1355 ch 3-4
our gender identities
*Gender identity* refers to the degree to which we see ourselves as feminine, masculine, transsexual—or perhaps even nongender. *Sex* is used in reference to male or female anatomy and physiology. *Gender expectations* refers to societal attitudes and behaviors associated with an individual's anatomical sex assigned at birth.
cultural gender expectations
*gender differentiation* apparent in our cultural expectations about how people should behave - masculine people often though to have *instrumental (agentic) character traits*- confidence, assertiveness and ambition- enables completion of goals and tasks - feminine ppl thought to embody *expressive (communal) character traits*- warmth, sensitive, tender to feelings, concern over others welfare above self-interest.
Asexuality
- A small number of Americans referred to as asexuals do not experience sexual attraction to others. - It is not clear is asexuality is a sexual identity. - Asexuality is distinct from celibacy, abstinence, or lack of sexual desire. The latter is associated with older age, obesity, smoking, drug use, and diabetes.
Older Spouses and Partners
- Although sex is usually associated with youth, older adults place a high degree of importance on a satisfying sexual relationship. - Care needs to be taken not to pathologize people who choose to accept a decreasing sex drive as they age.
men's movements
- Antifeminists believe that the women's movement has caused the collapse of the natural order, one that guaranteed male dominance, and they work to reverse this trend. - Profeminists support feminists in their opposition to patriarchy. - Masculinists tend not to focus on patriarchy as problematic, but work to develop a positive image of masculinity, one combining strength with sensitivity.
biology based arguments
- Are gender differences anchored in biology? > Some researchers argue that gender differences are anchored in hereditary biology. > However, biological predisposition to certain behaviors does not mean that a person's behavior cannot be changed by social structure (nature vs. nurture).
The Cost of Traditional Gender Expectations
- Biases and gender stereotypes thwart both males' and females' career opportunities, men's confidence in nontraditional family roles, and both genders' ability to communicate supportively with one another. - The male death rate is generally higher than that for females. Can masculine gender identity expectations be lethal? - Poverty levels for women are higher than for men. How much can traditional gender identity expectations explain this?
The Special Case of HIV/AIDS
- Despite a rapid decline in deaths from HIV/AIDS, it remains an important public health concern - From 2009 to 2013, the annual estimated number of HIV diagnoses remained stable, aside from young adults aged 20 to 24, which has increased - Gay and bisexual men account for 63 percent of all new HIV infections - Some gay men continue to have unprotected sex with many and anonymous partners. - Online technology has made casual hookups more accessible. - In 2015, the White House released an updated National HIV/AIDS Strategy for the United States.
The Interactionist Perspective: Negotiating Cultural Messages
- Emphasizes the interpersonal negotiation of relationships in the context of sexual scripts. - Cultural messages provide reasons for having sexual contact, who should take the initiative, how long it should last, how important experiencing orgasm is, what positions are acceptable, and whether masturbating is appropriate. - More recent cultural messages are concerned with what sexual interactions or relationships are appropriately conducted over the Internet. - Sexual scripts influence women and men, and are learned from their culture. - Sex partners assign meaning to their sexual activity. - Sex is symbolic of something, e.g., affection, communication, recreation, or play. - Sex has different cultural meanings in different social settings.
changing cultural scripts
- From colonial times until the 19th century, purpose of sex in America was defined as reproductive. - Sex became significant to many as a means of communication and intimacy beginning in the 19th century and has flourished to the present day.
socialization and gender variance
- Gender socialization assumes that gender is binary. - Some toddlers display gender variance, which is sometimes encouraged by parents but discouraged by other institutions (e.g. schools). - Colleges and universities sometimes recognize and adapt to gender variance (e.g., gender neutral restrooms and housing; preferred pronouns such as "they" or "xe").
The Twenty-First Century: Risk, Caution—and Intimacy
- HIV/AIDS - sexting - pornification
What about Boredom?
