freud's theory of personality and therapeutic technique that attributes our thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; The techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions.
Collectivism
Giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly.
Three ways in which individuals and environments interact:
1. Different people choose different environments. 2. Our personalities shape how we interpret and react to event. 3. Our personalities help create situations to which we react.
Endocrine system
Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells.
Obedience and the Holocaust
Good family men became soldiers and even knowing that they would be sending the jews to concentration camps or killing them on the spot, only a refused to partake.
Two reasons adolescence is getting longer
1. People are entering puberty earlier than ever. 2. People are spending more time in school so it takes longer to assume full adult responsibilities.
Two reasons the fastest growing segment of the population is the older generation:
1. People aren't having as many kids. 2. Medical Advancements allow us to live longer and healthier.
Steps of the scientific method
1. Perceive the question 2. Form a hypothesis 3. Test the hypothesis 4. Draw conclusions 5. Report your results so others can try to repeat and study your experiment
Disadvantages of surveys
1. Researchers have to ensure a representative sample or results are not meaningful 2. People are not always accurate
Four Stages of Cognitive Development
1. Sensorimotor 2. Preoperational 3. Concrete Operational 4. Formal Operational
Three major limitations to the child during the preoperational stage
1. Unable to perform mental operations. 2. Fall prey to centration. 3. LAck of Conservation
Three different types of conflict as a stressor
1. approach - approach 2. approach - avoidance 3. avoidance - avoidance
list the 8 steps to experimental research
1. ask 2. identify 3. choose 4. assign 5. manipulate 6. measure 7. analyze 8. confounding variables
Persistent stressors and negative emotions leads to release of stress hormones. this leads to what three things?
1. autonomic nervous system effects (headaches, high blood pressure, inflammation) 2. immunosuppression 3. heart disease
Three parts to prejudice:
1. beliefs (aka stereotypes) 2. emotions 3. predispositions to action (to discriminate)
Two factors to the Bystander Effect
1. diffusion of responsibility 2. informational social influence
What we will focus on
1. emphasis on study of both human & animal behavior ! 2. Psychology's relationship to other disciplines 3. Research areas in Psychology 4. Professional Specialties 5. Employment of Psychologists
Three benefits of all therapies
1. hope for demoralized people 2. a new perspective 3. an empathetic, trusting, caring relationship
Three ways Parents influence us
1. lifestyle choices (where we live) 2. advice (they offer it). 3. Quality of parent-child relationship (influences quality of peer-child relationships)
What are the two reasons we conform?
1. normative social influence 2. informational social influence
Three things that must happen for someone to step up and help:
1. notice the incident 2. we must decide that this is an emergency and that help is needed 3. must assume responsibility
Three theories behind the psychology of helping
1. social exchange theory 2. reciprocity norm 3. social responsibility norm.
Two specific learning processes that contribute to anxiety from fear conditioning:
1. stimulus generalization 2. reinforcement
What is the IQ of a 4 year old with a mental age of 5?
125 (5 / 4 X 100 = 125)
Embryo
2 weeks through 8 weeks, called this once it attaches to the mother's uterine wall, organs being to form and function
Fetus
9 weeks after conception to birth
What age put a mother at risk for down's syndrome?
<18 and 40+
Pons
A brain structure that relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain
savant syndrome
A condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing (Connor from degrassi).
Equity
A condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it.
Punishment
A consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur.
Experiment
A deliberate manipulation of a variable to see whether corresponding changes in behavior result allowing determination of cause-and-effect relationships
Naturalistic Observation
A descriptive research in which the researcher engages in careful, usually prolonged, observation of behavior without intervening directly with the subjects
Survey
A descriptive research method in which researchers use questionnaires or interviews to gather information about specific aspects of a subject's behavior
Survey
A descriptive research method in which researchers use questionnaires or interviews to gather information about specific aspects of subjects' behavior.
Limbic system
A doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus.
Stimulus
A feature in the environment that is detected by an organism or that leads to a change in behavior.
Creativity
A feature of thought and problem solving that includes the tendency to generate or recognize ideas considered to be high-quality, original, novel, and appropriate.
Generativity
A feeling of concern about, or interest in guiding and shaping the next generation.
Percentile Score
A figure that indicates the percentage of people who score below the score one has obtained.
Operant Conditioning
A form of associative learning in which the consequences of a behavior change the probability of the behaviors occurrence.
Psychoanalysis
A lengthy insight therapy that was developed by Freud and aims at uncovering conflicts and unconscious impulses through special techniques, including free association, dream analysis, and transference.
Amygdala
A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression.
Ethics in psychological research
A list of rules that came out of Milgram's obedience experiment on obediance 1. informed consent and the right to refuse and/or withdraw at any time. 2. Right to be protected from harm, stress and discomfort 3. the right to confidentiality 4. Deception is okay, but all participants must (when possible) be debriefed.
GABA
A major inhibitory neurotransmitter. Undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia
Mental Age
A measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance. Thus, a child who does as well as the average 8-year-old is said to have a mental age of 8.
Recognition
A memory test that requires subjects to select previously learned information from an array of options.
Intelligence Test
A method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores
Cross section study
A method of research that looks at differ age groups at the same time in order to understand changes that occur during the life span
Major Depressive Disorder
A mood disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence of drugs or a medical condition, two or more weeks of significantly depressed moods, feelings of worthlessness, and diminished interest or pleasure in most activities, along with at least four other symptoms
Bipolar Disorder
A mood disorder in which the person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania.
Mania
A mood disorder marked by a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state
Participant observation
A naturalistic observation in which the observer becomes a participant in the group being observed
Norepinephrine
A neurotransmitter involved in arousal, as well as in learning and mood regulation
Acetylcholine
A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction
Lobotomy
A now-rare psychosurgical procedure once used to calm uncontrollably emotional or violent patients. The procedure cut the nerves that connect the frontal lobes to the emotion-controlling centers of the inner brain.
Correlation Coefficient
A numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables
Correlation Coefficient
A numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables.
Correlation Coeficiant
A numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables.
Insecure attachment
A pattern of attachment in which an infant avoids connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver's presence, departure, or return. The infant may also just continuously cry despite caregiver's presence, departure or return. Negative outcomes. Child think it doesn't matter.
Ethics in animal research
Harry Harlow and his monkeys did for animals what Milgram did for humans. 1. knowledge to be gained must justify the research procedures. 2. smallest possible number of animals should be used. 3. naturalistic studies are preffered to laboratory ones, bu animals should be disturbed as little as possible in the wild. 4. animals must be well-cared for 5. all procedures causing discomfort or pain should be assessed relative to the particular species studied. 6. experimenters must be familiar with the technical aspects of anesthesia, pharmacological compounds and so on.
What did Freud believe?
He believe that repressed urges in trying to surface created nervous disorders he stress the importance of early child hood experiences
What development stages did Freud propose?
He believed children pass through five psychosexual stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital). Unresolved conflicts at any stage can leave a person's pleasure-seeking impulses fixated (Stalled) at that stage.
What did Binet hope to achieve by establishing a child's mental age?
He hoped that by determining a child's mental age, or the age that typically corresponds to his or her level of performance, he could help that child to be placed appropriately in school classrooms with others of similar abilities.
a conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus -Hot guy with girlfriend = guy is happy -Whenever she's around him = she wears apple perfume -Hot guy associates the smell of her perfume with happiness = whenever he smells apple-like fragrances he feels happy -Walks into Bath and Body Works = happy
Higher (Second) Order Conditioning
HERV-W
Human endogenous retrovirus which has been integrated into human genome, its not infectious but encodes SYNCYTIN (functional envelope protein expressed in human placenta that's essential for syncytialtrophoblast health).
Cognitive Psychology
Human learning & memory Attention Information processing
Where Do Psychologists Work?
Human service sector 38%
How have humanistic theories influenced psychology? What criticisms have they faced?
Humanistic Psych helped renew interest in the concept of self. Critics have said that humanistic psychology's concepts were vague and subjective, its values self-centered and its assumptions naively optimistic.
Humanism
Humanists held the view that people have free will, the freedom to choose their own destiny, and strive for self-actualization, the achievement of one's full potential. Two of the earliest and most famous founders of this view were Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) and Carl Rogers (1902-1987). Today, humanism exists as a form of psychotherapy aimed at self-understanding and self-improvement.
How does the type of information being remembered influence whether older folks can retrieve it?
If the information is meaningless - nonsense syllables or unimportant events - then the older we are, the more errors we are likely to make. If the information is meaningful, older people's rich web of existing knowledge will help them to hold it. But it may take longer than younger adults to produce the words and things they know.
Psy.D
If you view yourself as more of a consumer than a producer of research. Practitioner
Egocentrism
In Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view. Child doesn't understand that people have different ways of thinking
Preoperational Stage
In Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic.
Control group
In a experiment, the group that does not receive the treatment
Independent Variable
In an experiment, a condition or even that an experimenter varies in order to see its impact on another variable
Independent Variable
In an experiment, a condition or event that an experimenter varies in order to see its impact on another variable.
Dependent variable
In an experiment, the factor that is being measured and that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable
Dependent Variable
In an experiment, the variable that is thought to be affected by the manipulation of the independent variable.
Dependent Variables
In an experiment, the variable that is thought to be affected by the manipulation of the independent variable.
