21H.132 Final Terms

The Late Republic Equestrians, Equites

(aka 'knights') made up the second property-based class after the senatorial elite, and could help decide elections if vote in the same line as patricians. Equites came from same wealthy families as senators, just didn't pursue office Provided the legion's entire cavalry unit during early republic, and were senior officers in of the legions in later republic. Lex Claudia in 218 BC made it illegal for Senators to conduct commercial activity as it wasn't honorable to their status, so Equites started to monopolise commercial enterprises, especially as Rome expanded overseas Roman expansion also made tax collecting harder so it was often contracted out to Equites known as 'publicani' who could collect taxes abroad and keep the surplus as profit- led to conflicts between Senators who owned land and Equites who wanted to tax the land as much as possible, and extortion of people by unscrupulous publicani. Augustus transferred right of taxation from publicani to local provincials Equites were also jurors in Rome's standing courts ( established in 149 BC instead of Assembly of the people) Crassus purpose in the Triumvirate was to help Equites who had a contract to collect taxes in the East but couldn't due to Mithridatic War and wanted refund from Senate

Legion

1 legion has 59 centuries and 4800 legionnaires Stationed all around Rome

M. Tullius Cicero

106 BC - 43 BC Father of Latin prose, very influential philosopher, Roman statesman and orator, served as consul, staunch constitutionalist Rose to fame when he won case against Gaius Verres (governor of Sicily) who was terrorizing Sicilian citizen and then became considered one of Rome's greatest lawyers and orators. Had great political influence and under Caesar's rule, he championed a return to the traditional Republic government and was sympathetic to Caesar's assassins. After Caesar's death, he became an outspoken advocate against Antony and championed Augustus instead. He was later executed as an enemy of the second Triumvirate.

Gaius Verres

120-43 BC, governor in 74 BC Governor of Sicily (breadbasket of Roman Republic) in 74 BC, infamous for his misgovernment of Sicily, Indicted in court by Cicero Implications His governance raised controversies of how Rome should be governing its colonies as empire expande, part of wider discussion at end of second century BC about what ethical principles were for overseas government No definitive way for traditional Roman gov to handle problems of empire Led to the rise of emperors like Caesar and Pompey Empire -> emperors, not the other way around

Optimates and Populares

2 main patrician political groups in the late republic (133 - 27 BC) Optimates ("Aristocrats"/ "Best Ones); Populares ("Demagogues"/ "Populists") Optimates dominated the Senate and were more traditional- blocked the wishes/reforms of the populares who then had to seek tribunician support instead; The optimates tried to maintain the senatorial oligarchy; the populares tried to get popular support against the oligarchy, either for the interests of the people or their own ambitions Senate's authority was based on Tradition not law- populares presented first real challenge to Senatorial authority- conflict would lead to political violence (Gracchi, Marius)

The "Third-century Crisis"

235 to 284 AD Period where Roman empire nearly collapsed due to barbarian invasions and migrations, beginning with assassination of Severus Alexander in 235 AD, after which there were at least 25 claimants to the throne over 50 years Empire had broken into three parts briefly before being restored Ended with ascencion of Diocletian in 284 AD Crisis resulted in profound changes to governmental instition, religion, society, and more that marked it as a transition between classical and late anquity "Beginning of the end" of the Roman empire

Lex Licinia Sextia (367 BC)

3 laws proposed by the tribunes of the plebs, Lucius Sextius Lateranus and Gaius Licinius Stolo Limited the interest rate of loans and said that interest already paid should be deducted from the principal Restricted private ownership of public land in excess of 500 iugeras One of the consulships must be held by a plebeian and praetorship established to preside over criminal trials. Limiting interest rate and private ownership displays the problems faced by poor farmers who struggled to pay off debts and feed their families with shortages of food while the patricians created estates by buying up public lands; Lex Licinia Sexta reduces some of these tensions, although they will continue to get worse as citizen militia is replaced by Marius' landless army. Having a pleb as one of the consuls elevated the wealthy plebeians into the elite class, regardless of their family name (most plebs couldn't afford to stand for office, but now the elite class no longer just patricians)

Battle of the Milvian Bridge

312 AD Constantine versus Maxentius who was also vying to be emperor Gave Constantine undisputed control over western region of Rome Constantine supposedly saw a cross in the sky and changed his deity from Apollo to Jesus and he emerged victorious. This battle marked the beginning of his conversion to Christianity

The Council of Nicaea, AD 325

325, when Constantine had full control of Roman empire Constantine called bishops of Roman empire to Nicaea to first conference of the early Christian Church with the purpose to define unity of beliefs for Christendom Discussed Jesus was of the same substance as God the Father or merely of similar substance and the official date of Passover Led to the first uniform Christian doctrine, called Nicene Creed

The "First Triumvirate "

59 BC Caesar, Pompey, Crassus teamed up to achieve their various individual aims and became a major force in Roman politics Pompey wanted senate to ratify eastern settlement to settle ex-soldiers, Crassus wanted to get permission to renegotiate the price of tax rights of Asian provinces for state contractors, Caesar wanted to secure consulship and military command Breaking of the Triumvirate Crassus killed early on in 55 BC Pompey and Caesar linked by Pompey's marriage to Caesar's daughter Julia who died from childbirth early on Pompey made sole consul while Caesar spent 10 years in Gaul In Gaul, Caesar had 40,000 men and full control When he returned to Rome, it was difficult to decide how to reintegrate him into Roman governance, given that he was also going to be put on trial because of brutality of killings in Gaul 50 BC: Senate voted that Pompey and Caesar simultaneously give up military command, Marcellus prevents resolution and tries to block Caesar in Rome 49 BC: Senate declares Caesar public enemy 48 BC: It was then that Caesar decided to march on Rome and cross the Rubicon Marked milestone in breakdown of Republic government, all power controlled by three influential men rather than senate to bypass checks and balances, set precedent for second triumvirate, gave Caesar control of Gaul and huge military power -- led to rise of Caesar as dictator

Earliest Persecution of Christians

64 AD after Great Fire of Rome, Nero blamed the Christians for the Great Fire According to Tacitus, in order to dispel accusations about himself, Nero savagely punished the already disliked Christians after accusing them of starting the Great Fire.

Jewish War (AD 66 -70)

66-73 AD There had been existing Jewish Roman tensions, which escalated with anti-taxation protests. When Romans plundered a Jewish temple, tensions escalated further, causing a wide scale rebellion. Nero gave his general Vespasian the task of crushing rebellion in Judea, with Vespasian's son Titus second in command. While in the process of crushing the rebellion, Vespasian was named emperor by his legions due to the chaos of Rome during the Year of the Four Emperors, and left his Titus in charge. After months of siege, Titus was able to breach the walls of Jeruselum and defeat the Jews. It resulted in many deaths and many Jews were sold into slavery. This marked the beginning of the Jewish-Roman wars.

Year of the Four Emperors

69 AD Galba: Suicide of Nero followed by period of unrest and civil war. Immediately after his suicide, Galba was declared emperor. However, Galba proved unpopular as he destroyed towns and cities who refused his rule and executed many senators and equisares without trial. He refused to pay the prefect of the Praetorian Guard for getting him safely into Rome, after which he lost the support of many legions. Panicking, he named Lucius Licanius his successor, which offended one of his colleagues Otho and many others. Otho bribed the Praetorian Guard to his side, who killed Galba and Lucius in the Forum in January. Otho: Named emperor in January by Praetorian Guard. However, although he was not cruel or tyrannical, his reign was cut short because Vitellius had named himself emperor after gaining the support of the Germanic legions, the best of Roman legions. Otho tried to reason with him, but it was too late -- Vitellius had already begun to march on Italy. After defeat at the Battle of Bedracium, Otho committed suicide, making Vitellius emperor. Vitellius: As emperor, he is described by Suetonius as very lavish, spending huge sums on banquets that started to acrue lots of debt for the Romans. When money-lenders demanded repayment, Vitellius executed them, as well as anyone he saw as a potential rival. Vespasian: Vespasian had been named emperor by his troops during the Jewish war. He left his son, Titus, in charge and marched for Alexandria, where he was also declared emperor. He gained support of many more legions, even those close to Rome. Vitellius recognized this defeat and tried to flee Rome, but was caught and killed by Vitellius' men. After this, Vespasian was declared emperor and started the Flavian Dynasty.

Tarentum

A Greek city on the southern tip of Italy- one of the mail strongholds of Greek Italy before Roman conquest in 272 BC After Romans become the main force in Central Italy after the Battle of Sentium (295 BC), they turn their attention to Greek Colonies in South Italy; Tarentum calls on Greek king of Epirus, Pyrrhus, who comes to Italy with a 28,000 strong army and ambition of westward expansion in 280 BC; claimed ancestry from Achilles, so conflict with Aeneas' Rome= new Trojan War for Pyrrhus He pushes to Rome and wins victories but at huge costs of his soldier's lives- represents the ability of Roman military to win battles by replenishing manpower over and over Pyrrhus forced to leave Italy and Rome accepts Tarentum's surrender in 272 BC- Rome takes over southern Italy and now has grown from a city state to all of central and southern italy in just 2 generations (338-272 BC)- tremendous pace of Roman expansion

Saguntum

A Spanish town and ally of Rome, that when attacked by Hannibal, acted as the final straw for the Romans, provoking their declaration of the Second Punic War on Carthage. Hannibal seized the city in 219 BC Saguntum was right on the border established by the Treaty of Ebro (225 BC) where Carthage couldn't cross in arms, but Carthage argued that the treaty was only approved by Hasdrubal, not Carthage, and that Saguntum wasn't an ally of Rome in 241 BC when treaty established that no Roman allies should be attacked, so they authorized Hannibal's siege of Saguntum. Sparked the Second Punic War (which Hannibal knew it would), eventually making Rome the superpower of the Mediterranean; Rome would retake Saguntum and Spain under the command of Scipio Africanus

Spartacus

A Thracian gladiator who was a leader of the Slave uprising against Rome in the Third Servile War (aka Gladiatorial War or War of Spartacus) Lived 111 - 71 BC Born in Thrace, Spartacus served in the Roman army, but deserted and conducted bandit raids before being caught and sold into slavery. Escaped a gladiatorial training school with 70 slaves in 73 BC and was joined by other runaway slaves at Mt. Vesuvius- They defeated 2 Roman forces en route to overrunning much of Southern Italy Spartacus defeated both Consus for the year 72 BC, and wanted to cross to Sicily when his men refused to return to their homelands outside Italy, but was thwarted by Marcus Licinius Crassus who was sent after him. Spartacus died in battle and his army was divided, with Pompey's army killing those slaves trying to escape northward. Spartacus' revolt inspired terror across Italy as the elite worried that their slaves would also rebel- Crassus crucified 6,000 of the prisoners along the Appian Way to show the might of Rome against rebellion. Spartacus had no intention of a social revolution or to abolish slavery (shows how ingrained the institution was in Roman life), he just wanted to escape into Gaul and disperse his men to their homelands, but they preferred to stay in Italy and plunder.