- Habituation is a significant issue in married partner's sexual relationships. - Couples must plan time to be alone and intimate. - "Date nights" or "us time" is increasingly seen as important and necessary for couples.
sexual identity
- Heterosexuals: Attracted to opposite-sex partners - Homosexuals: Attracted to same-sex partners - Bisexuals: Attracted to people of both sexes - Pansexuals: Have the potential to be sexually attracted to various gender expressions, including those outside the gender-conforming binary
Breadwinner and Caregiver Roles Today and in the Future
- Ideas about gender are changing, so much so that some argue we have entered a "postfeminist" era in which gender no longer matters. - On one hand, examples of females in nontraditional roles abound. - On the other hand, many Americans continue to see women and men as fundamentally different. - Despite dramatic and unprecedented change over the past fifty years, society persists in emphasizing the public sphere as more important to masculinity and the private sphere to femininity. - One way to think about social change regarding gender identities and expectations is to see individuals undoing—or redoing—gender. - Gender identities are integral to family life and underpin much of what occurs within families and relationships.
economics
- In 2015, women who were employed full time earned 79% of what men earned. - Sex, race, and ethnicity all converge into wage disparity. - Overall, the earnings gap between men and women narrowed in recent decades, but that gap is widening slightly again. - Some employers presume that women will leave the workforce to raise children, making it less likely for them to promote women.
The Exchange Perspective: Rewards, Costs, and Equality in Sexual Relationships
- In the Interpersonal Exchange Model of Sexual Satisfaction, satisfaction depends on the costs and rewards of a sexual relationship, and the participant's comparison level (what the person expects out of the relationship). - Comparison level for alternatives: What are alternative options and how do they compare? - Expectations include some degree of equality.
Gender identities in social context
- Institutional structures are gendered and have profound implications for influencing the ways that people enact gender. - Every society has a gender structure that shapes the roles individuals are expected to follow. - Institutions in virtually every society have been characterized by patriarchy and masculine dominance.
Comparing the Sexual Behaviors of Gays and Lesbians and Heterosexuals
- Lesbian relationships are the "least sexualized," have sex less frequently than gay men, report greater sexual satisfaction than do heterosexual women. - Significant percentages of men in both homo- and heterosexual monogamous relationships had slept with someone other than their own partner. - Gay men seem to be more accepting of nonmonogamous relationships than lesbians or heterosexuals. - Gays and lesbians are increasingly using the Internet to meet and interact with sexual partners.
relative values of masculinity vs. femininity
- Mainstream culture values masculinity more highly than femininity. - A woman lives with *bifurcated consciousness*—a divided perception suggesting that caregiving is most important for her, yet not as highly valued as career success.
religion
- Most U.S. congregations have more female than male participants, yet men hold more positions of authority. - Growth in conservative religions has taught a traditional family ideal of male headship and female domesticity. - Conversely, actual practice among religious people often is more egalitarian than strict religious teachings.
Responsibility to Sexual Partners
- Partners must realize that sex is something they do with each other, not to or for each other. - Each partner is equal in the sexual union; this necessitates communication. - Each partner is responsible for his or her own sexual response.
Spouses and Partners in Middle Age
- Physical aging is a significant explanation for declining sexual activity. - Marital satisfaction is the second largest predictor of sexual frequency. - Declining frequency appears to be offset by an increase in the quality of sexual experiences.
to what extend do women and men follow cultural expectations?
- Research suggest that there are fewer behavioral gender differences than we think. - Women seem to have greater connectedness in interpersonal relations. Men tend to be more aggressive and competitive. - But there is great individual variation; situational context accounts for much of the difference.
sex w. affection
- Sexual intercourse between unmarried men and women is now widely accepted, provided they have a fairly stable, affectionate relationship. - Most unmarried teens and adults engage in serial monogamy, with most partners demonstrating sexual exclusivity.
The Twentieth Century: The Emergence of Expressive Sexuality
- Sexuality is seen as basic to the humanness of both women and men; there is no one-sided sense of ownership. - sex is an important means of enhancing human intimacy
Socialization and Gender Expectations in Schools
- Students engage in borderwork—maintaining "acceptable" gender norms. - Teachers may reinforce the idea that males and females are more different than similar. - Teachers pay more attention to males than to females. - Male students tend to dominate learning environments from nursery school to college. - Boys have poorer study habits and are less concerned about their schoolwork than girls; they also exhibit more emotional and behavioral problems. - Girls are beginning to catch up in STEM classes. - The relative lack of male role models in educational settings may be harming boys
The 1980s and 1990s: Challenges to Heterosexism
- Taken for- granted system of beliefs, values, and customs that places superior value on heterosexual behavior and denies or stigmatizes non-heterosexual relations - Unaccepting of homosexuality - heterosexism- the taken-for-granted system of beliefs, values, and customs that places superior value on heterosexual behavior and that denies or stigmatizes non heterosexual relations. - gays and lesbians have become increasingly visible and have also challenged the notion that heterosexuality is the one proper form of sexual expressions. - the publics attitude toward homosexuality has become increasingly favorable - americans still view gay couples as less loving than both heterosexual and lesbian couples - homophobia: viewing of homosexuals with fear, dread aversion, or hatred - microaggressions: commonplace and subtle verbal, behavioral, or environmental indignities.