Self
In contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions.
Repression
In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.
Defense Mechanisms
In psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.
Defense mechanisms
In psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.
Sociocultural perspective
In psychology, the perspective that focuses on the roles of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status in personality formation, behavior, and mental processes
Catharsis hypothesis
In psychology, this hypothesis maintains that "releasing" aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges.
Positive Symptom
In schizophrenia, symptoms that reflect excesses or distortions of normal functioning, including delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized thoughts and behavior.
How do individualist and collectivist cultures differ?
Individualists give priority to personal goals over group goals and tend to define their identity in terms of their own personal attributes. Collectivists give priority to group goals over individual goals and tend to define their identity to terms of group identifications.
William James
Influenced the modern fields of educational psych evolutionary psych industrial organizational psychology
Edward Lee Thorndike -first to look at "operant conditioning" as the law of effect -term coined by Skinner -Operant Chamber/Skinner Box -Reinforces preceding behavior -Focuses on strengthening/weakening voluntary behaviors
Instrumental Learning
when a response is reinforced only some of the time -This works best -Behave a certain way and will get reinforced sometime in the future
Intermittent or Partial Reinforcement
Correlation Coefficient
Is a numerical index of the degree of the relationship between two variables.
A Journal
Is a periodical that publishes technical and scholarly material, usually in a narrowly defined area of inquiry.
Normal Distribution
Is a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that represents the pattern in which many human characteristics are dispersed in the population.
A Response Set
Is a tendency to respond to questions in a particular way that is unrelated to the content of the questions.
Hypothesis
Is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables.
Case Study
Is an in-depth investigation of an individual subject.
Standard Deviation
Is an index of the amount of variability in a set of data.
Statistical Significance
Is said to exist when the probability that the observed findings are due to chance is very low.
Replication
Is the repetition of a study to see whether the earlier results are duplicated.
Median
Is the score that falls exactly in the centre of a distribution of scores.
What is psychology?
Is the study of behavior and mental processes
What are some positives about social support?
It calms us and reduces blood pressure and stress hormones. Social support fosters stronger immune functioning. Close relationships give us an opportunity for "open-heart therapy", a chance to confide painful feelings. People with good social support will have longer telomeres and thus will age better. Also good social support is linked with what genes will be turned on/off.
little Albert experiment
John B. Watson conditions a small boy to be afraid of rats, US= loud noises and fear generalizes to all furry objects
What are the contrasting effects of learned helplessness, personal control and optimism on our behaviour?
Learned helplessness produces passive resignation after organisms find themselves unable to avoid aversive events. Personal control has the opposite effect, leading to higher achievement, more independence, better health, and less depression. Optimism can produce positive behavioral results but excessive optimism can be self-defeating, especially if it leads to blindness to one's own incompetence
Observational Learning
Learning by observing and imitating the behavior of others.
Psychophysiological illness
Literally, "mind-body" illness; any stress-related physical illness, such as hypertension and some headaches.
Daily Hassles
Little things in life, like waiting in lines, can be a stressor.
What paternal factors are associated with birth defects?
Low vitamin C levels, smoking, exposure to radiation, pesticides, and age.
autonomic, homeostasis, eating, mating, pituitary
Main roles of the Hypothalamus: 1) Regulates the ________ nervous system. 2) Plays a key role in _______. 3) Plays a key role in _______ and drinking. 4) Plays a role in _______ and aggression. 5) Regulates the release of hormones from _______ gland.
Edward B Titchner (1867-1927)
Method of Introspection to uncover the nature of consciousness
Robbers Cave Experiment
Muzafer Sherif divided 10 year-old boys into two groups to observe how the groups would relate to each other. (A) during an early phase of the study when the two groups competed for prizes, they reacted hostilely toward each other. (B) in a later phase, the groups had to work together to accomplish goals that neither could accomplish alone, such as pulling a truck to get it started. (C) working on these superordinate goals led the boys to set aside their differences and become friends.
feeding, fighting, fleeing, f-ing, hippocampus, amygdala
Name the 4 F's (Functions) of the limbic system: The parts of the limbic system are the ________, involved in new memory formation, and the _______, involved in emotional control, anger, and anxiety.
Chameleon Effect
Natural (unconscious) tendency to imitate other people's speech, inflections & physical movements (similar to automatic mimicry).
Spinal cord
Nerves that run up and down the length of the back and transmit most messages between the body and brain
Are some psychotherapies more effective than others for specific disorders?
No one type of psychotherapy is generally superior to all others. Therapy is most effective for those with clear-cut specific problems. Some therapies - such as behaviour conditioning for treating phobias and compulsion - are more effective for specific disorders. Psychodynamic therapy has been effective for depression and anxiety, and cognitive and cognitive-behavioural therapies have been effective in coping with anxiety, PTSD, and depression Evidence-based practice integrates the best available research with clinicians' expertise and patients' characteristics, preferences and circumstances.
Can scientists say how much of your traits are attributed to genes?
No, you cannot say that your personality is due x percent to your heredity and y percent to your environment. Heritability explains 50% of the observed variation among people. Heritability refers to the extent to which differences among people are attributable to genes.
Experimenter Bias
Occurs when a researchers expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained.
What happens to the immune system as we age?
Older people have weakened immune systems and so are more susceptible to life-threatening ailments such as cancer and pneumonia. However, older people have an accumulation of antibodies so they suffer fewer short-term ailments.
Identity
One's sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles.
What are some ways to reconcile conflicts and promote peace?
Peacemakers should encourage equal-status contact, cooperation to achieve superordinate goals (shared goals that override differences), understanding through communication, and reciprocated conciliatory gestures (each side gives a little).
motivation, ruminating
People continue to ruminate because it saps _______ to get batter. It is also hard to stop _______ once it starts.
Generalization (Operant Conditioning)
Performing a reinforced behavior in a different situation.
What are personality inventories and what are their strengths and weaknesses as trait-assessment tools?
Personality inventories (such as MMPI) are questionnaires on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviours. Test items are empirically derived and the tests are objectively scored. But people can fake their answers to create a good impression, and the case of computerized testing may lead to misuses of the tests.
What is the relationship between poverty and psychological disorders?
Poverty-related stresses can help trigger disorders, but disability disorders can also contribute to poverty. Thus, poverty and disorder are often a chicken-and-egg situation and it's hard to know which came first.
What is the rationale for preventive mental health programs?
Preventive mental health programs are based on the idea that many psychological disorders could be prevented by changing oppressive, esteem-destroying environments into more benevolent, nurturing environments that foster growth, self-confidence, and resilience.
events that are inherently reinforcing; satisfying biological needs
Primary Reinforcement
Relaxation Experiment with heart attack victim
Recurrent heart attacks and life style modification. Counselling was offered from a cardiologist to survivors of heart attacks. Those who also guided in modifying their Type A lifestyle (and became more relaxed) suffered fewer repeat heart attacks.
Midbrain
Region between the hindbrain and the forebrain; it is important for hearing and sight.
occurs when an event following a response increases an organism's tendency to make that response
Reinforcement
determine which responses are reinforced
Reinforcement contingencies
Fixed-Ratio
Reinforcement occurs after a set number of occurrences or events. Responses decrease immediately following reinforcement , then resume at a high rate. Example: must deliver mail to a fixed number of houses each day before he or she can head home.
Variable Interval
Reinforcement occurs after an unknown amount of time. Constant level of response.
Variable Ratio
Reinforcement that occurs after an unknown number of occurrences or events. Constant, high rate of response.
Social Support
Relationships with people and groups that can provide us with emotional comfort and personal resources. They like and encourage us.
In what ways might relaxation and meditation influence stress and health?
Relaxation and meditation have been shown to reduce stress by relaxing muscles, lowering blood pressure, improving immune functioning, and lessening anxiety and depression.
Prospective memory
Remembering to do things in the future.
Lesions
Removal or distruction of part of the brain
Timeline 1
Renasonce stated in florence Italy
Descriptive methods
Research methods whose main purpose is to provide objective and detailed descriptions of behavior and mental processes (observational techniques, case studies, and survey research )
What does research with perceived control reveal?
Research with rats and humans indicates that the absence of control over stressors is a predictor of health problems. More control you think you have, the longer you live.
Irving Janis
Researched the influence of groupthink. He explored the effect of groupthink on military personnel when confronted with threatening situations (sometimes they'll make bad decisions because they just want to reach a consensus).
Survey
Researchers use questionnaires or interviews to gather information about specific aspects of participants behaviour.
Surveys
Researchers will ask a series of questions about the topic understudy
Id
Reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that's trying to satisfy basic desires
Discrimination (Operant Conditioning)
Responding appropriately to stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced.
-unconditioned response (UCR) -conditioned response (CR)
Responses
you must store a mental representation of what you have witnessed in your memory
Retention
interferes, fail, confidence
Ruminating does not help solve problems; instead, rumination actually _______ with good problem-solving. Depressed ruminators may give good solutions, but _____ to implement and have less ______ in their solutions.
depression, rumination, distraction, depressed/rumination, depressed/distraction, non-depressed/rumination, non-depressed/distraction
Rumination Research Paradigm: - Compares two groups: those experiencing _______ and those who are not depressed. - Randomly assign them to be in a rumination condition or a distraction from rumination condition. - ________-induction group: asked to think about themselves, how their bodies feel, how their lives are going, etc. - ________-induction group: asked to think about things like a truckload of watermelons or Mona Lisa's face. List the four groups used in this study.