Hamilcar Barca

A carthaginian general in the first Punic War, and then successfully expanded Carthaginian interests in Southern Spain, bringing Carthage from a naval to land based army. Lived: 285-228 BC Moving forces to a land based army in Spain yielded huge spoils of war to strengthen Carthage after loss of First Punic War, as well as Sardinia and Corsica in 238 BC Spain expansion attracted the attention of Rome, but Hamilcar explained that he was just securing wealth for Carthage so that they could pay off Roman reparations from the First Punic War. His Spanish expansion would eventually lead to the Second Punic War after the agreement with Hasdrubal for Carthage to not pass the Ebro river in arms is violated by Hannibal. Hamilcar was highly angry over the loss of Sicily in 241 BC and Rome's seize of Sardinia when Carthage was weak→ passed these onto his son Hannibal who then hated Rome

Dictator

A dictator was a magistrate of the Roman Republic, entrusted with the full authority of the state to deal with a military emergency or to undertake a specific duty. All other magistrates were subordinate to his imperium Dictatorship established in 501BC under threat of war with Sabines and Latin League and suspicion that both consuls wanted to restore monarchy- first Dictator: Titus Laritius A dictator could only act within his intended sphere of authority and had to resign once his goal was accomplished (or after 6 months) Dictatorships granted frequently until the Second Punic War (201 BC) and then not used until Sulla and then Caesar. Dictatorship abolished after Caesar's death. Appointment of a dictator signified an emergency in Rome that required centralized leadership and giving up some liberties to maintain safety- can be an identifier for times of trouble in Rome. Ex- in second Punic War, dictator Fabius Maximus adopted tactic of avoiding large battles with Hannibal to lead him away from Rome, unlike previous consuls who were hungry for battle/glory. Sulla and Caesar used their title of Dictator to justify exacting proscriptions/killing off enemies; Caesar alone held title of dictator for life (likely a step too far as the position abolished completely after his death- marks that Romans still opposed to monarchy)

P. Clodius Pulcher

A disruptive politician, supporter of Caesar, head of a band of political thugs, and bitter enemy of Cicero in late republican Rome. Lived December, 93 BC - January 18, 52 BC Charged for having invaded an all-female ritual at Caesar's house but acquitted because the jury had been bribed- Clodius began to hate Cicero as Cicero was the lawyer arguing against him in court; Caesar divorced wife Julia on suspicion that she let Clodius into the event Clodius gets himself adopted into a plebeian family in 59 BC in order to become tribune; creates laws forbidding the execution of Roman citizens without trial, targeting Cicero who had killed Catiline and his supporters; Cicero flees Rome to avoid persecution and Clodius creates another act to have him outlawed Clodius became political rivals with Tribune Annius Milo and the supporters of the two (conflicting gangs) kept the city in turmoil for years and prevented the election of officials

L. Lucullus

A general who fought against Mithridates with Sulla and supported his march on Rome Lived 117 - 57 BC Served under Sulla in the Social War, and then was the only one of Sulla's officers that didn't abandon him in his march on Rome (compared to Caesar's crossing the Rubicon when almost all his officers stayed with him- Lucullus set an example for them); was instrumental in Sulla's defeat of Mithridates As consul in 74 BC, he put down another Mithridatic uprising, and helped alleviate financial crisis in Asia by drawing up a plan of debtors moderately paying back Roman creditors, which pissed off the Romans Lucullus was involved in a Mithridatic war again in 69BC but his troops held three mutinies and Mithridates was able to recover lost territory. Lucullus' political opponents created the Lex Manilia, which forces Lucullus to hand over his command to Pompey.

Mamertines

A group of mercenaries of Italian origin hired by Agathocles, self-proclaimed king of Sicily in the Third Sicilian War (289 BC). Some of them stayed on the island of Sicily afterwards until their safety in the city of Messana was threatened by Hiero, Tyrant of Syracuse (265 BC). To ward him off from attacking the Mamertines called for help from a Carthaginian fleet, which worked. Not wanting to be under "Carthaginian Protection", they then allied themselves with Rome, which didn't want Carthage's influence in Sicily to spread, while Hiero allied himself with Carthage. With Rome and Carthage brought into conflict, the Syracuse/Mamertine conflict escalated into the First Punic War, the longest war up until then for Rome.

Cursus honorum

A ladder of offices that dictated the sequential order of public offices to be held by aspiring politicians of the senatorial rank. Typical career outlined in the Cursus Honorum became standard by the 3rd century BC and the minimum age requirements of different offices passed by the Lex Villia Annalis in 180 BC. Typically a senator had to serve in the Roman army for 10 years, perhaps as military tribune. Then he could be a Quaestor, Aedile, Praetor, and finally consul at 42 years old. Getting a position as young as possible was envied, and patricians could take 2 years off the minimum requirements (still held some advantage over plebs) While the positions remained, the cursis became less relevant in the 1st century BC when it started to be broken by people like Marius holding the consulship 5 times consecutively. Breaking the order/minimum ages/iteration of consulship of the Cursus was a main point of contention between the Optimates and the Populares in the Senate in the 1st and 2nd centuries BC.

M. Porcius Cato the Younger

A leader of the Optimates (conservative senatorial aristocracy) who tried to preserve the Roman Republic against power seekers, in particular Julius Caesar. Lived 95 - 46 BC Served in the ranks against Spartacus and was given a provincial appointment in Asia Was hated by Caesar for voting in favor of executing Catiline conspirators when Caesar proposed giving them trial- Cato's opposition to Pompery, Caesar, and Crassus helped bring together the Triumvirate because he used his support among Optimates to block their wishes in the Senate- unsuccessfully tried to block Caesar's laws in 59 BC (giving the triumvirate what they wanted) with the help of Caesar's fellow consul Bibulus. When Caesar crossed the Rubicon, Cato decided the only chance to preserve the republic is to back Pompey, even though he hated him throughout his life- he is entrusted with defending sicily from Caesar but fails and commits suicide after holding out his troops in Africa after Pompey's death. Obstructionist politician against the populares/triumvirate, but gave the Optimates relatively honest leadership during an age of corrupt politicians.

Concilium Plebis

A legislative assembly through which plebs could pass laws, elect magistrates (tribune and plebeian aediles) and try judicial cases. Founded in 494 BC during the strike of the Plebs, and given defacto power through the backing of the Tribune; would typically meet in the comitium and could only be convoked by tribune Significant because it gave the plebs an outlet to voice their opinions instead of being disregarded by the senators; in 471 BC the plebs reorganized the Concilium based on tribes instead of Curiae, making them independent of Patrician patronage; Plebs able to create a council pretty much the same as the ordinary assembly except only Plebs could vote Council lost its legislative, election, and judicial powers to the senate under Augustus, and stopped existing under Tiberius since emperor held the power of the tribune

novus homo (a "new man": as Cato Sr., Marius, Cicero)

A man who was the first in his family to serve in the Roman Senate or, more specifically, to be elected as consul. In the early republic, senate membership and the consulship was restricted to patricians, but during the conflict of orders, plebeians gained the right to these offices, and were naturally novi homines. Only wealthy plebeians could actually afford to campaign and hold office, so with time these political plebeian families became as entrenched in politics as their fellow patricians. By 63 BC, Cicero was the first novus homo in over 30 years- rose to fame through oratorical skills like Cato the Elder Marius used his status of novus homo as a political tool to distinguish himself from the established nobility, saying that he earned his positions through merit, not inherited them- fed into the public dissatisfaction with government incompetence surrounding Jugurthine war and Battle of Arausio.

"Delaying" Tactics - the Fabian strategy

A military strategy where pitched battles and frontal assaults are avoided in favor of wearing down an opponent through a war of attrition and indirection Adopted by Fabius Maximus in 217 BC after getting dictatorship Avoided Hannibal in pitched military battle and full confrontations, instead engaging in small skirmishes only under favorable conditions. Used a scorched earth policy to cut off supply routes and resources for Hannibal, so although Hannibal got very close to Rome eventually, he lacked the resources to invade so Hannibal is forced south in search of resources- Saved Rome from being overtaken Tactic seen as courage-less by some senators like Varro and Minucius, so Minucius is given equal power to Fabius, and immediately attacks Hannibal and needs Fabius to rescue him.

Proscription

A posted notice listing Roman citizens who had been declared outlaws and whose goods were confiscated. Rewards were offered to anyone killing or betraying the proscribed, and severe penalties were inflicted on anyone harbouring them. Their properties were confiscated, and their sons and grandsons were forever barred from public office and from the Senate. First used by Sulla in 80-81 BC to kill his wealthy opponents and avenge the massacres of Gaius Marius Caesar tried to emphasize his clemency after civil war victory in 49 BC by not having proscriptions and restoring citizenship to sons/grandsons of Sulla's proscriptions Mark Antony, Octavian and Lepidus had proscriptions (43-42 BC) to get rid of opponents (they had many among elites who thought they were too powerful), and gain land and funds for their legions. About 300 senators/knights proscribed, including Cicero Proscriptions meant that after defeating the other Triumvirs, Augustus had no real political opponents in 31 BC and could establish the principate.

The Samnite Wars

A series of 3 wars fought between Rome and its surrounding neighbors (notably the Samnites and Etruscans) over control of central Italy The 3 wars spanned from 343 to 290 BC Fighting stretched out across central Italy, roughly between modern Florence in the North and Naples in the South The first war was a result of Rome trying to protect the city of Capua from a Samnite attack, but the other two were the result of Rome's intervention in the politics of Naples and the resulting contest over control of this region. After defeating its Latin neighbors in 338 BC, Rome set up colonies in Fregellae and Calles near Samnite territory, creating tensions that followed into the latter 2 wars Samnite Wars resulted in Roman control over much of central italy and parts of Southern italy up to the Greek territories. Roman expansion forced Rome to create labels for newly acquired territory despite still holding city state mentality- some conquered areas directly annexed (like Latins) and could participate in politics, others given "Roman citizenship without suffrage" (have to be in army but cant vote), others made into allies called "Socii" and were joined with Rome though an unequal bilateral treaty that forced the Socii to provide soldiers

Aeneas rex ("king")

A survivor of the Trojan War who escaped Troy while carrying his father out of the city destroyed by Sparta and went on to found Lavinium. Troy supposedly located near the Dardanelles on the Western coast of Turkey. Aeneas also spent time in Carthage(met Dido), before coming to Italy and founding Lavinium, the first latin city. Trojan War supposedly took place in 12th or 11th century BC (1194-1184 BC). The Aeneas foundation myth was an invention of the 3rd century BC Aeneas supposedly given mission of founding a city on the Tiber through a vision of Hector; in Italy he makes an alliance with Latinus, the King of Italy and marries his daughter Lavinia; their son Ascanius founded Alba Longa where eventually priestess Rhea Silvia would give birth to Romulus and Remus; Romans accepting a lineage from Greek mythology gave Rome legitimacy/"street cred" in the Mediterranean since Rome took over much of Italy by 3rd Century BC; Trojan lineage also makes Rome distinctively not Greek

Third Punic War

A war between Rome and Carthage, provoked by Carthage's declaration of war against Numidia, a violation of its treaty with Rome after the 2nd Punic War; Gave Rome the perfect opportunity to destroy Carthage once and for all 149-146 BC Fought around and inside Carthage, North Africa Senators like Cato had been calling for the destruction of Carthage, made possible by Carthage's attack on Numidia. Carthage withstood the siege for 2 years before Rome put Scipio Aemilianus in charge, who launched a forceful attack on its harbor in 146 BC; Romans pushed into the city and pushed the Carthaginians back into the citadel, destroying and looting houses as they went. Carthage surrendered after 7 days of bloodshed and remaining 50,000 citizens sold into slavery. Rome had conquered the once powerful empire and demolished one of the most powerful ancient cities that had survived for 700 years. Along with the defeat of Corinth, Rome wa left with no major rivals, and ruled an empire from Spain, North Africa, and the Greek east. Carthage remained uninhabited until it was refounded by Julius Caesar.