Theoretical Perspectives on Human Sexuality
- The Exchange Perspective: Rewards, Costs, and Equality in Sexual Relationships - The Interactionist Perspective: Negotiating Cultural Messages
Gender Fluidity and Family Relationships
- Though some parents allow their children to explore gender identity, most are not tolerant of gender ambiguity. - Transfamilies face typically painful transitions. - Sometimes it is the parents, not the children, who need to find their true gender identity. This can be difficult for children. - There is a slow but growing acceptance to gender fluidity in society.
femininities
- Traditionally, the pivotal expectation for a woman requires her to offer emotional support. - The ideal woman was physically attractive, not too competitive, a good listener, and adaptable. - She was considered fortunate if she had a man in her life and was expected to be a good mother and put her family's and children's needs before her own. - New cultural models for women emerged as more women entered the workforce: the professional woman (independent and self-confident) and the superwoman (able to "do it all").
Responsibility to Oneself
- We must each make decisions about our sexuality according to our own values. - Values may change over time, and behavior that seems right at one time may not appear to be later.
how did gender roles emerge?
- biological based arguments - society based arguments
Early America: Patriarchal Sex
- characterized by beliefs, values, attitudes, and behaviors developed to protect the male line of decent. - Sex was seen to be more physical - Believed that women did not have a sex drive - Men had to prove masculinity - men control womens sexuality
cultural expectations and "doing" or performing, gender
- dramaturgy sees individuals as enacting culturally fashioned scripts and socially prescribes roles in front of others - people 'do" gender everyday - "gender bending" going against norm of rules.
sex w.out affection and recreational sex
- fwb, hooking up = casual sexual relationships > growing trend among adolescents and young adults - dating used to be something that led up to sex; in the hook up era, the sex happens first which may (or may not) lead into a relationship
gender and social change
- gender fluidity has become apparent in U.S society - breadwinner and caregiver roles continue to change.
race/ethnicity and sexual activity
- number of sexual partners in someone's lifetime varies by race and ethnicity - black and hispanics tend to have more sexual partners than whites. - whites more likely to have experiences anal/oral sex than AA or hispanics. - heterosexuals, gays, lesbians hold negative stereotypes of black men (animalistic and aggressive) - men of color perceive considerable racism within gay community - black lesbians less visible because of smaller numbers and integration into extended family relationships.
Facts about Families: How do we know what we do? A look at sex surveys
- pioneer surveys on sex in the U.S were conducted by Alfred Kinsey - conclusions based on survey research on sensitive matters such as sexuality must always be qualified by awareness of their limitations.
Sexual Relationships and Pornography
- porn has become the norm - more men than women find porn morally acceptable - some couples that view porn say it enhances sexuality and gives ideas - porn may contribute to gender inequality and misogyny - may alter peoples understandings of what normal bodies look like as well as decrease ability to enjoy real sex.
gender socialization, the process
- socialization to masculine or feminine gender identities in a binary system - socialization to appropriate gender attitudes and behaviors appropriate for one's gender identity. - socialization and gender variance. - socialization and gender expectations in fams. - socialization and gender expectations in schools.
gender- no longer binary
- some cultures offer 3rd or 4th gender option that lies b/w male-female continuum - *intersexed* individuals have ambiguous genital anatomy - *transsexual and transgendered* individuals are uncomfortable with sex assigned at birth, *transgender* refers to person who changes gender identity. - transgender includes transsexuals, transvestites (cross-dresses) - transsexuals change their physical anatomy and/or physiology through sex-reassignment surgery (SRS) - transsexuality no longer defined as gender identity disorder, said to suffer from gender dysphoria
Race and Ethnic Diversity and gender expectations
- traditional gender stereotypes based on white, middle class, heterosexual experience - 20 years ago, researchers saw women as homogenous category disadvantaged compared w. men also homogenous - now recognized that men are not equally privileged and women not equally disadvantaged; gender examined in relation to linkages to race/ethnicity and class (intersectionality) - Immigration and Gender: Marriages of more recent immigrants tend to be less equal than those of similar couples whose families have been in the U.S. longer. - Hispanics and Gender: Young Hispanic women experience ambivalent sexism—tension between expectations of academic success and traditional domestic expectations. > Cultural images of Latinas as submissive to their men contrast with the machismo cultural ideal for Latinos. - Asian Americans and Gender: Male dominance continues to characterize recent Asian immigrants, but increased independence is noted among Asian women in the U.S. - Native Americans and Gender: The matrilineal tradition of many tribes, in which women owned houses, tools, and land, is re-emerging. Women are reclaiming leadership roles in many tribes. - African Americans and Gender: Black couples experience high levels of role flexibility and power sharing. Yet, traditional male-female gender relationships are often desired.