Two pathways in the body linked with stress
Sam and HPA pathway
Vicarious reinforcement and punishment
Seeing a model attain a reward for an activity increases the chances that an observer will repeat the behavior. Seeing a model punished makes the observer less likely to repeat the behavior.
Do self-confidence and life satisfaction vary with life stages?
Self-confidence tends to strengthen across the lifespan. Surveys show that life satisfaction is unrelated to age. Positive emotions increase after midlife and negative ones decrease.
What evidence reveals self-serving bias, and how do defensive and secure self-esteem differ?
Self-serving bias is our tendency to perceive ourselves favourably, as when viewing ourselves as better than average or when accepting credit on sustaining itself, and views failure or criticism as a threat. Secure self-esteem enables us to feel accepted for who we are.
Puberty
Sexual maturation; the end of childhood and the point when reproduction is first possible.
The reinforcement of successive approximations of desired behavior -Each success brings one closer to desired outcome -Sister and skinny jeans
Shaping
Binge-Eating Disorder
Significant binge-eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compensatory purging, fasting, or excessive exercise that marks bulimia nervosa.
Are psychological disorders universal, or are they culture specific? Explain with examples
Some psychological disorders are culture-specific. For example, anorexia nervosa occurs mostly in Western cultures, and taijin-kyofusho (social anxiety about one's appearance combined with a readiness to blush and a fear of eye contact) appears largely in Japan. Other disorders, such as schizophrenia, occur in all cultures.
Who helped develop factor analysis?
Spearman
What is belief perseverance ?
Sticking to our beliefs no matter what , even with contradictory evidence
-neutral stimulus -unconditioned stimulus (UCS) -conditioned stimulus (CS)
Stimuli
a learned response to a specific stimulus evokes the same response to new stimuli that are similar to the original, specific stimulus -Little Albert = afraid of rat = grew to be afraid of white fluffy things (Santa) -Hot guy = whenever he smells fruity perfume = associates it with apple perfume = happy
Stimuli Generalization
a learned response to a specific stimulus does not generalize to new stimuli that are similar to original stimulus -Dog salivates to only high-pitched ring instead of a big clock ring -Dog hears bell in a different environment = doesn't salivate -Discriminates against other stimuli
Stimulus Discrimination
GAS Alarm Phase
Sympathetic nervous system is activated when you come face to face with a situation. Your resources are mobilized to either fight or flight.
What did Bem say we're the components of Psi?
Telepathy clairvoyance, precognition, premonition, telekinesis/ psychokinesis
Observer effect
Tendency of people or animals to behave differently from normal when they know they are being observed
Contingency
The CS must not only precede the US closely in time, it must also serve as a reliable indicator that the US is on its way.
Mean
The arithmetic average of the scores in a distribution
Mean
The arithmetic average of the scores inn a distribution.
Possible Selves
The aspect of the self-concept that includes images of the selves that you hope, fear, or expect to become in the future.
Object Permanence
The awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.
interprets, regulates, remodeling
The brain is the key organ of the stress response: 1) It ______ what is threatening/stressful 2) It ______ behavioral and physiological stress responses 3) It is a target of stress and stress-related hormones and undergoes subsequent structural and functional ______ that affects its functioning.
Psychosexual Stages
The childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones (chart pg 516)
What are the cognitive roots of prejudice?
The cognitive roots of prejudice grow from our natural ways of processing information: forming categories, remembering vivid cases, and believing that the world is just our own and our culture's ways of doing things are the right ways.
Statistical significance
The condition that exists when the probability that the observed findings are due to chance is very low
Statistical Significance
The condition that exists when the probability that the observed findings are due to chance is very low.
Random Assignment
The constitution of groups in a study such that all subjects have an equal chance of being assigned to any group or condition
random assignment vs. random sampling
The difference is that random sampling is a technique in which a sample of participants that is representative of a population is obtained not only to be used in experiments , but also in other research methods such as correlational studies and surveys. While random assignment is only used in experiments.
Sympathetic nervous system
The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.
Variability
The extent to which the scores in a data set tend to vary from each other and from the mean
Variability
The extent to which the scores in a data set tend to vary from each other and from the mean.
Correlation
The extent to which two variables are related to each other.
Independent variable
The factor that is manipulated by the researcher to determine its effect on another variable
Rape myth
The false belief that, deep down, women enjoy forcible sex and find it sexually exciting.
Stranger anxiety
The fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age.
Abnormal Psychology
The field of psychology concerned with the assessment, treatment, and prevention of maladaptive behavior.
Germinal Stage
The first phase of prenatal development, encompassing the first two weeks after conception. Zygote multiplies and makes way through fallopian tubes to embed in uterine wall.
selective attention
The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus. (those with schizophrenia lack the ability to stay attentive to only one stimulus)
thalamus, smell, limbic system
The gateway to the cortex, located above the hypothalamus, and known as the "great relay station of the brain" is the _______. It receives all sensory information except for ______, which goes to the _______ _______.
Learned Helplessness
The hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events
How did humanistic psychologists view personality and what was their goal in studying personality?
The humanistic psychologists' view of personality focused on the potential for healthy personal growth and people's striving for self-determination and self-realization. Abraham Maslow proposed that human motivations from a hierarchy of needs; if basic needs are fulfilled, people will strive toward self-actualization and self-transcendence. Carl Rogers believed that the ingredients of a growth-promoting environment are genuineness, acceptance (including unconditional positive regard), and empathy. Self-concept was a central feature of personality for both Maslow and Rogers.
What are operational definitions ?
The idea that concepts in scientific theories must be grounded in observable events that can be measured.
Acquisition
The initial learning of the connection between the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned stimulus when these two stimuli are paired.
Reciprocal Determinism
The interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment.
Cerebral cortex
The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.
Corpus Callosum
The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.
Population
The larger collection of animals or people from which a sample is drawn and that researchers want to generalize about.
Population
The larger collection of animals or people from which a sample is drawn that researchers want to generalize about
Forebrain
The largest and most complicated region of the brain, including the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebrum.
Threshold
The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
Extinction
The loss of a stimulus' ability to bring about a conditioned response
Glutamate
The most common neurotransmitter in the brain. Excitatory.
MMP
The most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests - originally designed to identify emotional disorders
somatic, autonomic
The peripheral nervous system consists of two branches: 1) ________ nervous system (voluntary movement; sensation). 2) _________ nervous system (involuntary control; processes related to survival)
Positive Reinforcement
The presentation of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to increase the frequency of that behavior. (something given)
What is the conjunction fallacy?
The probability that event A and event B will both occur must be less than the simple probability of A or the simple probability of B
Spontaneous Recovery
The process in classical conditioning by which a conditioned response can recur after a time delay, without further conditioning.
Discrimination (Classical Conditioning)
The process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not others. (only at the sound of a bell, no other sounds)
The psychodynamic and learning perspectives agree that dissociative identity disorder symptoms are ways of dealing with anxiety. How do their explanations differ?
The psychodynamic explanation of DID symptoms is that they are defenses against anxiety generated by unacceptable urges. The learning perspective attempts to explain these symptoms as behaviors that have been reinforced by relieving anxiety in the past.
Renewal
The recovery of the conditioned response when the organism is placed in a novel context. (drugs)
Behaviorism
The school of psychology, founded by John Watson, that defines psychology as the scientific study of observable behavior
Psychoanalysis
The school of psychology, founded by Sigmund Freud, that emphasizes the importance of unconscious motives and conflicts as determinants of human behavior
Embryonic Stage
The second stage of prenatal development, lasting from two weeks until the end of the second month. The placenta forms. Explosive growth and nervous system and major organs begin to form.
Preparedness
The species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not others.
Verbal intelligence scores are predictable from what?
The speed with which people retrieve information from memory.
carries, brain, reflexes
The spinal cord has 2 main functions: 1) ______ sensory information to receptors from _______ and vice versa. 2) Plays a key role in ________.
Naturalistic observation
The study of behavior in naturally occurring situations without manipulation or control on the part of the observer
Behavioral Neuroscience K. Lashley (1890 - 1958) Hebb (1905-1985)
The study of brain - behavior relationships with the focus on uncovering the neurophysiological mechanisms of behavior and cognition.
Biopsychology
The study of brain and behavior with a focus on the biological and psychological processes of : ! motivation & addiction ! learning, memory, and information processing, ! Evolution ! Individual differences and genetics
Experimental Group
The subjects in a study who receive some kind of special treatment in regard to the independent variable
Experimental Group
The subjects in a study who receive some special treatment in regard to the independent variable.
predictive validity
The success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior.
Fundamental attribution error
The tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition
Social loafing
The tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable.
Just-World Phenomenon
The tendency of people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get. (This enables the rich to see both their own wealth and the poor's misfortune as justly deserved)
Barnum Effect
The tendency to consider a personal description accurate if it is stated in very general terms (in terms of palm readers and how people fall for that shit).
False Consensus Effect
The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors
Generalization
The tendency to respond in the same way to stimuli that have similar characteristics.