The First Punic War

A war fought between Rome and Carthage largely for control of Sicily, that resulted in Rome getting its first "foreign" province (Sicily) 264-241 BC Fought largely on the island of Sicily, as well as at sea and North Africa Rome and Carthage had been at peace for centuries and had multiple peace treaties in the past, but Roman acquisition of Greek Colonies in south italy turned their attention to Sicily The war introduced Rome to Naval battle, as they built 145 ships in only 60 days based on Carthaginian wrecks, but added bridges that could be lowered onto enemy ships to board them and engage in hand to hand combat- success that resulted in first Roman triumph celebrated for a naval victory in 260 BC- introduction of Rome to sailing for both navy and commerce- would become crucial as empire expanded around mediterranean Sea Carthage forced to withdraw from Sicily and pay Rome 3,200 talents of silver in reparations and Rome went on to seize Sardinia in 238 BC opportunistically when Carthage was weak→ these angered Hannibal and provoked 2nd Punic War

Marcus Aurelius

Adopted son and successor of Antonius Pius. Adopted with his brother Lucius, but he was the one who held the majority of the power. Reigned from 161 to 180 AD Wrote The Meditations, influential philosophy books of the age His reign mostly filled with quelling rebellions in Egypt, Britannica, and Spain and continuous warfare. In 177 AD, named his son Commodus co-emperor. When he died of natural causes in 180 AD, Commodus named emperor.

Seneca the Younger

Advisor to Nero from 54 to 62 AD, important Roman writer and philosopher of his age Agrappina appointed him as tutor to Nero and very influential in his early reign, in which Tacitus describes Nero as competent. However, over the years Seneca lost his influence over Nero and reluctantly agreed to murder of Agrappina (Tacitus). In 65 AD, he got caught up in a plot to overthrow Nero, after which Nero forced Seneca to commit suicide, which he did calmly, cutting arterial veins to bleed himself out.

Livy ( "The History of Rome" (Ab Urbe Condita) )

Aeneas Remus/Romulus, origin of Rome Anything about older Roman kings Lucretia, Brutus Tarquins Marcus Camillus Hannibal Punic wars- the events of the wars

Septimius Severus

After Pertinax died, Didius Julianius bought the throne from the Praetorian Guard and was emperor for 5 weeks until Septimius Severus challenged him for the throne, killed him and won. He also made enemies of Clodius and Niger who were also vying fro thr throne and defeated them through a series of battles. Severus reigned from 193 to 211 AD Turned Rome into a military dictatorship, having made enemies with the Senate after gaining power through military force. He was the first emperor to station some of the imperial army in Italy, realising Rome needed a military force that could be sent anywhere. He led many conquests and Rome was at its largest under his reign. Founded the Severan dynasty Died in 211 AD from illness, naming his sons Caracalla and Geta as his successor

Pertinax

After the assassination of Commodus, he was named emperor by Praetorian Guard for 3 months at the beginning of 192 AD before becoming the victim of another conspiracy after he refused to pay the Praetorian Guard when they made him emperor, after which the Praetorian Guard assassinated him as well

The Flavian Amphitheater

Also known as Colosseum Construction began with Vespasian in 72 AD from the spoils of the Jewish War and completed by his son ans heir Titus in 80 AD Further modifcations made during reign of Domitian Could hold between 50-80k spectators for public spectacles and gladitorial games Huge columns of marble surrounding it

Catiline (L. Sergius Catilina)

An aristocrat who turned demagogue and made an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the republic while Cicero was a consul (63 BC) Lived 108 - January 62 BC Failed to get the Consulship in 64 or 63 BC when Cicero was instead chosen, and he started to enlist supporters to stage an armed insurrection and get control of government Wanted the cancellation of debt (had spent a lot on his own campaigns), proscription of the wealthy, and appealed to the poor, Sulla's veterans who had failed as farmers on land awarded to them, and those dispossessed with Roman elite leadership Cicero denounced Catiline in speech to senate in 63BC, getting an ultimate decree from the senate to declare Catiline a traitor- backed up by signed documents proving conspiracy- Senate worried and mobilized an army to fight Catiline's forces at Pistoria, killing Catiline and most of his supporters. Cicero considered exposing Catiline conspiracy one of his greatest achievements Writers like Sallust used Catiline as the epitome of the Republic's moral degradation

Auspices

Ancient Roman divination was tied to the concept of auspices, which literally means 'looking for fortunate signs in birds'" in Latin. People looking for auspices were called augurs. Supposedly as old a tradition as Romulus and Remus (753 BC) Romans often looked for favorable divine signs that their actions or intentions have the support of the gods; this could come in the form of bird patterns, lightning and thunder, or unusual events like animals being sacrificed/born with multiple organs/body parts. Romulus and Remus quarrel over who has divine support in establishing city on Palatine vs Aventine Hill based on an auspice of who saw more birds vs who saw them first; leads to fratricide and establishment of Rome on palatine in founding myth. Sulla supposedly checked for numerous omens/auspices to confirm that he should march on Rome. When Caesar is consul in 59 BC and prevents fellow consul Bibulus from vetoing Pompey's land grant by having manure poured on him, Bibulus casts doubt on the legitimacy of vote by saying he is going to go watch the skies for omens (influential enough even to sway political opinions).

Plutarch:

As a Greek in the early 2nd century AD, Plutarch wrote "The Parallel Lives" to encourage mutual respect between Greeks and Romans. By exhibiting noble deeds and characters, and including ethical reflections, Plutarch intended to edify his readers through a set of model behaviors to follow. This passage reflects this by...

Polybius:

As he states in his "Histories", Polybius wanted to teach readers how Rome became the dominant force in the Mediterranean in just 53 years thanks to their constitution and fortune. Writing in the mid-second century BC, Polybius tried to analyze history through unbiased historiography without the sensationalism of prior historians. This passage shows this through...

Livy (from example):

As he states in his introduction, Livy saw moral decline as the central problem affecting Romans of the late 1st century BC and so wrote his work as a monument of examples of good and bad behavior, on the basis of which readers could decide what to emulate and what to avoid. This passage serves as a great example of Livy's purpose because....

Battle of Pharsalus (48 BC)

August 9, 48 BC in Pharsulus (Central Greece) Decisive battle between Caesar and Pompey in their civil war Caesar had half the number of troops and very little supplies compared to Pompey Pompey wanted to delay and wait for Caesar to surrender; he was pressured to attack and suffered overwhelming defeat; fleed to Egypt after

Suetonius ("The Twelve Caesars" )

Augustus Vespasian Titus Domitian Nero

Gaius and Lucius Caesar

Augustus' grandsons and favored joint-heirs to the Roman Empire Both sons of Julia and Agrippa, but both died in their early 20s in early ADs, ending their promising political careers and forcing Augustus to rethink his line of succession Their death required Augustus to adopt their younger brother Agrippa Postumus (who was later exiled) as well as the eventual emperor Tiberius Tacitus suggests that Livia might have done something to induce their deaths because they stood in the way of Tiberius' succession

Tiberius

Augustus' successor, reigning from 14 to 37 AD Prior to becoming princeps: Tiberius was married to Vispania, but when Julia's husband Agrappina died, Tiberius was forced to marry Julia, and became consul and tribune. When he became second in command, he suddenly announced his retirement from Roman politics (unclear why - perhaps because of unhappy marriage or because Augustus was trying to elevate Gaius and Lucius instead of him). However, when Gaius and Lucius died, Augustus had no choice but to choose Tiberius as heir, and Tiberius returned to Rome. In 12 AD, Tiberius declared "co-princeps" until Augustus' death in 14 AD, at which he became princeps. As an emperor: did not embark on costly conquests, but instead chose to use diplomacy to strengthen empire. Used Praetorian Guard to intimidate Senate. Created the concept of "delation", which was the punishment of crime with heavy fines, contributing to an increase in the treasury. However, this caused a lot of fraud. When Tiberius' son Drusus died, he became very saddened and started passing much of his power to Sejanus, the former commander of Praetorian Guard. He eventually became emperor in just name and yeeted to Cicily for a decade until returning to Rome and realising his weakened position, ordered the execution of Sejanus. Tldr; Augustus' successor, was the least offensive heir as all the other options were not viable and he represented first real peaceful transfer of power from one emperor to another. As an emperor, he used diplomacy to strengthen the empire and used the praetorian guard to intimidate the Senate.

Battle of Cannae (216 BC)

Battle following Minucius' failure, where consul Varro tries to attack Hannibal straight on again, and suffered extremely heavy losses due to superior Carthaginian battle tactics Fought at Cannae, in southeast Italy Romans had always relied on winning battles by having more men on the field and overwhelming the enemy with their traditional formations, But Hannibal was a skilled general and instead set up a light infantry out front to encourage the Romans to push forward, while cavalry and heavier infantry was set up in a crescent behind it to trap the Romans and encircle them- 44,000 out of 50,000 Romans killed, while Hannibal only lost 6,000 men. Rome no longer relied on simply having more infantry going forward- Scipio Africanus managed to escape at Cannae and then studied Hannibal's tactics and used the same tricks to defeat Hannibal at the battle of Zama in 202BC and end the 2nd Punic War.

Battle of Zama (202 BC)

Battle in which Scipio Africanus attacked Carthage following his invasion of North Africa and defeated Hannibal to win the Second Punic War for Rome. October 202 BC Fought on a plain in western Tunisia near Naraggara (Carthage in North Africa) Scipio's 35,000 men defeated Hannibal's 45,000 by adopting a strategy of having channels in their lines for Hannibl's elephants to pass through, and then be herded back towards Carthaginian lines to wreck havoc. Scipio then flanked Hannibal's army and attacked it's rear, defeating them. There were 20,000 Carthaginian casualties vs 5000 Roman dead. Battle Forced Hannibal to sue for peace, ending the Second Punic War in Rome's victory. Established Rome as the leading superpower of the Mediterranean. Portrayed Rome's ability to fight abroad and in multiple theaters simultaneously (war went from Spain and Italy to Africa) and to adopt tactics based on scenarios- Marked a change in how Rome would approach its future conquests.