education
- women are the majority of college students since 1979, now surpassing men in college graduates - women are about half college faculty as opposed to 1/3rd in 1995 - even though women outnumber men, gender differentiation exists in choice of majors. - evidence that some traditionally "male" disciplines foster culture of "invisible masculinity" marginalizing women.
government and politics
-slightly more than 50% of population, women are still significantly underrepresented in high government positions. - men of color underrepresented - individuals of diff. races, ethnicities, and genders have diff. opinions about important issues ( immigration policy, police tactics)
adolescent sexuality
A time of sexual curiosity, exploration, experimentation, and incorporating sexuality into one's identity -teen sexual intercourse has declined since 1991. This predates an emphasis on "abstinence-only" sex education programs. - The decline is attributed to comprehensive sex education and fear of sexual disease. - Many teens do not consider oral sex to be "sex." A "virgin" is widely seen as someone who has not had vaginal intercourse.
Sexual Development and Identity
Children's Sexual Development > We are sexual beings throughout our lives. > In prenatal ultrasounds, male fetuses grab their penises, and infants may touch their genitals. > Young children often exhibit overtly sexual behaviors. > Most children play with their genitals fairly regularly by age 5 or 6. > By age 15, almost 100 percent of boys and 25 percent of girls have masturbated to the point of orgasm. > Children do not usually associate this activity with sexuality until later. > Physically, both boys and girls mature about two years earlier than 100 years ago. > As the age of puberty has declined, the age at marriage has risen, leaving a more extended period during which sexual activity may occur. *sexual identity* > As we develop into sexually expressive individuals, we manifest a sexual identity which refers to whether an individual is drawn to a partner of the same sex or opposite sex. > *Affectional orientation* is a newer term that encompasses emotional and physical attractions beyond sexual attraction. - Sexual identity should not be confused with gender identity. - It is not understood why some individuals develop a gay sexual identity. - A sense of sexual identity often begins in one's childhood. - Sexual orientation change efforts are not supported by the American Psychological Association. - The American public greatly overestimates the percentage of men and women who are gay and lesbian. - Recent studies indicate that between 3 to 4 percent of adults identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, or "something else." - Compared to whites, nonwhites are more likely to identify as LGBT, as are women compared to men.
Sexual Values for Committed Relationships
Effects of Sexual Infidelity - Trust is eroded between partners - Research is mixed about whether infidelity "causes" divorce - recovering from an affair is possible but not always likely sexual frequency - married couples have sex more than single individuals, but less often than cohabiting couples. - 74% of married women under 25 have sex a few times a month or more. - though sexual activity declines over time, married couples are sexually active longer now than in the past.
Socialization and Gender Expectations in Families
Encouragement of gender-typed interests and activities continues: - Toys considered appropriate for boys encourage physical activity and independent play; those for girls elicit closer physical proximity and talk between players - Parents who encourage nonsexist child raising for daughters are often concerned if their sons are "too sensitive" or insufficiently competitive. - Parents more often allow girls to express a wider range of feelings than boys. - toys send msgs about gender roles.