Psychoanalysis
The theory and therapy based on the work of Sigmund Freud
Scapegoat theory
The theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame (blame all arabs for 9/11).
cognitive, affective, Stroop, affective, emotion, cognition
The two areas of the anterior cingulate nucleus are the ______ component in the back and the _______ component in the front. The cognitive component is involved in ______. If word has negative connotation, ______ part is activated. Anterior cingulate and limbic system are both involved in regulating ______. Anterior cingulate and frontal or parietal lobes are involved in regulating _______.
theory of ironic processes of mental control
The unconscious monitoring system alerts you to the unwanted thought entering consciousness. Ironically, the monitoring process increases the mind's sensitivity to the unwanted thought and thus increases the likelihood that it will return.
Statistics
The use of mathematics to organize, summarize, and interpret numerical data. See also Descriptive statistics, Inferential statistics.
Applied behavior analysis
The use of operant conditioning principles to change human behavior.
Testing Children's Theory of Mind - Sally Experiment
There is sally and Anne. Sally puts her ball in the red cupboard. Sally Leaves. Anne moves ball to blue cupboard. Where will sally look for her ball? Red Cupboard
What is the rat experiment about perceived control.
There were three rats. The "executive" rat at the left can switch off the tail shock by turning the wheel. Because it has control over the shock, it is no more likely to develop ulcers than the unshocked control rat on the right. The "subordinate" rat in the center receives the same shocks as he executive rat, but with no control over the shocks. It is, therefore, more likely to develop ulcers.
How do contemporary psychologists view Freud's psychoanalysis?
They give Freud credit for drawing attention to the vast unconscious, to the stuggle to cope with our sexuality, to the conflict between biological impuleses and social restraints, and for some forms of defense mechanisms, and unconscious terror-management defenses. But his concept of repressions, and his view of the unconscious as a collection of repressed and unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories, have not survived scientific scrutiny. Freud offered after-the-fact explantations, which are hard to test scientifically. Research does not support many of Freud's specific ideas, such as the view that development is fixed in childhood.
How did humanistic psychology provide a fresh perspective?
This movement sought to turn psychology's attention away from drives and conflicts and towards our growth potential, with a focus on the way healthy people strive for self-determination and self-realization, which was in contrast to psychodynamic theory and strict behaviorism.
Who is unlikely to benefit from psychotherapy alone?
Those with the negative symptoms of chronic schizophrenia or a desire to change their entire personality
functions, survival, emotion, processes
Three main functions of the brain: 1) Basic bodily _______ and ______. 2) Motivation and _______. 3) Higher mental ________ (language, planning, problem solving, reasoning)
What does it mean to be empathetic? How about self-actualized? Which humanistic psychologists used these terms?
To be empathetic is to share and mirror another person's feelings. Carl Rogers believed that people nurture growth in others by being empathetic. Abraham Maslow proposed that self-actualization is the motivation to fulfill one's potential, and one of the ultimate psychological needs (the other is self-transcendence).
Replicate
To repeat a research study, usually with different participants and in different situations, to confirm the results of the original study
Which elements of traditional psychoanalysis do modern-day psychodynamic theories retain, and which elements have they mostly left behind?
Today's psychodynamic theories still rely upon the interviewing techniques that Freud used, and they still tend to focus on childhood experiences and attachments, unresolved conflicts, and unconscious influences. However, they are not likely to dwell on fixation at any psychosexual stage, or the idea that resolution of sexual issues is the basis of our personality
Light Exposure Therapy
Treats seasonal affective disorder (SAD); scientifically proven to be effective, exposure to daily doses of intense light. Increases activity in the adrenal gland and the superchiasmatic nucleus.
Bio Psychological perspectives
Tributes human and animal behavior to biological events occurring in the body such as genetic influences hormones the activity of the nervous system
True experiments
Tries to prove a hypothesis mathematically
Projective test
A personality test, such as the Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics
psychiatrist
A physician who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders. A psychiatrist has a medical degree and is a physician who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment (including the prescription of medications) of psychological disorders
Secure Base
A point for babies to explore from, venturing into the environment and then returning for emotional support to the familiar caregiver
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
A previously neutral stimulus that causes a conditioned response because it has been paired/associated with an unconditioned stimulus
Sampling Bias
A problem that occurs when a sample is not representative of the population from which it is drawn
Sampling Bias
A problem that occurs when a sample is not representative of the population from which it is drawn.
Meta analysis
A procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies (and then finding the relations among them. )
Reciprocal Determinsim
a model proposed by bandura that explains human functioning and personality as caused by the interaction of behavioral, cognitive and environmental factors
Extinction
A procedure in which the reinforcement of a previously reinforced behavior is discontinued. Also may be used to describe the "process" by which a previously learned behavior disappears as a result of non-reinforcement.
Psychologist
A professional with an academic degree and specialized training in one or more areas of psychology can do counseling teaching and research and may specialize in any of a large number of areas with in psychology
psychologist
A professional with an academic degree and specialized training in one or more areas of psychology. A psychologist has no medical training but has a doctorate degree.
Alzheimer's Disease
A progressive, degenerative, irreversible disease that causes tangled nerve fibers and protein deposits in the brain. It is characterized by the deterioration of memory, language, and eventually, physical functioning. It is the most common form of dementia.
Biological Perspective
A psychological approach that emphasizes bodily events and changes associated with actions, feelings, and thoughts.
Personality Inventory
A questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits.
Dissociative Identity Disorder
A rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities. Also called multiple personality disorder.
Primary Reinforcer
A reinforcer that is innately satisfying; one that does not take any learning on the organism's part to make it pleasurable.
compulsion
A repetitive and rigid behaviour that a person feels compelled to perform in order to reduce anxiety.
Sample
A representative segment of a target population
Experiment
A research method in which the investigator manipulates a variable under carefully controlled conditions and observes whether any changes occur in a second variable as a result.
Double-blind Procedure
A research strategy in which neither subjects nor experimenters know which subjects are in the experimental or control groups.
Naturalistic Observation
A researcher engages in careful observation of behaviour without intervening directly with the research subjects and participants.
Stereotype Threat
A self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype
David Rosenhan
A social psychologist that did a study in which healthy patients were admitted to psychiatric hospitals and diagnoses with schizophrenia; showed that once you are diagnosed with a disorder, the label, even when behavior indicates otherwise, is hard to overcome in a mental health setting
Psychiatric social worker
A social worker with some training and therapy methods who focuses on the environmental conditions that can have an impact on mental disorders such as poverty overcrowding stress and drug abuse
Heritability coefficient Definition
A statistic that describes the proportion of the difference between people's scores that can be explained by differences in their genetic makeup
factor analysis
A statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie one's total score.
Masking Image (an inspection time task)
A stimulus is flashed before being overridden by a masking image. How long would you need to glimpse the stimulus at the left to answer the question? People who can perceive the stimulus very quickly tend to score somewhat higher on intelligence tests.
placenta
A structure in the pregnant uterus for nourishing a viviparous fetus with the mother's blood supply; formed from the uterine lining and embryonic membranes.
Cross-sectional study
A study in which people of different ages are compared with one another
Autonomic nervous system
A subdivision of the peripheral nervous system. Controls involuntary activity of visceral muscles and internal organs and glands.
Random sample
A survey population, selected by chance, which fairly represents the general population
Normal Distribution
A symmetric, bell-shaped curve that represents the pattern in which many characteristics are dispersed in the population.
Avolition
A symptom of schizophrenia marked by apathy and an inability to start or complete a course of action, no motivation.
Theory
A system of interrelated ideas that is used to explain a set of observations
Learning
A systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience.
Social Desirability Bias
A tendency to give socially approved answers about oneself
Social Desirability Bias
A tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself.
Hypothesis
A tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables
What is the difference between a test that is biased culturally and a test that is biased in terms of its validity?
A test may be culturally biased if higher scores are achieved by those with certain cultural experiences. That same test may not be biased in terms of validity if it predicts what it is supposed to predict. For example, the SATs may be culturally biased in favour of those with experience in the US school system, but it does still accurately predict college success.
Schedule of Reinforcement
A timetable for when and how often reinforcement for a particular behavior occurs.
Taste Aversion
A type of classical conditioning in which a previously desirable or neutral food comes to be perceived as repugnant because it is associated with negative stimulation
Classical Conditioning
A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit an unconditioned response when that neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a stimulus that normally causes an unconditioned response.
Conditioning
A type of learning that involves stimulus-response connections, in which the response is conditional on the stimulus.
Catatonic Schizophrenia
A type of schizophrenia characterized by complete stillness or stupor or great excitement and agitation; patients may assume an unusual posture and remain in it for long periods of time.
Early founders of humanistic perspectives
Abraham Maslow Carl Rogers
neo-Freudian
Accept concept of the id, ego and superego, but believe personality formation has more to do with childhood social experiences as compared to Freud's belief of unconscious sexual aggression defining a child's development of personality.
Norm
Acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by the group's members. Norms prescribe "proper" behaviour.
Basic trust
According to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers.
analytical intelligence
According to Sternberg, the ability measured by most IQ tests; includes the ability to analyze problems and find correct answers.
What neurons are killed by Alzheimers?
Acetylcholine
What's the difference between achievement and aptitude tests?
Achievement tests are designed to assess what you have learned. Aptitude tests are designed to predict what you can learn. The WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale), an aptitude test, is the most widely used intelligence test for adults.