Diocletian

Became emperor after the third century crisis, reigned from 284 to 305 AD Governance: His reign stabalized the empire and marks the end of the third century crisis. He resolved the problem governing due to the Empire's size by creating a tetrachy, or "rule of four". In his tetrachy, the Augusti: Diocletian and Maximianus and Caesares: Galerius and Constantius Religion: Persecuted Christians, crucifying more than any other emperor and imposed traditional polytheistic religion on Roman empire Fundamentally changed structure of Roman governance that allowed for emperor to exists for another 100 years despite being on verge of collapse before Economic: Passed "Edict on Maximum Prices". Prior to tetrachy, in the crisis of the third century, many emperors had debased currency in order to gain funds for military. However, this led to soaring inflation and instablity. The edict enacted a price ceiling on thousands of items and reevalued currency. However, it was not very successful in curbing inflation, as the ceilings were mostly ignored and merchants traded illegally. Abdicated in 305

Domitian

Brother and successor of Titus, reigned from 81 to 96 AD Named emperor by the Praetorian Guard after his brother's death. As emperor, did not bother with pretending that the senate had any power as his brother and father did. Suetonius describes him as a fair emperor at first, but turned cruel as years went on, killing many senators and was hated by the aristocracy. When he executed his cousin, Flavius Clemens, many were convinced that no one was safe from his cruelty. He was assassinated in 96 AD by the two praetorian prefects and his own wife due to his cruelty. The senate was overjoyed at his death, but the soldiers were unhappy.

Romulus & Remus

Brothers that founded Rome, with Romulus killing Remus to have city on Palatine Hill named after him, after bickering over who had divine approval through omens Born in Latin City Alba Longa to Rhea Silvia, Founded Rome on Palatine Hill on April 21, 753 BC Probably never existed but Romans cared about this story already in 4-5th century BC, before the Aeneas foundation myth; Palatine is located above the Lupercal, the cave where the she-wolf Lupa nursed the brothers; myth gave Romans a religious authority/primacy as Romulus' father was supposedly Mars and mother a vestal virgin and daughter of former king Numitor- Rome had the favor of the deities. Romans credited Romulus for founding the army, building a wooden wall, creating system of rights, laws, state religion and government, and had a "hut of Romulus" shrine even in 3rd century BC according to Livy.

Hadrian's Wall

Built by Hadrian in 122 AD for border of Roman region of Britannica Served as northern border of imperial Rome for centuries, defensive policy of Hadrian to protect against barbarians, over 15 ft high Also allowed control over immigration, customs, and smuggling Served as a symbol of Roman power

Claudius

Caligula's uncle and successor, reigned from 41 to 54 AD Named Caligula's successor by Praetorian Guard as he was the last man of the family. As emperor, he resorted to bribery to win over his army's loyalty, giving the Prateorian Guard who had elevated him to power rich sums of cash. Oversaw the conquest of Britain and reaffirmed rights of Jews in the empire. Thought to have died by poisoning from his wife.

Constantinople

Capital city of the Roman empire by Constantine in 330 AD, called it "New Rome" After promoting Christianity and making fundamental changes to the way Rome is governed, Constantine knew that Rome was no longer a fit capital for him Marked a significant change in Rome, pushing Christianity to the forefront Chose Contantinople, previously named Byzantium

Hannibal

Carthage's greatest commander and leader during the second punic war. Lived 247-183 BC Took over the armies and hatred of Rome from his father Hamilcar and provoked Rome by taking Saguntum to start the Second Punic War Led Carthage to a number of military victories against Rome in Italy and brought troops almost up to the gates of Rome before being stopped by a lack of resources to take the city (thanks in part to Fabius' strategy of avoiding large battles and forcing Hannibal to fight an offensive war) Hannibal was called back to Africa to defend Carthage from Roman invasion, and was defeated at the Battle of Zama (202 BC) by Scipio Africanus. Portrayed by Livy as a composed general that doesn't rush into battle- brings focus of Livy's writing away from Hannibal being an evil enemy and instead onto poor Roman leadership and consular struggles

Arius of Alexandria

Christian Priest during mid 4th century Claimed that Jesus and God were distinct because there was a time that Jesus di not exist, but when God did At Council of Nicaea, most voted against him and consensus was made that God and Jesus were the same person for all perpetuity Founded Arianism, which asserts that Jesus is separate from God and was created by God at some point in time Conflicting idealogies of Christianity

Etruscans

Civilization of ancient Italy that was more powerful than early Rome North of Rome along the western coast of Italy Developed around 900 BC, conquered by Rome in 264 BC Tarquin Kings were Etruscan- probably more like warlords that left Etruria and rose to power in Rome; Tarquins appealed to Etruscans for help when Republic established but Rome fought them off creating faith in the Republican government. Roman bravery (Mucius burning his hand) in wars against Etruscans were part of Livy's foundational myth of how a proper Roman should behave under Republican virtues; Livy gives Etruscan Servius Tiullius credit for ruling fairly and starting Rome's Republican ideals. Rome defeats Etruscans (along with Samnites) in Battle of Sentium (295 BC) to gain control of central Italy.

Patron/client

Client owed vote to patron and in return patron protected client and his family and helped financially or in other ways Each morning at dawn, clients were required to greet their patrons with a greeting called the salutatio. This greeting could also be accompanied by requests for help or favors. As a result, clients were sometimes called salutatores. Clients were expected to support their patrons in all matters, personal and political. As a result, it was possible for a wealthier patron to count on the votes of his many clients. Meanwhile, however, patrons were expected to provide a range of goods and services including food (which was often traded for cash) and legal counsel.

M. Vipsanius Agrippa

Close friends with Octavian and his leading general Responsible for victories against Sextus Pompey and Antony and Cleopatria in Battle of Actium, playing a huge part in both battles Built and dedicated Roman Pantheon in celebration of Battle of Actium and renovated Roman aqueducts During time in Augutus regime, became almost as powerful as Augutus himself, holding the titles of consul, tribune of the plebs, and more

Cicero ("On the Command of Gnaeus Pompeius" )

Command of Gneaus Pompeius

P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus

Commander of Etruscan and Patrician descent, received the epithet Africanus for his military victories in Africa, where he won the Second Punic War for Rome. Lived 236-183 BC First started military career by volunteering on "suicide mission" against Hasdrubal's 4x larger army in Spain- defeated him using tactics he had learned from Hannibal Then asked Senate for an army to invade Carthage believing rightly that Hannibal would be recalled to defend North Africa. Senate said no so he raised his own army, at which point senate gave him command of Sicily as his base of operations. Defeated Hannibal at Zama ending the 2nd Punic War with a Roman victory, but was chivalrous in victory, letting Hannibal live, and letting Carthage keep 10 ships to protect merchants, and was harassed over it by political enemies in Rome. Thought of as one of antiquities best military leaders along with Hannibal, alexander the great- introduced new tactics to Roman military other than winning by numbers.

"Edict of Milan," AD 313

Constantine in the West and Licidius in the East shared control of Rome Stopped persecution of Christians allowed them to co-exist with Romans Considered Constantine's first great act as a Christian emperor

Battle at the Allia River

Crushing Roman defeat to the Senones, a Gaulic tribe, which allowed the Gauls to sack Rome At the Allia River near the Tiber, 16km north of Rome July 18, 390 BC Romans interfere on behalf of Etruscan city Clusium and Gauls temporarily recede but then return in 390 with Rome as their new target; Romans underestimated that the 'barbarian' Gauls could math a Roman legion, even so close to Rome; Romans slaughtered by larger Gaulic army and tried to escape across Tiber to ruins of Veii Resulted in the sack of Rome since Rome undefended with only ⅓ of army left; Romans held out on Capitol Hill but forced to pay hefty ransom for Gauls to recede Defeat and sack had profound effect on Roman military: Greek phalanx formation abandoned in favor of 60-120 man Maniple that could move around without messing up battle line; javelin attacks now followed by sword combat; 4 corner Roman shields adopted instead of circular ones Roman allies wavered after sack, and old enemies reopened old wars in territories conquered by Rome in last century

Agrippina the Younger

Daughter to Agrippina the Elder, Augustus' granddaughter, sister to Caligula, and mother to Nero with previous husband Domitus Married her uncle Claudius (incestual, but told Roman senate that marriage was done in public interest), but met with widespread disapproval. As Empress, she eliminated anyone who she considered a potential threat to her influence/power. Nero was declared heir to emperor by Claudius , but when he started to consider Britannicus (Claudius' son) instead, she poisoned Claudius according to Tacitus. During Nero's reign, she controlled him at the beginning until he grew tired of her influence and was sent to exile. According to Tacitus, Agrappina was killed by her son Nero because he wanted to divorce his current wife Octavia and marry the noble woman Poppea, which his mother would not allow. After her death, Nero married Poppea.

Ides of March, 44 BC

Day of Caesar's assassination Caesar had recently been declared dictator for life and senators were fearing the change to totalitarianism from the Republic Caesar stabbed to death at a meeting of the Senate by as many as 60 senators. They circled around him and stabbed him 23 times. Caesar was then lifted by three slaves who walked with his dead body on the streets, leading to riots Considered closing event that definitely ended the Roman Republic and triggered the Liberator's Civil War and the rise of Augustus and the Principiate

"Golden House" of Nero

Domus Aurea Vast palace built by Nero in 64 AD after Great Fire of Rome destroyed large part of city on the Palantine Hill Consisted of lakes, fileds, vineywards, banqueting halls, extensive Roman baths "When the house was brought to completion in this style and he dedicated it, he said nothing more to indicate his approval than to declare that he had at last begun to live like a human being" (Suetonius, 31) Embarassment to his successors for its extravangance and stripped of marble, jewels, and ivory within a decade

M. Livius Drusus the Younger

Drusus made the last nonviolent civilian attempt to reform the government of republican Rome. Drusus began by proposing colonial and agrarian reform bills. He attempted to resolve the tensions between the senatorial order (the political class) and the equestrian order; His murder led to the Social Wars Lived 124 - 91 BC Honest senator is convicted of corruption in governing province but was really just trying to control rapacity of equestrian tax collectors (convicted by equestrian jury); Drusus proposes raising 300 wealthiest Equestrians to Senatorial rank and choosing jurors from the Senate but cant get enough support to make the measure pass, especially since people like Gaius Marius stood to gain from conflict between senators and Equites. Drusus pushed for right to vote for Rome's Italian allies and gains support of the allies but opposition from Romans- Drusus is murdered, leading to the revolt of the Italian allies in the Social War

Centurion

Each legion has a leader called centurion "First centurion" of legion most powerful and can rise quickly socially Opportunity for any soldier to gain prominence Leader of 80 men in the century