Sexual Responsibility
Principles of sexual responsibility that may serve as guidelines for sexual decision-making: - Risk of pregnancy - Sexually transmitted infections - Responsibility to sexual partners - Responsibility to oneself
Young Spouses and Partners
Young couples tend to have sex more frequently rather than older couples The demands of day to day life activities erode the frequency of intercourse.
the 1960s Sexual Revolution: Sex for Pleasure
The availability of birth control and changes in laws allowed intercourse to become separate from pregnancy, and helped reverse the idea that the state held sway over sexual and reproductive decisions. - attitudes and behavior regarding sex has changed. > 1959, about 80% disapproved sex outside of marriage >2015, only 29% said it was morally wrong. - rate of non marital sex and the number of partners rose, while age at first intercourse dropped. - today the average age first sexual intercourse for both boys and girls is 17. -perhaps the most significant change results from the sexual revolution concerns marital sex. - married couples today have sexual intercourse more often and report greater pleasure and variety than in the 1950's
society based arguments
These arguments examine how gender expectations and behaviors have been structured by societal conditions. - Foraging and Hoe Societies - Agricultural Societies - Industrial Societies - Postindustrial Societies
Sexual Values Outside Committed Relationships
Young people generally do not marry until into their late twenties, which means they have a decade or longer to experiment sexually. -Abstinence -Sex with Affection -Sex without Affection and Recreational Sex - The Double Standard
double standard
a set of principles granting greater sexual freedom to men than to women - Despite the sexual revolution of the 1960s and 1970s, numerous studies indicate that a double standard still exists which stipulates that women's sexual behavior must be more conservative than men's. - Hooking up exists within a power imbalance; men frequently disregard the woman's pleasure in a hookup, and equality is not expected.
Masculinities
different groups of men and boys are understood to embody different notions of masculinity, prompting gender theorists to use the plural of the term to capture the variations and inequalities - culturally obligated to be involved in 1. group leadership 2. protecting group territory and weaker depended others 3. provide resources - In Western societies, a complementary cultural message emerged: that of the "new man" who was both financially successful and emotionally sensitive. - After the 9/11 terrorist attacks, masculinity transformed to include the man who takes traumatic events head-on but feels free to shed tears after doing so. - Some masculine traits are positive: bonding with and protecting others; self-reliance, courage, and heroism; and banding together toward common goals.
monogamy and sexual infidelity
monogamy and sexual infidelity - prescription against extramarital sex is stronger in the u.s than other parts of the world; 89% think its morally wrong. - 15-25% of married men and women will cheat on their partner. -Risk factors include relationship and sexual dissatisfaction, childhood sexual abuse, and spousal violence. - "Digital infidelity" has become more common in recent years - Habituation hypothesis: The decreased interest in sex that results from the increased accessibility of a sexual partner and the predictability in sexual behavior over time
the womens movement
movement beginning in the mid-1800s in the United States that sought greater rights and opportunities for women - The 19thcentury saw a feminist movement develop, but from 1920 until the mid-1960s, there was virtually no activism regarding women's rights and roles. - The civil rights movement provided a model by which the second wave of the women's movement challenged accepted traditional roles and strove to increase gender equality. - Today's third wave of feminism is more pluralistic and less dogmatic about many issues; intersectionality is increasingly stressed. - Some women of color and white working-class women find the women's movement irrelevant to their personal and social struggles and experiences. - Media sometimes suggest that younger, "postfeminist" women do not support feminism or believe women's rights goals have been achieved. - "Postfeminism" seems to be a myth. Instead, the broader goals of feminism seem to have become relatively accepted in society at large.
gender socialization
socialization is the process by which society influences members to internalize attitudes and expectations. - *interactionalist-constructionist perspective* > children develop self concepts based on feedback - *social learning theory* > children learn through aspects of gender roles through society. - *self identification theory* > children categorize by 3 yo. and identify behaviors where they feel appropriate to their sex and adopt these behaviors. -* gender schema theory* - > children develop frame of knowledge about what is norm between boys and girls, then interpret and think about gender
abstinence
teens less likely to have sex than in the past. - teens who don't engage in sexual activity give absence of love, conservative values, fear of pregnancy/disease/parents as reasons.
sex education
understanding sexual behavior and learning to make responsible choices can lead to a healthier and richer life. - "Abstinence-only" programs focus on abstention from sexual relations unless in a monogamous marriage and argue this is the only protection against sexually transmitted diseases and pregnancy. - There is no evidence that abstinence only programs are effective in delaying sex or preventing pregnancy. - The most effective sex education programs are comprehensive and discuss STDs. -Sex education needs to account for the teen propensity to engage in oral sex and consider it risk-free. - Girls receive more sex education than boys. - Most adults believe sex education should be shared between parents and schools. Nevertheless, parents provide the least amount of information about sex to their children relative to other sources (e.g., school, friends, sexual partners).