Self actualization
Achieving one's full potential or actual self
Conciliation
Actions used to reduce tension between two conflicting parties, usually in the form of an offering or gesture. A smile, a touch, a word of apology, all allow the two parties to de-escalate the level of conflict between the two until there is a safe enough point where the two parties can begin using other methods to come to peace with one another.
What themes and influences mark our social journey from early adulthood to death?
Adults do not progress through an orderly sequence of age-related social stages. CHance events can determine life choice. THe social clock is a culture's preferred timing for social events, such as marriage, parenthood and retirement. Adulthood's dominant themes are love and work, which Erikson called intimacy and generativity.
How effective is aerobic exercise as a way to manage stress and improve well-being?
Aerobic exercise is sustained, oxygen-consuming activity that increases heart and lung fitness. It increases arousal, leads to muscle relaxation and sounder sleep, triggers production of neurotransmitters, and enhances self-image. It can relieve depression and, in later life, is associated with better cognitive functioning and longer life.
Serotonin
Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal
Teratogen
Agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm
Self-Efficacy Beliefs
Albert Bandura-people's beliefs about their ability to execute the behaviors necessary to control important events
Cognition
All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.
Coping
Alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods
Reactivity
Alteration of a subject's behavior as a result of the presence of an observer
memories, focus, goal, reversible, medications
Amygdale and Prefrontal Cortex (stressful experiences are known to impact): 1) Formation and extinction of fear-related _______. 2) Ability to _____ attention. 3) Cognitive functions that are necessary for _______-directed behavior. Stress-related brain changes are _______ by _________ and lifestyle factors (exercise, diet, social support, sleep).
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
An anxiety disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsession) and/ or actions (compulsions).
Double Blind procedure
An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies
Case Study
An in-depth investigation of an individual subject.
Personality
An individual's Characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling and acting
Comorbidity
An ongoing condition that exists with another condition for which the patient is receiving treatment.
Critical Period
An optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development.
Frequency Distribution
An orderly arrangement of scores indicating the frequency of each score or group of scores.
Learned Helplessness
An organism's learning through experience with negative stimuli that it has no control over negative outcomes.
Prejudice
An unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action.
Meditation
Any one of a number of sustained concentration techniques that focus attention and heighten awareness.
Aggression
Any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy.
Extraneous Variables
Any variables other than the independent variable that seem likely to influence the dependent variable in a specific study.
Extraneous Variables
Any variables other than the independent variable that seem likely to influence the dependent variables in a specific study
Variable
Anything that can change or vary
Positive correlation
Are related in the same direction as one increases the other increases as one decreases the other decreases
Descriptive Statistics
Are used to organize and summarize data.
How does selection bias create spurious correlations?
Arises when people with different biological, behavioral, and psychological characteristics select different types of environment
How does the basic assumption of behaviour therapy differ from those of psychodynamic and humanistic therapies? What techniques are used in exposure therapies and aversive conditioning?
Behaviour Therapies are not insight therapies. Their goal is to apply learning principles to modify problem behaviours. Classical conditioning techniques, including exposure therapies (such as systematic desensitization or virtual reality exposure therapy) and aversive conditioning, attempt to change behaviours through counterconditioning - evoking new responses to old stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviours.
What has achieved favourable results with specific behaviour problems like bed-wetting, phobias, compulsion, marital problems and sexual disorders?
Behavioural conditioning therapies
Hans Selye
Canadian scientist who studied stress - his contributions have dramatically influenced psychology and medicine. Identified the General Adaptation Syndrome.
Neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.
conditioned stimulus
a neutral stimulus that has been paired with a unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response initially caused by the unconditioned stimulus ex: the bell again
correlation coefficient
a number that represents the strength and direction of a relationship existing between two variables; number derived from the formula for measuring a correlation.
when a stimulus (bell) acquires the capacity to evoke a response (salivating) originally evoked by another stimulus (food) Ivan Pavlov -Dog (Marlow) salivating when hearing the ring (conditioned stimulus) of a bell = conditioned response Conditioning (Brave New World)
Classical Conditioning
Does Psychotherapy work? Who decides?
Clients' and therapist's positive testimonials cannot prove that therapy is actually effective, and the placebo effect and regression toward the mean (the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back toward their average) make it difficult to judge whether improvement occurred because of the treatment.
What are dissociative disorders, and why are they controversial?
Conditions in which conscious awareness seems to become separated from previous memories, thoughts and feelings. Skeptics note that dissociative identity disorder, commonly known as Multiple personality disorder, increased dramatically in the late twentieth century, that is is rarely found outside North America and that it may reflect role-playing by people who are vulnerable to therapists suggestions. Others view this disorder as a manifestation of feelings of anxiety, or as a response learned when behaviors are reinforced by reductions in feelings of anxiety.
Research Methods
Consists of various approaches to the observation, measurement, manipulation, and control of variables in empirical studies.
correlational coefficient positive and negative correlation
a statistic that tells us the type and the strength of the relationship between two variables positive correlation: indicates a direct relationship between two variables - low scores paired with low scores and highs with highs height and weight - taller you are heavier you are negative correlation: an inverse relationship between two variables- low scores paired with high scores more kids watch TV - lower grades they will make
positive punishment
a stimulus added that decreases the likelihood of a behavior to occur again ex: spanking
positive reinforcement
a stimulus added that increases the likelihood of a behavior to occur again ex: receiving a paycheck, getting an A on a test
negative punishment
a stimulus removed that decreases the likelihood of a behavior to happen again ex: take away drivers license, or privileges
negative reinforcement
a stimulus removed that increases the likelihood of a behavior to occur again ex: mom stops nagging at you after you clean your room, or car stops beeping after you put on your seat belt
unconditioned stimulus
a stimulus that brings about a response without having been learned, a natural response ex: the food because the stimulus naturally causes the behavior and no teaching involved
Terror-Management Theory
a theory of death-related anxiety; explores people's emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death
Acetylcholine
Contributes to attention, arousal, voluntary movement and memory processes
Deaf Children and the theory of mind
Deaf children with hearing parents and minimal communication opportunities have had similar difficulty inferring others' states of mind.
Habituation
Decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations.
What drug was originally used to treat epilepsy but has been more recently found effective in the control of manic episodes associated with bipolar disorder?
Depakote
Separation Anxiety
Distress that is sometimes experienced by infants when they are separated from their primary caregivers.
synaptic transmission, agonists, antagonists, blood-brain barrier
Drugs alter the process of _________ __________. They can mimic the effects of the neurotransmitter, and these are called _________. they can inhibit the effects normally produced by the neurotransmitter, and these are called _________. Drugs must be able to cross the ________-________ _________.
Correlational Research: advantages
allows for prediction of behavior. May clarify relationships between variables that cannot be examined any other way. (important ex. of all prisoners in US jails today, 68% never graduated from high school and 85% were abused as children)
Abilify
an antipsychotic that has less side effects. It keeps dopamine within a healthy range. so if it is too low, it raises the levels and if it is too high it lowers it.
positive
any stimulus that is added to the environment something is given
psychoanalysts
are therapy providers who rely heavily on the theories and methods pioneered by the early 20th century Sigmund Freud
Inferential Statistics
are used to interpret data and draw conclusions.
Sensory cortex
area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
Partial Reinforcement
behavior is not reinforced every time it occurs (resulting behavior lasts longer)
which approach, most phobias are because of a bad experience with the feared object/situation
behavioral
which approach, she learned to wear a helmet when the impulse to bang her head was strong
behavioral
Exposure Therapies
behavioral techniques, such as systematic desensitization, that treat anxieties by exposing people (in imagination or actuality) to the things they fear and avoid
which approach, people with autism have brains that are wired differently in the areas of emotion, behavior, memory, and learning
biological
interneurons
communicate within local or short-distance circuits
which goal of psychology, My psychologist helped me to control my killer autistic behaviors
control
control (with examples, Dona)
control organisms behavior, ex; tries to control herself by pushing herself outside her comfort zone
Right hemisphere
controls the left side of the body; creative, intuitive, spacial
Persons with schizophrenia have a ____ in brain waves that reflect synchronized neural firing in the frontal lobes.
decline
The levels of NE is ____ during depression and ____ during mania.
decreased, increased.
punishment
decreases the probability of a behavior occurring again ex: spanking, time- out
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 (thus, IQ = ma/ca × 100). On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100.
operational definition
definition of a variable of interest that allows it to be measured.
Delusion vs Hallucination
delusion is a misperception, hallucination is something that is not there
What are the positive symptoms associated with schizophrenia?
delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking, behaviours and speech, word salad, catatonia, lack of selective attention.
Skinner Box
demonstrated that animals learn to obtain food by manipulating their environment within the box, form of shaping, all behavior is a consequence of reward and punishment
frequency distribution
depicted in a table or a graph the numbers of participants receiving each score for a variable
In the years following a heart attack, people with high scores for _____ are 4x more likely to develop further heart problems.
depression
What does it mean to have deviant, distressful and dysfunctional behaviour?
deviant - deviate from social norms. distressing - upsetting the person him/herself or others around them. dysfunctional - harmful and disruptive. Interfered with ability to carry out day-to-day tasks.
Psychological Disorder
deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional patterns of thoughts, feelings or behaviours
Uninvolved Parenting
distant, withdrawn, not involved with kids. low control, low warmth.