Praetorian Guard

Elite unit of Roman imperial army serving as emperor's personal bodyguards Permanant corps of nine cohorts stationed around Rome Instituted by Augustus, likely in an attempt to prevent assassination like Caesar They had a praetorian camp constructed in the middle of Rome by Augustus in 23 BC

Nero

Emperor after Claudius, reigned from 54 AD to 68 AD Became emperor with consent of the Praetorian Guard like Claudius by Agrappina's maneuvering. At the beginning of his rule, his mother controlled his actions until 5 years in, he is thought to have killed her off. His rule is usually associated with tyranny and extravangance and his negligence for the people of Rome. During Great Fire of Rome July, 64 AD Countless temples, buildings, residences destroyed and said to have burned for more than a week. Ancient sources divided if Nero started the fire or not, Tacitus is unsure, Suetonius says he did. Suetonius alleges that Nero started the fire so he could build his Golden House and get the land for it and that he sang while it was burning. Afterwards, Tacitus states that he blamed the Christians for the fire to remove suspicion from himself. After fire, he contributed to rebuilding efforts, lowering the value of Roman currency to pay for it and made a new urban development plan. However, he also immediately started construction on the razed land for his palace. In 68 AD, Galba and Vindex came out in protest of Nero for his tax policies and Galba declared himself emperor opposite of Nero. Galba was supported by the praetorian guard. In response, Nero fled Rome and committed suicide. Tldr: Emperor from 54 AD to 68 AD after Claudius, known for his tyrannical rule and extravagent tendencies such as the Golden Temple of Nero and the Great Fire of Rome. Under his rule is the earliest documented persecution of Christians. When Galba came out against him in 68 AD, he fled Rome and committed suicide.

Battle of Pydna (168 BC)

Final battle of the Third Macedonian War, where Rome under Amilius Paullus defeated Perseus of Macedon, capturing Perseus to be displayed as a captive in a triumph. June 22, 168 BC Fought at Pydna, eastern coast of Greece by Aegean sea The Macedonians were caught on broken ground, disadvantageous to the immobile phalanx and had little chance of victory. The Romans slaughtered 20,000 of the Macedonian force, taking 6,000 prisoners and 5,000 from nearby forces. Perseus escaped the carnage, but his allies in the region quickly submitted to Rome, and without an army, he had no choice but to surrender. On top of establishing Roman dominance in Greece, the battle memorialized the supremacy of the Roman Legion to the Greek Phalanx, that Rome had abandoned after The Battle of Allia River in 390 BC, since Roman troops were more mobile and could more easily attack on rough terrain with their swords than Macedonians could with pikes.

L. Junius Brutus

Founder of the Roman Republic and one of the first consuls in 509 BC, after having acted like an ignorant/dumb lower official to the king Consul in 509 BC, and died in 509 BC (birth unknown) Most of his important life events took place in Rome itself Led the overthrow of the Monarchy and creation of the Republic in 509 BC after rising up as a leader after Lucretia's rape; Established what it meant to be a good consul by punishing his own sons for their treasonous plot to reestablish the monarchy, and dying in battle against the Tarquins (his fellow consul celebrated a triumph for this victory, another consular tradition); Livy says Brutus' first act after expelling Monarchs was to make Romans take an oath that they would never again "suffer no man to rule Rome", establishing anti-king precedent that continued for the next 1000 years, even during imperial period.

senate

Governmental institution with positions held for life Senators often met in the Curia and lived on the Palatine Hill (until emperors' palaces took over the hill) Founded by Romulus to consist of 100 men in 753 BC; lasted past the division of the Empire (395 AD) and the fall of the Western Empire (476 AD) Ancestors of original 100 senators became the Patrician class, leading to social conflicts with the plebs; in the republic, Senators advised the consuls and controlled the State treasury- Consuls needed their funds to go to war and celebrate triumphs; had to have 400,000 sesterci (later 1 million under Augustus) since senate was an honor not a paid job; conflicts between conservative traditional senators and ambitious ones led to rise of Grachi, Marius, Sulla, Pompey, Caesar.

Battle of Lake Trasimene

Hannibal ambushed the Roman army led by Consul Gaius Flaminius in a narrow passageway near lake Trasimene, annihilating the Roman forces. 217 BC In a dead end between Lake Trasimene and surrounding hills- Central Italy North of Rome Hannibal hid his troops in the hills and caves around the lake and baits the Flaminius to charge in- Carthage ambushes the Romans and 15,000 out of 30,000 Romans killed or drowned trying to escape, another 6,000 sold into slavery- Roman army decimated Demonstrates poor leadership and consular internal struggles of Consuls just rushing into battle before even taking their consular auspices Led to Fabius Maximus being made Dictator since Romans terrified of such a loss so close to Rome

Mithridates nobiles (nobles, aristocrats)

I literally have no idea what he means by Mithidates nobles, and google doesn't either. In case he means Mithridates, the ruler himself, he was the King of Pontus (near black sea) who took advantage of Rome being occupied with Social wars to invade Roman territory in Turkey and mainland Greece; he lived between 135 - 63 BC; was responsible indirectly for Sulla's March on Rome as stated above^^

Suetonius:

In "The Twelve Caesars", Suetonius aimed to characterize 12 emperors and their strengths and frailties rather than portray a comprehensive history. Dismissed from being Hadrian's secretary, he often sided with senators' views over the princeps', and revealed gossip about emperors' personalities. This passage is an example of this: ...

Cicero:

In order to convince senators that Pompey was the only man suitable to fight Mithridates in 67 BC, Cicero's speech is centered on Pompey's military ability, moderation, and authority, as well as the necessity to issue a special command over consular leadership. This passage shows this by...

Gaius Julius Caesar

In triumvirate from 59 to 49 BC, dictator from 49 to 44 BC until assassinated in 49 BC Part of the first triumvirate with Pompey and Crassus until Crassus dies, Caesar conquers Gaul and gains power, Caesar crosses Rubicon, invades Rome, and defeats Pompey Became "dictator of life" of Rome, become lovers with Cleopatra, was assassinated on March 15 44 BC because of accusations of tyranny Caesar's reforms: land redistribution to poor, calendar standardization, created police force, abolished tax system, extended Lat`in rights through Rome First real emperor of Rome, circumventing senate's wishes to enact his own legislation, laying foundation of Roman Empire

Caracalla

Initially co-emperor with his brother Geta in 211 AD, but had his brother killed in 211 AD and became sole ruler until 217 AD Granted Edict of Caracalla, which made gave Roman citizenship to nearly all free men throughout Roman empire Portrayed as one of the most tyrannical and cruel leaders Killed in 217 AD by one of soldiers, setting up the third century crisis

Great Fire of Rome (AD 64)

July, 64 AD Countless temples, buildings, residences destroyed and said to have burned for more than a week due to poor construction. In the aftermath, ⅔ of Rome said to be destroyed. Ancient sources divided if Nero started the fire or not, Tacitus is unsure, Suetonius says he did. Suetonius alleges that Nero started the fire so he could build his Golden House and get the land for it and that he sang while it was burning. Afterwards, Tacitus states that he blamed the Christians for the fire to remove suspicion from himself. After fire, he contributed to rebuilding efforts, lowering the value of Roman currency to pay for it and made a new urban development plan. However, he also immediately started construction on the razed land for his palace.

King Pyrrhus of Epirus

King of Epirus in Northern Greece between 306-302 BC, and 297-272 BC. Considered a great general for his victories against Rome and Macedon, compared to Alexander the Great. Lived 319-272 BC See entry on Tarentum for his battles against Rome to protect Greek colonies in Italy^^

Philip V of Macedon

King of Macedonia who tried to extend Macedonian influence throughout Greece, resulting in his defeat by Rome Lived 238-179 BC Macedonia, Eastern coast of Greece bordering the Aegean Sea Allied with Hannibal during Second Punic War and attacked Roman client states, provoking 10 years of warfare that ended with a peace treaty in 205 BC. Plotted to plunder Egypt and expand eastward but was defeated by the people of Rhodes and Pergamum, who then appealed to Rome and exaggerated Philip's aggression enough to provoke Rome to declare war (Second Macedonian War) The Roman campaigns in Macedonia (199) and Thessaly (198) shook Philip's position in Greece, and in 197 the Romans, led by Titus Quinctius Flamininus, decisively defeated him at Cynoscephalae in Thessaly; forced to pay 1000 talents, surrender his fleet and give up hostages, after which Philip became more helpful towards Rome against her enemies in the Greek peninsula. Focused instead on consolidating his kingdom- reorganizing finances and reopening mines in Macedonia.

Jugurtha

King of Numidia from 118 to 105 BC, who struggled to free his North African kingdom from Roman rule. Lived 160-104 BC Shared rule of Numidia (Roman Ally) with 2 sons of the prior king, but kills one of them and attacks the other. Rome intervenes and splits up Numidia between the two rulers, but Jugurtha attacks again and kills the other son, confident that he has enough support among Roman elite; some Italian merchants are killed in the attack though, provoking Rome to intervene Jugurtha easily wins against incompetent/bribed Roman leaders, and continues to have guerilla warfare success even against Marius. Eventually Jugurtha is trapped and given up to Sulla by a family member Bocchus I; Jugurtha is then executed. Displays that there were limits to which satellite rulers could exercise free will under Roman Empire. Marius celebrates triumph for Jugurthine War- starts tensions between Sulla and Marius Incompetence/corruption of Roman leaders in Jugurthine War led to loss of public confidence in the Republic to deal with problems of empire- more open to able dictators. Jugurthine War gave Marius the excuse to recruit non-landowning soldiers

Tetrarchy

Lasted from 293 - 313 AD In 293 AD, Diocletian split the rule of Roman empire to 4 people, each person ruling a quarter of the Roman empire. In all Roman coinage and propoganda, the image of a unified group of four people carefully presented for an image of unity after numerous civil wars. Two "senior officials" named Augusti Two "junior officials" named Caesares Initially, Augusti: Diocletian and Maximian and Caesares: Galerius and Constantius After Maximian and Diocletian abdicated in 305, Galerius and Constantius named Augusti and new Caesares appointed as Maximinus and Flavius Severus However, problems arose with succession of the Caesares and by 308, there were four claimants to the Caesar title and only one Augusti By 313, there were only two rulers, Constantine in the West and Licidinus in the East

Gaius Cassius and M. Junius Brutus

Leaders of the plot to assassinate Caesar in 44 BC Brothers in law, Brutus was governor of Gaul under Caesar's regime and Cassius After killing Caesar, Antony seized power and Cassius and Brutus fled Rome; defeated by Antony and the second Triumvirate in the Battle of Philippi in 43 BC Cassius defeated on October 3, 43 BC and killed himself with the same dagger he killed Caesar with Brutus defeated on October 23, 43 BC and killed himself by running into his own sword held by two of his men "Liberator's Civil War" was the second Triumvirate against Cassius and Brutus to avenge Caesar's death

The Second Triumvirate

Lepidus, Octavian, and Antony teaming up after Caesar's death from 43 BC to 33 BC Prior to them teaming up, Octavian had been warring with Antony and Lepidus, but they formed a treaty of peace to enact revenge on Caesar's assassins and jointly govern Italy, splitting provinces and defeating Brutus and Cassius in 43 BC, signifying a shift in how a three-way dictatorship had become legal/constiutional in Rome At the beginning of the partnership, Lepidus was senior member and given Hispania, Antony given Gaul, Octavian given task of returning veterans to Italy The three of them made proscriptions against senators to banish them as outlaws and gain money for the fight against Brutus and Cassius. Notable victims include Cicero, Lucius Julius Caesar (Augustus' uncle) and Lepidus' brother Paullus Defeated Brutus and Cassius at the battle of Philippi in 43 BC in the Liberator's Civil War After victory, Octavian given West, Antony given East, and Lepidus effectively being pushed out of partnership by only being offered Africa Defeated Sextus Pompey in 36 BC After victory, Lepidus claimed he should have been given Sicily from Sextus Pompey and restored his former provinces. Octavian accused Lepidus of usurping power and Lepidus' legions defected to Octavian, leading to Octavian exiling Lepidus into Circeii Breaking of Triumvirate After Lepidus gone, just Antony and Octavian left Although Antony was married to Octavian's sister, he was openly in a relationship with Cleopatra in Egypt and planned to donate Roman territories to Cleopatra and their children Octavian seized will and exposed to Roman people, framing it as a war against foreigners of Egypt Antony and Cleopatra defeated by Octavian at Battle of Actium After this, Octavian the only person controlling Rome -- goes on to form principiate as Difference from first Triumvirate: while the first one was more of a private agreement, the second triumvirate was in the constitution with a joint dictatorship of Rome amongst the three of them

M. Antonius (Mark Antony)

Life: 83 - 30 BC Supported Caesar during Conquest of Gaul and during civil war between Pompey and Caesar through military command When Caesar was dictator, was Master of Horse (second in command) After Caesar's death, joined second Triumvirate with Augustus and Lepidus with the goal to enact revenge on Caesar's assassins and jointly govern Italy, splitting provinces and defeating Brutus and Cassius in 43 BC Antony went to Egypt with Cleopatra; Second Triumvirate dissolved and Antony declared Caesarion as legitimate heir of Caesar in 33 BC Civil war between Octavian and Antony Octavian won, Antony committed suicide

Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus

Lived 169 - June 133 BC Roman tribune(133 BCE) who sponsored agrarian reforms to restore the class of small independent farmers and who was assassinated in a riot sparked by his senatorial opponents. Served under Scipio in the Third Punic War, and then went to Spain where he saved a Roman army from destruction through a contract with the Spanish tribes, which was later disavowed by the Senate, alienating him from the Scipio family. In his work abroad he became disgruntled by the fact that wealthy landowners became enriched through the imperialist wars and developed estates worked by slaves- displacing poor farmers and creating fewer eligible land-owning soldiers and more landless citizenry. Sought to redistribute public lands achieved through conquest to the poor in an agrarian bill and becomes Tribune in 133 BC to help get it done. Decides to just propose the bill to the assembly instead of the Senate first, and fellow tribune Octavius vetoes it. Tiberius has the assembly vote to depose Octavius "because he isn't following the will of the people"- undermines authority of tribunate Then tries to claim money from King of Pergamum to finance agrarian bill, who bequeathed his fortune to the "Roman people", which Tiberius decides can be for the Agrarian Bill- interferes with Senate's traditional role of controlling public finance Tries to stand for tribunate a second time to avoid being prosecuted and is beaten to death along with 300 supporters by political opponents- start of Republic's decline from legal compromise and restraint to legal loopholes and political violence.

Lex Hortensia (287 BC)

Made resolutions passed by the Plebeian Council (plebiscites) binding law on all citizens, not just Plebs Passed by Dictator Quintus Hortensius in a compromise to bring the Plebs back to Rome from their strike on the Janiculum Hill; Plebeian council resolutions no longer needed the approval of the senate to become law. Lex Hortensia considered the end of the Conflict of Orders between the Plebs and Patricians as they now theoretically had equal political rights. The law cemented the authority of the Roman people in the republic and the legal power of Plebeian Council.

Jupiter Optimus Maximus

Most important temple in Ancient Rome, located on Capitoline Hill- sacred to Jupiter, Juno and Minerva (Capitoline Triad); there were other shrines there before Located in the Area Capitolina on the Capitoline Hill in Rome amid other temples Dedicated September 13, 509 BC King Tarquinius Priscus vowed to build the temple in asking for Jupiter's help in battle against the Sabines, and much of the construction was finished by his son Tarquinius Superbus, the last king of Rome; Temple represented a shift in Roman government as it was traditionally dedicated in founding year of the Republic according to Livy, and consecrated by consul Marcus Horatius Pulvillus in 507 BC; temple helped affirm Capitoline Triad's central position in Roman religion and set precedent of building temples to honor gods that help you in battle.

Constantine

Named emperor in 306 AD through tetrachy after Diocletian's abdication and ruled until 337 AD Split rule of Roman empire with Licidius in 313 AD until civil wars broke out between them and Constantine emerged victorious to become sole ruler in 324 AD In 313 AD, created Edict of Milan to stop persecution of Christians and allow them to co-exist with Romans In Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312 AD, Constantine supposedly saw a cross in the sky and changed his deity from Apollo to Jesus and he emerged victorious. This battle marked the beginning of his conversion to Christianity. It was in this year that marked his official conversion to Christianity, although he was only baptised on his deathbed in 337. Known as the first Christian emperor and for unifying empire after tetrachy and civil war

Augustus

Octavian

Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey)

One of the great statesmen and generals of the late Roman Republic, a triumvir (61-54 BCE) who was an associate and later an opponent of Julius Caesar. Lived September 29, 106 - September, 28, 48 BC Rose to power by raising private legions and joining Sulla on his second march on Rome- helped Sulla carry out proscriptions and recovers Sicily and Africa from Marius' supporters, killing any of Sulla's opponents- then demands triumph for his success Granted control of special command against pirates with "Lex Gabinia"- allowing him total control of hundreds of ships, 120,000 infantry and war against Mithridates- kills Mithridates and creates Eastern settlements in Asia Minor Although magistrates still vied for office, this was the start of real power being centered outside of Rome through Special Commands People fear that he will march on Rome like Sulla but instead he disbands his army and requests that the senate give his veterans a land grant and ratify his easter settlements; the senate stalls with opposition from Cato the younger so Pompey decides to circumvent the Senate with the First triumvirate formed through Compact of 60 BC. Laws of 59 BC ratify Pompey's eastern settlements and give his veterans a land grant Lex Licincia-Pompeia 55 BC gives Pompey a 5 year special command in Spain- introduces novelty of ruling over Spain through legates- adopted later by emperors Senate eventually allies with Pompey as the "lesser of two tyrants" to oppose Caesar- Pompey is defeated by Caesar's more experienced army at Pharsalus and is stabbed while escaping to Alexandria- his defeat marked the end of any real sentiment for a "democratic Rome"

comitia centuriata (The Centuriate Assembly)

One of the three voting assemblies in the Roman constitution where classes reflected wealth of the members Supposedly originally founded by King Servius Tullius of the Regal Period before republic founded in 509 BC; reorganized in 241 BC from 193 Centuries to 373 Centuries; Powers of the Assembly transferred to Senate in 27 BC by Augustus Only the Centuriate Assembly could declare war, elect Consuls, Praetors and Censors, or grant Imperium to consuls/praetors; Divided Romans into Centuries based on wealth/social status; each century only got one vote and the vote went towards that century's majority decision; Top centuries could decide a matter on their own if they vote the same way since they vote first, even though they have less people than poor centuries; People had to come into Rome to vote, signifying importance of City-state Mentality; Reforms of 241BC gave more power to lower centuries; Marius enlisting landless soldiers made most soldiers eventually in lowest centuries, essentially disenfranchising the army and leading to chaos/violence.

M. Aemilius Lepidus

One of the triumvirs who ruled Rome after 43 BC and Marc Antony and Octavian Lived 89 - 12 BC Rose to prominence as a supporter of Caesar in the civil war against Pompey, and became consul in 46 BC- after Caesar's murder, Lepidus joined forces with Mark Antony in opposing the conspirators. Antony obtained for him the title of Pontifex Maximus Lepidus declared an enemy of the state by Senate after siding with Antony after Antony defeated in battle- but Octavian meets with them to form Second Triumvirate Under the triumvirate, Lepidus gets control of Spain and Southern Gaul, but is soon deprived of it by Octavian, and ends up confined to only Roman Africa Helped defeat Sextus Pompey in 36 BC- After victory, Lepidus claimed he should have been given Sicily from Sextus Pompey and restored his former provinces. Octavian accused Lepidus of usurping power and Lepidus' legions defected to Octavian, leading to Octavian exiling the humiliated Lepidus into Circeii Lepidus was stripped of all his titles by Octavian except Pontifex Maximus, which Augustus wouldn't take until Lepidus died- shows Augustus' respect for religion As part of Triumvirate, helped Augustus rise to power Smeared as the "weak triumvir" by Augustus' propaganda, including the Res Gestae

Parthia

Parthian empire east of Rome Caesar had planned to invade Parthia after Crassus was defeated there, but was assassinated before he could enact his plan (Suetonius p. 37) After Caesar refused the diadem offered by Marc Antony and thus refusing the title of king, there were still rumors about him aiming to become a monarch. At the next senate meeting, Lucius Cotta announced that oracular books stated that since the Parithians could not be beaten except by a king, Caesar should be given the title king. "It was for this reason that the co-conspirators decided to speed up their planned action, in order to avoid having to give their assent to such a proposal." tldr; some prophecy books said only a king could invade Parthia, so a senator wants to name Caesar king. This makes his assassins speed up their plan and kill Caesar Antony attempts to invade Parthia after Caesar's death from 40-33 BC with aid from Cleopatra Campaign unsuccessful, Antony lost many troops and region under Parthian control in 33 BC, after which Antony withdrew

Social Conflict and the Constitution Patricians / plebeians

Patricians were the elite upper class in Roman society, Plebeians were the remaining people- being a patrician was based solely on last name originating from one of the original 100 paters, not wealth. Patricians were established by Romulus in him choosing original 100 Senators in 753 BC Division of people into the two orders created social tensions, especially the Conflict of Orders (500-287 BC) in which the plebeians sought political equality; Plebs striked in 494 BC and all leave Rome to put pressure on patricians, and found a state within Rome with their own popular assembly, magistrates, and Tribune of the Plebs; originally, magistracies, senate positions, and religious preisthoods were dominated by patricians; plebs bore the burden of serving majority of the army. Divisions exasperated after Monarchy ended since no Monarch to keep patricians in check and patricians voted first in Centuriate Assembly- shows shortcoming of the early Republic that led to social unrest Lex Hortensia (287 BC) made resolutions of concilium plebis binding on ALL roman citizens (not just plebs)- considered end of social clash in Rome

Third Macedonian War

Perseus attempted to dominate Greece and undermine Roman authority established there after the Second Macedonian War, forcing Rome to defeat him and break up Macedonia. 171-168 BC Fought in Macedonia and illyria until their alliance shifted to Rome As king, Perseus tried to spread his influence in the Greek world through diplomacy in some areas and encouraging revolutions in others. He visited Delphi with his army, causing Pergamum to incite Rome against Perseus' allegedly aggressive actions, starting the Third Macedonian War. Perseus lost the war at the Battle of Pydna and was forced to march as a captive in the triumph of Amilius Paullus. Reflected inability to reconcile Greek kingdoms with the predominance of Rome after their defeat of Carthage. Rome consolidated its dominance over the Greek world by splitting up Macedonia into 4 republics that were required to pay an indemnity to Rome. Moreover, Paullus decided to set an example of what would happen if you support someone fighting against Rome (like Epirus giving aid to Perseus), so he forced 70 towns of Epirus to give up all their gold and silver to prevent Roman retribution, and then the Romans assaulted them anyway, killing many and selling 150,000 people into slavery.