Correlational Research: disadvantages
does not allow (cause-and-effect) conclusions to be drawn. In other words... CORRELATION IS NOT CAUSATION!!!!
There are decreased levels of what neurotransmitters in those with mood disorders?
dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine and glutamate.
Patients with schizophrenia have an excess in receptors for what?
dopamine. this means that more is being used.
Chaining
each step in a process must be learned in order
According to Freud's ideas about the three-part personality structure, the ____ operates on the reality principle and tries to balance demands in a way that produces long-term pleasure rather than pain, the ____ operates on the pleasure principle and seeks immediate gratification, and the ____ represents the voice of our internalized ideals (our conscience).
ego, id, superego
assign
experimental group (gets treatment) control group (gets placebo)
explain (with example, Dona)
explain the causes of behavior ex: could be metabolic imbalance or evil spirits
Eysenck believed that we can reduce many of our normal individual variations to two or three dimensions, including:
extraversion-introversion and emotional stability-instability
As people contemplate a variety of questions like those found on intelligence tests, the ___ ____ becomes active - in the left brain for ___ ____ and on both sides for ___ ____.
frontal lobe, verbal questions, spatial questions.
survey
goal: description, questionnaire, representative sample of a group
case study
goal: description, study an individual in depth for extended time
laboratory observation
goal: description, unobtrusively observe behavior in lab setting
experiment
goal: prediction, manipulate one or more independent variable in a controlled setting to determine there impact
naturalistic observation
goal:description, unobtrusively observe behavior in natural setting
According to one study, intelligence is having ample _____ _____ (mostly neural cell bodies) plus ample _____ _____ (axons) that make for efficient communication between brain centers.
gray matter, white matter.
In terms of genetic makeup, is there a greater difference among the races or within the races?
greater difference in genetic makeup within the races
heritability coefficient equation
h^2 = variance / (variance genes + variance environment)
identify
identify the independent variable and dependent variable
role of deception
if you are tricking the experiments you must justify use
Those not undergoing therapy often ___, but those undergoing therapy are more likely to improve more ___, and with ___ risk of relapse.
improve, quickly, less.
An increase in Glutamate leads to:
improved cognitive functioning
An increase in norepinephrine leads to:
improved memory, energy confidnce
Formal Operational Stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts and could perform reverse mental operations (eg knowing 8+4 = 12 and using that to figure 12-4=8)
How do anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating disorder demonstrate the influence of psychological forces?
in these eating disorders, psychological factors may overwhelm the homeostatic drive to maintain a balanced internal state. despite being significantly underweight, people with anorexia nervosa (usually adolescent females) continue to diet because they view themselves as fat. Those with bulimia nervosa (usually females in their teens and twenties) secretly binge and then compensate by purging, fasting, or excessive exercise. Those with binge eating disorder binge but do not follow with purging, fasting, and exercise. Cultural pressures, low self esteem, and negative emotions interact with stressful life experiences and genetics to produce eating disorders.
placebo effect (Latin for "I will please")
inactive pill or treatment, improvement due to the expectation of improving ex: sugar pill instead of real pill to help depression but people getting better because they think this is working
In people who have depression, there are ___ levels of activity in the left frontal lobe and ___ levels of activity in the right frontal lobe.
increased, decreased.
Positive Reinforcement
increases frequency of behavior when they are applied
Negative Reinforcement
increases frequency of behavior when they are taken away
reinforcement
increases the probability of behavior occurring again ex: food, stickers
Robert Sternberg
intelligence; devised the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (academic problem-solving, practical, and creative)
Self-defeating belief
intensely negative assumptions about themselves, their situations, and their futures lead them to magnify bad experience and minimized good ones. (feeds depression cycle)
Tardive Dyskinesia
involuntary movements of the facial muscles, tongue, and limbs; a possible neurotoxic side effect of long-term use of antipsychotic drugs that target D2 dopamine receptors
The interdisciplinary bio-psycho-social perspective
is a contemporary perspective that assumes that biological, psychological and socio-cultural factors combine and interact to produce psychological disorders.
check point 3 #2: Explain why the normal distribution has a bell shape
it has a bell shape because the scores are distributed symmetrically about the mean with the majority of the scores close to the mean. As the score diverge from the mean, they become symmetrically less frequent giving the distribution the shape of the bell
How does fluoxetine/Prozac work?
it partially blocks the reabsorption and removal of serotonin from synapses
Word Salad
jumble of incoherent speech as sometimes heard in schizophrenia (positive symptom)
associative
making a connection or association between two events ex: touch the stove and realize it hurts, then don't do it in the future
All or none principle
means that a neuron must depolarize completely, not part way
check point 3 #1: Explain what measures of central tendency and measures of variability tell us about a distribution of scores
measures of central tendency tell us what a "typical" score is for the distribution of scores measure of variability tell us how much the scores vary from one another
correlation (for scientific method)
measuring/studying the relationship between the occurrence of 2 or more events
score that falls in the middle
median
___ are more dominant, forceful and independent, ___ are more deferential, nurturant and affiliative.
men, women
survey (with advantages/disadvantages)
method used to get information by asking many people about fixed questions. Advantage: used to quickly collect information from various types of people. Disadvantage: answers based on the working of the question or the interviewer, also people often lie.
What chemical group will silence a gene? And what group will activate a gene?
methyl groups. acetyl groups.
Undifferentiated Schizophrenia
mixture of symptoms and does not meet the diagnostic criteria for any one type of schizophrenia
MRI scan (magnetic resonance imaging)
more detailed images of the brain
Mirror-image perceptions
mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive
Automatic Mimicry
natural tendency to take on the emotional tones of those around us, we are natural mimics, unconsciously imitating others' expressions, postures, and voice tones. For example contagious yawning.
A decrease in glutamate means more ___ symptoms
negative
Karen Horney
neo-Freudian, psychodynamic; criticized Freud, stated that personality is molded by current fears and impulses, rather than being determined solely by childhood experiences and instincts, neurotic trends; concept of "basic anxiety"
Efferent neuron
nerve cell that send messages from brain and spinal cord to other parts of body; also called motor neurons
Depression Symptoms
nervous, empty, worthless, don't enjoy things you used to, restless, irritable, unloved, feeling like life isn't worth living, sleeping more or less than normal, eating more or less than usual, being very tired and sluggish, frequent headaches, frequent stomach aches, chronic pain
Do those who express the strong grieve purge their grief more quickly?
no
What direction does a graph with no correlation go?
no direction
Secondary Sex Characteristics
nonreproductive sexual characteristics such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality and body hair.
Critical Thinking
not blindly accepting an emotional arguments and conclusions. everything must be tested
How does ECT work?
not sure, shocks stimulate growth of new neurons, may cause release of all varieties of neurotransmitters
correlation coefficient
number that represents the strength of association. -1 to 1 = correlation, 0 = no association
pessimistic attributional style
occurs when a person consistently blames the self as the primary cause of all or most of the negative things that happen in his or her life. This kind of style is believed to be strongly related (if not a cause) of depression
Central Route Persuasion
occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts
In applying GRIT, (explain what happens)
one side first announces it recognition of mutual interests and its intend to reduce tensions. It then initiates one or more small, conciliatory acts. Without weakening reciprocity by the other party. Should the enemy respond with hostility, one reciprocates in kind. But so, too with any conciliatory response.
How do you make a diagnosis of mania?
one week or more of a manic mood and at least three or more symptoms must be shown.
Crystalized Intelligence
one's accumulated acknowledge and verbal skills; tends fo increase with age
the actions or operations that will be made to measure or control a variable
operational definition
Why do some psychologists criticize the use of diagnostic labels?
other critics view the DSM diagnoses as arbitrary labels that create preconceptions which bias perceptions of the labeled person's past and present behavior. one such label, "Insanity", raises moral and ethical questions about whether society should hold people with disorders responsible for their violent actions. most people with disorders are nonviolent and are more likely to be victims than attackers.
advertising campaigns
pairing a product with something desirable increases our chances of buying that product ex: geico commercials, go daddy
Concept check 2 #5: Explain why a double blind procedure is necessary in an experiment in a which there is a placebo group
participants in placebo experiments think that they are receiving a treatment that will help, or a placebo effect that would be negatively impacted, they cant be told they are receiving a placebo. the experimenter must be blind in order to control for the effects of experimenter expectation
Stanley Milgram's Experiment
people torn between obeying an experimenter and responding to another's pleas to stop the shock; usually chose to obey the order even though it meant harming the other person. 65% of the subjects went to the end, even those who protested.
How do brain abnormalities and viral infections help explain schizophrenia?
people with schizophrenia have increased dopamine receptors, which may intensify brain signals, creating positive symptoms such as hallucinations and paranoia. brain abnormalities associated with schizophrenia include enlarged, fluid-filled cerebral cavities and corresponding decreases in the cortex. brain scans reveal abnormal activity in the frontal lobes, thalamus, and amygdala. interacting malefactions in multiple brain regions and their connections may produce schizophrenia's symptoms. possible contributing factors include viral infections or famine conditions during the mother's pregnancy; low weight or oxygen deprivation at birth; and maternal diabetes or older parental age.
percentile rank
percentage of scores below a specific score in a distribution of scores
biopsychological perspective
perspective that attributes human and animal behavior to biological events occurring in the body, such as genetic influences, hormones, and the activity of the nervous system.
evolutionary perspective
perspective that focuses on the biological bases of universal mental characteristics that all humans share.
sociocultural perspective
perspective that focuses on the relationship between social behavior and culture; in psychopathology, perspective in which abnormal thinking and behavior (as well as normal) is seen as the product of learning and shaping within the context of the family, the social group to which one belongs, and the culture within which the family and social group exist.