The Twelve Tables

Plebeians pressured the patricians to write down a codified set of laws so that legal standards could be made public and not up to the Patrician's discretion. These were drafted by a committee known as the Decemvirate and inscribed on 12 Bronze tablets. 451-449 BC Publicly Presented in Rome for people to see (if literate) Although the plebs would still walk out on some occasions, having a written set of laws eased tensions since plebs could count on being tried fairly instead of having to threaten to walk out of the city everytime they were faced with injustice. In some cases the Twelve Tables consolidated a group of Roman traditional rules, and also established punishments for crimes, and addressed legality of debts (the largest issue facing the plebs during the 5th century Recession, as they felt the Patricians, who were the creditors, were ripping them off) Helped settle unrest in the city and was the beginning of Rome's full Legal Code.

M. Licinius Crassus

Politician who in the last years of the Roman Republic formed the so-called First Triumvirate with Julius Caesar and Pompey to challenge effectively the power of the Senate. His death led to the outbreak of the Civil War between Caesar and Pompey Lived 114 - 53 BC Supported Sulla against Marius, but Sulla clearly favored Pompey so this started tensions between the two Crassus put down the Spartacus rebellion in 72 BC but Pompey was able to take most of the credit. Crassus and Pompey cooperated in 70BC to pressure the Senate to elect them consuls, and then they undid many of Sulla's reforms, restoring the full powers of the Tribunes, which they would later use to get their political wishes in 59 BC through the Triumvirate Was extremely wealthy from the Sullan proscriptions and from having a fire team buy up burning building for next to nothing- used this money to extend credit to indebted senators like Caesar (who otherwise wouldn't have gone to Spain at all); Crassus gets political following in this manner Crassus entered the first Triumvirate with Pompey and Caesar in 60 BC in order to get equite's contract diminished by Senate for inability to collect taxes due to Mithridatic war. As consul with Pompey in 55BC, Crassus gets 5 year command in Syria- but attempts to gain military glory by embarking on unwarranted invasion of Parthia to the East- ends up defeated and killed in Battle of Carrhae- Which begins the dissolution of triumvirate and the sets in motion the civil war between Pompey and Caesar.

Edict on Maximum Prices

Prior to tetrachy, in the crisis of the third century, many emperors had debased currency in order to gain funds for military. However, this led to soaring inflation and instablity. The edict enacted a price ceiling on thousands of items and reevalued currency. However, it was not very successful in curbing inflation, as the ceilings were mostly ignored and merchants traded illegally. Additionally, it also placed a ceiling on the wages, so some citizens were unable to pay for items at all as inflation rised rapidly.

Cleopatra

Ptolemic pharoah -- lived in the city of Alexandria and spoke Greek, but also learned Egyptian as part of the Ptolemaic Kingdom that began when Alexander the GReat conquered Egypt Before Caesar arrived in Egypt, she was warring with Ptolemy XIII (her brother) for the right to rule; Ptolemy XIII had previously sent Pompey's head to Caesar when Pompey tried to take refuge in Egypt Was Caesar's lover and produced a son with him - Caesarion and lived in Rome with Caesar for a few years, but their relationship was never legitimised because Caesar was already married to Calpurnia After Caesar's death, she tried to make Caesarion the rightful heir to Rome, but Augustus was named instead When Antony came to visit her in Egypt, they became lovers, with Antony staying with Cleopatra for long periods of time. Antony restored Cleopatra with Ptolemaic lands that had been under Roman control and in return she provided funding for his warring against Syria and other governances. She had two children with Antony. Propoganda war between Antony and Octavian regarding Cleopatra continued with Octavian saying that Antony had been corrupted by foreign influence and was no longer Roman. A few days before the Battle of Actium, Antony declared Caesarion Caesar's true heir and was defeated at the battle. He committed suicide and after Cleopatra was captured, she also committed suicide. Caesarion was killed by Octavian. After the death of Cleopatra, it marked the end of Ptolemaic Kingdom and the Hellenistic period, as Egypt became another province of Rome

The Baths of Titus

Public baths built by Titus in 81 AD Restored and extended by Trajan in 104 AD The baths were being utilized mainly as a recreational and social center by Roman citizens, both men and women, as late as the early 5th century. Idk what else is significant ??

Polybius ( "The Histories" )

Punic wars- the causes that lead to the wars Roman constitution

The Social War

Rebellion waged by ancient Rome's Italian allies (socii) who, denied the Roman franchise, fought for independence. 90-89 BC Heart of uprising was Marsi in the North and Samnites in the South (Italy) Italian allies in Central and Southern Italy helped Romans in several wars and wanted the right to vote; revolted after Drusus is assassinated for proposing enfranchisement Romans suffered in battle, so stopped war by offering Roman citizenship to all Italians who hadn't participated in revolt and all who were willing to stop fighting. Sulla defeated remaining rebels in the south- elevating his career- assigned to fight Mithridates who took opportunity of Rome being busy with Social war to attack East Italians lost interest in further struggle against Rome- resulted in unification of most of Italy under the Roman state.

River Rubicon

River that marked boundary between Gaul and Roman Republic When Caesar crosses Rubicon in 49 BC, it meant he was going to invade Italy

Scipio Aemilianus

Roman general famed for defeating Carthage in the Third Punic War and subjugating Spain. 185-129 BC His popularity allowed him to get an exemption from the cursus honorum and become consul 5 years below the age minimum to command troops in Africa and siege Carthage Carthage withstood the siege in the Third Punic War for 2 years before Rome put Scipio Aemilianus put in charge, who launched a forceful attack on its harbor in 146 BC; Romans pushed into the city and pushed the Carthaginians back into the citadel, destroying and looting houses as they went. Carthage surrendered after 7 days of bloodshed and remaining 50,000 citizens sold into slavery, ending the war in Roman victory and destroying Carthage. Was a friend of Polybius and along with his brother persuaded the authorities to allow Polybius to remain in Rome→ led to the vast writings about Rome from Polybius available to historians Seized Numantia, the capital of the Celtiberians in Spain whom Rome had been fighting for years with little success, including the senate's repudiation of a truce negotiated by commander Mancinus and his questor Tiberius Gracchus. Scipio helped Gracchus escape condemnation in Rome like Mancinus faced, allowing Gracchus to go about his famous grain reforms later in his career.

Q. Sertorius

Roman statesman and military commander who, defying the Roman Senate, became independent ruler of most of Spain for eight years. Lived 123 - 72 BC Helped Marius seize control of Rome after Sulla left to go fight Mithridates in 87 BC, and was assigned to the Spanish provinces; Sulla sent two legions after him but Sertorius was able to get control of most of spain from Sullan forces by 77 BC through alliances with locals and Roman refugees/deserters. In 77 BC Pompey was sent with an army to get back Spain from Sertorius but he was able to keep Pompey at bay till 74 BC when he lost the favor of soldiers by being too harsh in trying to maintain order; Sertorius was murdered in 72 BC by officers jealous of his authority Sertorius started his own senate of 300 men (original number not Sulla's 600), showing that maybe he was rebelling moreso against Sulla's reforms than against Rome

M. Porcius Cato the Elder

Roman statesman, orator, and the first Latin prose writer of importance. He was noted for his conservative policies, in opposition to the Scipio family. Lived 234-149 BC Born a pleb, he attracted the attention of patrician Lucius Valerius Flaccus during the Second Punic War through his oratorical skills and rigid morality, who helped him rise into politics. He hated the extravagance and luxury of the Scipios and helped alienate Scipio Africanus and burden him with legal issues after his victory at Zama. His embassy to Carthage (probably 153) convinced him that the revived prosperity of Rome's old enemy constituted a new threat. Cato constantly repeated his admonition "Carthage must be destroyed". He was influential in convincing the Roman Senate that even in its weakened state, Carthage posed a threat to Rome, which led to the Third Punic War.

Gaius Sempronius Gracchus

Roman tribune (123-122 BCE), who reenacted the agrarian reforms of his brother, Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, and who proposed other measures to lessen the power of the senatorial nobility. Lived 160-121 BC Gave equites the right to collect taxes and be standing jurors Renewed Tiberius' Land reforms and funded state-subsidized grain like Tiberius; founded new colonies in Italy and Carthage for poor farmers Introduced a law that said no military conscription for men under 17 and state has to pay for their equipment- change to traditional style fo citizen militia After one of Gaius' opponents killed in a riot, Senate issues an ultimate decree for the first time (Senatus Consultum Ultimum) allowing them to put Gaius to death without trial. He commits suicide but 3000 of his followers killed in following proscriptions Along with brother, started turbulent period of domestic politics, and highlighted Rome's inability to deal with expansion, as army dwindles due to landless citizenry

Second Macedonian War

Rome defeated Philip V of Macedonia in his effort to expand Macedonia in the Greek world, forcing him to give up all his territories outside Macedonia. 200-196 BC Fought largely in Macedonia and Thessaly, Greece The first Macedonian War allowed Phillip to maintain his conquests in illyria, so he then started harassing Greek City states of the Aegean like Rhodes and Pergamum. Rome declared war against Philip when he refused to agree to make no hostilities against these states. Philip's forces were badly defeated by the Romans and their Greek allies in a battle at Cynoscephalae in 197. The terms of peace included the loss of most of his navy, payment of a large indemnity to Rome, and the loss of his territories outside of Macedonia. Rome subsequently established a "benevolent protectorate" over Greece.