What are two ingredients of emotion?
physical arousal plus cognitive appraisal
test anxiety
physiological, emotional, and cognitive components that are caused by the stress of test taking.
participants expectations lead them to experience some change even though they receive ineffective treatment
placebo effect
Frontal lobe's
portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements.
Temporal lobe's
portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear.
Human Stress Response
predictability, perceived control, perceptions of improvement , and outlets for frustration.
Deep Brain Stimulation
procedure to treat depression in which electrodes are surgically implanted in specific areas of the brain and connected to a pulse generator that is placed under the skin and stimulates these brain areas.
random assignment
process of assigning subjects to the experimental or control groups randomly, so that each subject has an equal chance of being in either group.
Lewis Terman
professor at Stanford who revised the Binet test for Americans. The test then became the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test. He is also known for his longitudinal research on gifted kids.
Darley and Latané
proposed that there were two factors that could lead to non-helping: social influence and diffusion of responsibility
Imaginative Thinking Skills (as a component of creativity)
provide ability to see things in novel ways, to recognize patterns and to make connections. having mastered a problem's basic elements, we redefine or explore it in a new way.
What is one of the single most important factors for a relationship to develop?
proximity. gotta meet em and keep seeing em!
which approach, I don't know why I need to hold the spoon, I just do
psychoanalytic
which approach, some people have no memory of traumatic childhood experiences, yet have phobias about particular objects related to that experience
psychoanalytic
Anxiety Disorders
psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviours that reduce anxiety
Mood disorders
psychological disorders characterized by emotional extremes.
Personality Disorder
psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning
Natural Killer Cells
pursue diseased cells. Defensive cell (a type of lymphocyte) that can lyse and kill cancer cells and virus-infected body cells before the adaptive immune system is activated.
What is the relationship between size of head and IQ?
r=+0.15. There is a small positive relationship. The bigger the head, the higher the IQ.
What is the relationship between brain size and IQ?
r=+0.33. There is a modest positive relationship. The bigger the brain volume, the higher the IQ.
Phineas Gage
railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that dramatically changed his personality and behavior; case played a role in the development of the understanding of the localization of brain function
random assignment?
randomly assigning the participants to groups in an experiment they do this to equalize participant characteristics across the various groups in the experiment
representative sample
randomly selected sample of subjects from a larger population of subjects.
fixed ratio schedule
reinforcement is given after a certain number of responses ex: free cup of coffee after purchasing nine cups, a food pellet every ten times you press the bar
fixed interval schedule
reinforcement is given after a certain period of time ex: weekly paycheck, quiz in class every Friday, low response rates because what you do doesn't matter
variable ratio schedule
reinforcement is given after a varying number of responses, may be rewarded but you don't know when, high steady response rate ex: slot machine
variable interval schedule
reinforcement is given after an average time, steady rates of response ex: one quiz per week but you don't know which day it will be
Continuous Reinforcement
reinforcement of a behavior each time it occurs
partial reinforcement
reinforcing a behavior some of the time it occurs ex: slot machines, lasts longer
secondary reinforcer
reinforcing because of its association with a primary reinforcer ex: money
Shaping
reinforcing small steps to achieve a certain overall behavior
rumination.
repetitive thinking about difficult situations and their possible causes and consequence without moving into problem- solving mode
basic research
research focused on adding information to the scientific knowledge base.
applied research
research focused on finding practical solutions to real-world problems.
experimental method strength and weakness
researcher controls the experimental setting makes cause and effect statements about the results strengths: determines cause and effect weakness: third variable problems
case studies
researcher studies one particular individual in depth over an extended period of time
What are two examples of classic antipsychotics?
reserpine and chlorpromazine (thorazine)
Discrimination
responding differently to stimuli that are different
Generalization
responding in the same way to stimuli that seem to be familiar
Thorndikes Law of Effect
responses that lead to more satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated ex: child throwing a tantrum over a candy bar
What are two examples of new generation antipsychotics?
risperidone (risperdal) and olanzapine
sample isn't representative of the population from which it was taken
sampling bias
Ivan Pavlov
scientist who studied digestion by measuring salivation of dogs, discovered that dogs predicted the arrival of food and this led to salivation
Emotions Intelligence
self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation
The tendency to accept responsibility for success and blame circumstances or bad luck for failures is called ____-____ ____. The tendency to overestimate others' attention to and evaluation of our appearance, performance and blunders is called the ____ ____
self-serving bias, spotlight effect
Violent criminals have ___ frontal lobes
smaller
In depressed people the frontal lobes are ____
smaller.
In depressed people, the hippocampus is _____
smaller. It is vulnerable to stress-related damage.
which approach, treatment for someone with autism in the past often involved placing them into an institution
sociocultural
Concept check 2 #4: Waldman ,Nicholson, Adilov, and Williams (2008) found that autism prevalence rates among school-aged children were positively correlated with annual precipitation levels in various states. Autism rates were higher in counties with higher precipitation levels. Try to identify some possible third variables that might be responsible for this correlation
some possible third variable could be environmental triggers from kids being in the house too much and not spending time outside because of the high rates of precipitation. Such variable are increased video viewing and television, decreased vitamin D levels because of the lack of exposure to the sun, higher exposure to household chemicals, chemicals in the atmosphere transported to the surface due to the precipitation
What three things do depressed people tend to explain bad events in terms of?
stable - it's going to last forever global - it's going to affect everything I do internal - it's all my fault
Post conventional Stage of Moral Development
stage of moral development in which the individual considers universal moral principles which supersede the authority of the group is. Self-chosen values will determine if moral or not. But these values must be based on universally help ethical principles.
index of the amount of variability within a set
standard deviation
neutral stimulus
stimulus that before conditioning does not naturally bring about the response of interest ex: the bell
What are the links among basic outlook on life, social support, stress, and health?
studies of people with an optimistic outlook show that their blood pressure does not increase as sharply in response to stress, their recovery from heart bypass surgery is faster, and their life expectancy is longer, compared with their pessimistic counterparts. Social support promotes health by calming us, reducing blood pressure and stress hormones, and by fostering stronger immune functioning.
single-blind study
study in which the subjects do not know if they are in the experimental or the control group.
case study
study of one individual in great detail. Information gained from case studies cannot be applied to other cases.
cognitive neuroscience
study of the physical changes in the brain and nervous system during thinking.
control group
subjects in an experiment who are not subjected to the independent variable and who may receive a placebo treatment.
experimental group
subjects in an experiment who are subjected to the independent variable.
Psychosurgery
surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue in an effort to change behavior
strengths and weakness of descriptive methods
survey research: strength- it is assumed that people are ready and able to complete surveys accurately weakness- wording and structure of survey can cause bias answers case studies: strength- allows researchers to develop hypothesis that can be tested in experimental research weakness: Case studies are generally on one person, but there also tends to only be one experimenter collecting the data. This can lead to bias in data collection •Some case studies are not scientific •One of the main criticisms is that the data collected cannot necessarily be generalized to the wider population. This leads to data being collected over longitudinal case studies not always being relevant or particularly useful. observational techniques: strength-there are a lot of ways this can be used not just with human but animals too can put ones self into this by being a participant observant which is kind of like undercover work weakness-A randomized experiment would violate ethical standards A randomized experiment may be impractical Big problem: the observer could possibly change the behavior of the ones being observed if he/she is found out: contamination is possibly
Learned Optimism
teaching oneself to think positively
What three things do non-depressed people tend to explain bad events in terms of a break-up?
temporary - this is hard to take, but I will get through. specific - I miss my partner but thankfully I have family and other friends. external - it takes two to make a relationship work and it wasn't meant to be
observer bias
tendency of observers to see what they expect to see.
observer effect
tendency of people or animals to behave differently from normal when they know they are being observed.
experimenter effect
tendency of the experimenter's expectations for a study to unintentionally influence the results of the study.
Negative explanatory style
tendency to blame unfortunate circumstances on self and see problems as enduring; can feed the cycle of depression.
What part of the brain is overactive when people hallucinate?
thalamus
Social Identity
the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "who am I?" that comes from our group memberships.
Brain plasticity
the ability of other parts of the brain to take over functions of damaged regions. Declines as hemispheres of the cerebral cortex lateralize.
Self-Control
the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards
self-regulation
the ability to control oneself and regulate cognitive and emotional responses
standard deviation
the average extent that the scores vary from the mean for a distribution of scores
HOw do the biological and social-cognitive perspectives explain mood disorders?
the biological perspective on depression focuses on genetic predispositions and on abnormalities in brain structures and function. the social-cognitive perspective views depression as an ongoing cycle of stressful experiences leading to negative moods and actions and fueling new stressful experiences.
How does the biopsychosocial approach explain our individual development?
the biopsychosocial approach considers all the factors that influence our individual development: biological factors (incl evolution, genes, hormones, and brains), psychological factors (incl our experiences, beliefs, feelings and expectations), and social-cultural factors (incl parental peer influences, cultural individualism or collectivism, and gender norms).
Primary sex characteristics
the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible.
Approach - avoidance -
the choice you make has both positive and negative aspects to it. We get stuck choosing. Do we do it or nah?
Genome
the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes
Parasympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
Somatic nervous system
the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles
population
the entire group of people or animals in which the researcher is interested.
population
the entire group of people that a researcher is studying
content validity
the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest (such as a driving test that samples driving tasks).
What is the faith factor and what are some possible explanations for this link?
the faith factor is the finding that religiously active people tend to live longer than those who are not religiously active. Possible explanations may include the effect of intervening variables, such as the healthy behaviors, social support, or positive emotions (optimism) often found among people who regularly attend religious services.
experimental group
the group exposed to the independent variable
If environments become more equal, the heritability of intelligence would: a. increase, b. decrease or c. be unchanged.
the heritability of intelligence would INCREASE. Variation explained by genetic influences - will increase as environmental variation decreases.
Two factor theory of emotion
the idea that emotional experience is the result of a two-step self-perception process in which people first experience physiological arousal and then seek an appropriate explanation for it
sociocultural (with example, Dona)
the influence of social and cultural factors of behavioral functions. ex: why did her mom think it was caused by evil spirits?
What is cognitive-behavioural therapy, and what sorts of problems does this therapy best address?
the integrative therapy helps people change self-defeating thinking and behavior. it has been shown to be effective for those with anxiety, mood disorders, and anorexia.
Ego
the largely conscious "executive" part of personality that, acc to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain
How do the learning and biological perspectives explain anxiety disorders?
the learning perspective views anxiety disorders as a product of fear conditioning stimulus generalization, fearful - behavior reinforcement, and observational learning of others' fears and cognitions (interpretations, irrational beliefs, and hypervigilance). The biological perspective considers the role that fears of life-threatening animals, objects or situations played in natural selection and evolution; genetic predispositions for high levels of emotional reactivity and neurotransmitter production; and abnormal responses in the brain's fear circuits.
Median
the middle score in a statistical distribution. Half of the scores are above, and half are below. advantage: extreme score at top or bottom of distribution will have no more impact than any other score.
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders, this test is now used for many other screening purposes
Rorschach Inkblot test
the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots
mean
the numerical average of a distribution of scores
Resilience
the personal strength that helps most people cope with stress and recover from adversity and even trauma
Psychoanalytical Perspective
the perspective that stresses the influence of unconscious forces on human behavior
placebo effect
the phenomenon in which the expectations of the participants in a study can influence their behavior.
Observations: disadvantages
the presence of an observer may alter the participant's behavior.
Frustration-Aggression Principle
the principle that frustration- the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal- creates anger, which can generate aggression.
Natural Selection
the principles tHat, among the range of inherited trait variations, those that lead to increase reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
Identification
the process by which, acc to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos.
Heritability
the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to heredity/genes. the heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.
Humanistic Perspective
the psychological view that stresses the human capacity for self-fulfillment and the importance of consciousness, self-awareness,and the freedom to make choices
Observational techniques
the researcher directly observes the behavior of interests. This can be done in the lab, or be done natural which is when the observation is done in the subjects natural environment
Define psychology as a science
the science of behavior and mental processes
Epigenetics
the scientific study of all factors that influence and affect the epigenome (what will activate/deactivate genetic instructions). Basically all the factors that affect gene expression without changing the DNA.
Positive Psychology
the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive
median
the score positioned in the middle if you were to put them from lowest to highest
Psychoneuroimmunology
the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health
Behaviour Genetics
the study of relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behaviour. It looks at individual differences.
Psychopharmacology
the study of the effects of drugs on mind and behavior
Molecular Genetics
the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes. It seeks to find specific genes influencing behaviour and traits.
Normal curve
the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.
Bystander Effect
the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present
Regression toward the mean
the tendency for extremes of unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average.
Foot-in-the-door phenomenon
the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request
Hindsight Bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen the coming situation.
False Consensus Effect
the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others agree with us/share our attitudes
Other-race effect
the tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races. Also called the cross-race effect and the own-race bias
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes. (example of Haddad's friend and the strip clubs)
Attribution Theory
the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition
Social Learning Theory
the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished
Reward theory of attraction
the theory that we like those whose behavior is rewarding to us or whom we associate with rewarding events
< .05 or less than 1 out of 20
the threshold that demonstrated something did not happen by chance alone was ________
Adolescence
the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence.
Electra complex
the unconscious desire of girls to replace their mothers and win their fathers exclusive love
interrelated ideas that are used to explain a set of observations
theory
behaviorism
theory of learning that focuses exclusively on observable behaviors
Group Therapy
therapy conducted with groups rather than individuals, permitting therapeutic benefits from group interaction
Psychodynamic therapy
therapy deriving from the psychoanalytic tradition that views individuals as responding to unconscious forces and childhood experiences, and that seeks to enhance self-insight
Family Therapy
therapy that treats the family as a system. views an individual's unwanted behaviors as influenced by or directed at other family members; attempts to guide family members toward positive relationships and improved communication
Are adopted children more similar to their biological parents or their adoptive parents?
they are more similar to their biological parents.
How do xanax and valium work?
they calm the amygdala and increase GABA levels. they depress the CNS.
Cohabitating and the success of marriage
they often divorce more . First, cohabiters tend to be initially less committed to the idea of enduring marriage. Second, they become even less marriage-supporting while cohabiting.
ADHD
to be diagnosed you mush have 6 + symptoms of inattention, and 6 + symptoms of hyperactivity. Not diagnosed by medical test. Symptoms start early in life
BirkenHead
to calm and give priority to passengers, soldiers obeyed orders to line up on deck as their ship sank and they died with it.
describe with example (Dona)
to describe the different ways that an organism behaves (ex: the world doesn't make sense and she wants to know why)
True or false. we are more likely to marry someone whose first or last name resembles our own.
true.
Identical twins
twins who develop from a single (monozygotic) fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms
Fraternal Twins
twins who develop from separate (dizygotic) fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters but they share a fetal environment.
Approach - approach
two options equally pleasurable to choose between
Avoidance - avoidance
two options that are both equally undesirable.
correlational study & strengths and weakness
two variables are measured to determine if they are related ( how well either one predicts the other) strengths:
Discriminate
unjustifiable negative behaviour toward a group and its members
People's attractiveness is ___ (unrelated/related) to their self-esteem and happiness.
unrelated.
Relationship between IQ and creativity
up to an IQ of 120, there is a positive relationship between IQ and creativity. With an IQ greater than 120, there is no longer a relationship between IQ and creativity.
What direction does a graph with a positive correlation go?
up/right
Inferential statistics
used to "infer" causes-draw conclusions and make decisions for an entire population. They are based upon data gathered with representative sampling techniques - and then put through sophisticated statistical tests which result in statistical inferences (mathematical predictions. From this we get statistical significance.
Experiment (with advantages/disadvantages)
used to identify cause-effect relations in controlled environment. Advantage: have more control on extraneous variables. Disadvantage: participant populations often limited, ethical concerns
survey research
using questionnaires and interest views to collect information about the behavior, belief and attitudes of particular groups of people
disadvantage of case study
usually based on peoples beliefs, or self-fulfilling prophecies
HERV-W and Schizophrenia
usually it keeps this virus under control but sometimes it gets activated by other factors like the flu or herpes.
Humanistic Theories
view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth
Social Cognitive Perspective
views behavior as influenced by the interaction between persons (and their thinking) and their social context
Le Chambon
village in France where the entire community (French Huguenots) came together to help Jews escape/hide Jews from Nazis, even at great personal risk. As people of God, residents of Le Chambon could not turn their backs on the "chosen people" as they put it
Perfect positive correlations
when both variables are going in the same direction (direct relationship)
Conflict as a Stressor
when in a situation where you must make a choice between two or more options.
Literal Thinking
when one only sees the meaning as being the straightforward and concerning the facts --> "that's all there is". (Eg. we as adults get sexual jokes but babies take it for face value)
Are increased levels of dopamine associated with increased levels of cognitive function?
yes
standard journal article format
• abstract - concise summary at beginning of article • introduction - overview of problem studied in the research, includes hypothesis • method - a thorough description of the research methods used in the study • results - report of the data obtained in the study, empirical observations • discussion - conclusions drawn by the author(s), allows for interpretation and evaluation of the resulting data; includes suggestions for future research • references - bibliographic references for any studies cited
interaction
- the effect of one variable depends on the effect of another
statistics
- the use of mathematics to organize, summarize, and interpret numerical data - analysis permits researchers to draw conclusions based on their observations
(Step 1) Formulate a Testable Hypothesis
- to translate a theory or intuitive idea into a testable hypothesis - to be testable, must be formulated precisely with clearly defined variables
between-subjects design
- typically involves an experimental group of subjects and at least one control group of subjects - to determine whether any significant differences exist between the two groups of subjects.
How do psychotherapy, biomedical therapy and an eclectic approach to therapy differ?
Psychotherapy is treatment involving psychological techniques; it consists of interactions between a trained therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth. The major psychotherapies derive from psychology's psychodynamic, humanistic, behavioural, and cognitive perspectives. Biomedical therapy treats psychological disorders with medications or procedures that act directly on a patients's physiology. An eclectic approach combines techniques from various forms of therapy.