Battle of Arausio (105 BC)

Rome's worst defeat in number of losses (80,000 troops); battle won by Germanic tribes Cimbri and Teutoni that had invaded Roman Transalpine Gaul October 6, 105 BC Fought at Arausio, by the Rhone River in southern France Consul Maximus sent to reinforce proconsul Caepio, but Caepio attacks the Cimbri while Maximus is trying to negotiate peace terms, leading to the destruction of both Roman armies. Romans viewed it as arrogance/incompetence of ruling class, not a deficiency of the Roman army- popular dissatisfaction with Republican rulers grew Although the Germanic tribes didn't advance to Italy, the need to raise new troops led to the multiple consulships of Marius and his army reforms of taking in landless soldiers

Battle of Philippi (42 BC)

Second Triumvirate defeated Brutus and Cassius at Battle of Philippi in October 42 BC in Philippi, Macedonia Cassius and Brutus both committed suicide by the end, marking the end of the liberator's civil war Marked highest point of Antony's career - most famous general in Rome and the most senior member of the second triumvirate

The "Settlement of 27 BC"

Senate proposal to make Augustus' power constitutional Gave Augustus the pronvinces of Gaul, Egypt, Syria, Cicilia, Cyprus Gave Octavian title Augustus and princeps In Res Gestae Augustus claimed to have given up all his powers stating: "I transferred the republic from my power to the dominion of the Senate and the people of Rome". This effectively anulled the power of the Second Triumvirate and the senate gave Augustus back a certain amount of power for the facade of a republic

Battle of Actium (31 BC)

September 2, 31 BC Defining battle of the civil war between Antony and Octavian, where Octavian, represented by troops led by Agrippa, defeated Antony and Cleopatra's combined forces in Actium, Greece. After the battle, Antony and Cleopatra commited suicide. The battle marked the end of the Ptolemaic Kingdom and the Hellenistic period, as Egypt would go on to become another province of Rome. Octavian's victory allowed him to seize control of all of Rome and begin the era of his principiate, marking the end of the republic one and for all.

Rape of the Sabine Women

Since the nearby towns wouldn't allow marriage of their daughters with Romans, Romulus set up a Festival of Neptune Equester to attract people from the towns, including the Sabines. At his command, his male Roman followers abducted Sabine women and forced them to accept Romans as husbands. Happened at the Festival of Neptune Equester in Rome Most likely happened in 753 BC Rome was composed of mostly male convicts and slaves, so town would have died off without future generations if there were no women; The Sabines and neighboring tribes declared war on Rome but after a few battles the women intervened saying they don't want their husbands or fathers dying (shows newfound loyalty for Rome). Sabines agreed to unite with the Romans and settled on the Capitoline Hill, with Sabine king Titus Tatius jointly ruling with Romulus (First expansion on Rome).

Domus - the Atrium House

Single family homes, representing status of wealth of family Some had large doors to impress and intricate decorations, gardens Made out of pillars, plaster, tablinum Significant in showing the patron client relationship between Rome elite and Roman people, with the wealthy as patrons of the poorer and middle classes

Titus

Son and successor of Vespasian, reigned from 79 to 81 AD Prior to becoming emperor, known for victory of the Jewish War of 66-73 AD after being handed command when Vespasian left to march on Alexandra/Rome to become emperor. During his father's rule, he was the prefect of the Praetorian Guard. As emperor, he is known for the construction of the Colosseum, halting of the treason trials, and the lack of senator deaths during his reign. Suetonius writes of him as a good emperor. He died in 81 AD from natural causes and was succeeded by his brother, Domitian.

Commodus

Son and successor to Marcus Aurelius, reigned from 177 to 192 AD Relatively peaceful rule compared to his father's (which was marked with almost continuous warfare). However, during his reign, there were many conspiracies against him, leading to a dictatoral style of leadership. He often tried to emphasize himself as a demigod and presented himself as a reborn Remulus, refounder of Rome. "He tried to rename the city of Rome to Colonia Lucia Annia Commodiana and all the months of the year were renamed to correspond exactly with his (now twelve) names: Lucius, Aelius, Aurelius, Commodus, Augustus, Herculeus, Romanus, Exsuperatorius, Amazonius, Invictus, Felix, and Pius" Because of God-like personality cult, he was assassinated in 192 AD, after which the Senate named him public enemy and restored the traditional Roman calendar and name.

Hadrian

Son and successor to Trajan, reigned from 117 to 138 AD As emperor, known for his building projects, creating cities along Greece and Egypt and for building Hadrian's Wall and Hadrian's Villa and restoring the Pantheon Prohibited practice of Judaism, persecuted Jews, and called for public burning of Torah

Sextus Pompeius

Son of Pompey the Great 42 BC Became governor of Sicily after Caesar's assassination and was last focus of opposition of the second Triumvirate after Brutus and Cassius 39 BC Made the Pact of Misenum with Octavian and Antony as peace treaty; peace did not last long and Octavian dispatched Agrippa to defeat Sextus Pomepeius in 36 BC Once he was defeated, all of Caesar's enemies had been dealt with

Professionalization of the Roman Army

Standing Roman army in Rome at all times as well as legions all around empire Less conquering, more defending Length of service fixed at 16 to 20 years, military treasury and pension Augustus professionalized the army- made army loyal to the state not to individual commanders (harder for people like Caesar to rise)

Nerva

Successor to Domitian, reigned from 96 to 98 AD Declared emperor by Roman senate after Domitian's assassination (first time senate had declared an emperor). Perceived as safe choice because he was old and childless (he was 66 when he was named emperor) Put an end to the trials of treason again, but reign mostly overrun by questions of who would be successor. In 97 AD, he was held hostage by Praetorian Guard who demanded that he name Trajan his successor. Died from a stroke in 98 AD, after which Trajan became emperor

Antoninus Pius

Successor to Hadrian after being adopted by Hadrian, reigned from 138 to 161 AD Not first choice of Hadrian, but when his first choice Lucius Commodus died of suicide, Antonius chosen. Mostly carried on Hadrian's policies, insisting on fairness and considered to be a good emperor by later historians, with his reign being relatively peaceful. Died of a fever and succession went to his adopted son, Marcus Aurelius.

Trajan

Successor to Nerva, reigned from 98 to 117 AD Became Nerva's successor by force after Praetorian Guard held Nerva hostage and forced him to name Trajan as adopted son. As emperor, Trajan led greatest military expansion of Rome (including Parithia and upper Mesopotamia), undertook vast building and social welfare programs (including public funds for the poor). His letters to Pliny show the early persecution of Christians, "not to be sought out", but to be punished if discovered to be un-Roman and unwilling to denounce their Christianity

Vespasian

Successor to Vitellius and last emperor in the Year of the Four Emperors. Began the Flavian Dynasty and reigned from 69-79. In his early life, led the Jewish War, after which he was declared emperor due to the unrest in Rome. He marched to Alexandria, where he was declared the emperor of Alexandria. After this, he marched to Rome, where many legions declared their support of him and his men caught and killed Vitellius, naming Vespasian the new emperor. As emperor, placed taxes on nearly everything (even urine wtf), but was the first emperor who was succeeded by his natural son, Titus.

Tacitus:

Tacitus saw the decline of Roman political freedom as a result of the imperial government. As a senator in the late 1st century AD, Tacitus hated how immoral and servile the senate had become to the emperor and how the emperors had become removed from public opinion. This passage exemplifies this through...

The Forum of Peace

Temple of Peace built by Emperor Vespasian in 71 AD Built to celebrate victory in Jewish War and the end to civil wars of the Year of the Four Emperors Idk what else is significant

Gaius Marius

The first Roman to illustrate the political support that a successful general could derive from the votes of his old army veterans; held the consulship 7 times Lived 157- January 13, 86 BC "New man" in Rome (equestrian ancestry) but moves through ranks pretty quickly thanks to sponsorship of noble Metellus family- Metellus takes Marius to Africa as a lieutenant in the war against Jugurtha Is pretty popular in Rome after previously being tribune and wants to run for consulship but Metellus belittles him for being a new man and tells him to wait and be joint consuls with Metellus' young son- Marius gets pissed and leaves for Rome- appointed Consul 107 BC- he makes speeches in Rome saying that he earned the consulship as a new man instead of inheriting it- criticizes Metellus' command against Jugurtha and has command reassigned to him- part of populares vs optimates conflict gets jealous that Sulla considers himself the hero of the war even though Marius celebrates a triumph for Jugurtha's capture- tensions between them Marius changes military draft standards: recruited soldiers he wanted instead of based on class, took in landless poor to fight against Jugurtha in 107BC- creating an army that was loyal to him- he grants them land in Africa as veterans- new expectation for generals to help veteran soldiers, and changes the citizen militia tradition Marius has Sulla's command in Mithridatic war reassigned to himself- provokes Sulla's march on Rome and his rise to dictatorship

Pontifex Maximus

The highest chief priest in the Roman religion- open only to patricians until 254 BC A strictly religious position that was gradually politicized until usurped as one of the titles for the emperor (Augusts took the title after Lepidus' death in 13BC) The Pontifex was supposed to maintain pax deorum or "peace of the gods" - among these responsibilities were sacrifices and rituals, consecration of temples to the gods, regulation of laws regarding morals, burials, adoption, and patrician marriages. Pontifex was important because he also had to maintain the archives and keep official minutes of the elected magistrates- how well they did this affects how much we know today about Rome Pontifex also in charge of the Roman calendar and could extend the calendar year when his allies were in office, or refuse to do so when enemies were in office. Caesar as Pontifex Maximus introduced the Julian Calendar which was more accurate, but also made 46 BC 445 days long (the year of his third consulship)

Tribune of the plebs

The highest office created by the plebs after their strike in 494 BC: the tribune could summon the senate, propose legislation, convene the people's assembly, intervene in legal matters on behalf of the plebs, and veto the actions of consuls and magistrates. Created in 494 BC when Plebs seceded to the Sacred Mount (a hill outside Rome) Gave the plebs a much louder voice in politics as only a Pleb could be tribune (there were 10 tribunes at any one time); The tribunes were sacrosanct: all the plebs vowed to protect them if threatened/ignored by the senators Tribune powers were abused by politicians seeking to avoid the senate in getting what they wanted: ex- Marius gets tribune Sulpicius Rufus to transfer command in war against Mithridates from Sulla to himself, launching a civil war when Sulla marches on Rome Problem became so eminent that Sulla took away power of tribune to propose legislation, veto the senate, and to go on to hold any other magistrate in 81BC (restrictions undone by consuls Pompey and Crassus in 70 BC)

Imperium

The legal authority of a citizen to control a military or governmental entity A man with imperium had absolute authority to apply the law within the scope of his magistracy and could only be overruled by a colleague with equal power or one whose imperium outranked his. Imperium was originally a military concept, the power of the imperator (general in the army) to command. Someone with Imperium would be escorted by lictors who would bear the fasces to symbolize his power when outside the pomerium. Imperium became more significant as Rome grew into an empire, as magistrates and promagistrates would be granted provincial imperium to command legions outside Rome, allowing for territorial expansion. These individuals could not cross the pomerium without resigning their imperium, a cause of conflict when Caesar crossed the Rubicon with an army in 49BC because he feared being put on trial without imperium. Only dictators could exact capital punishments with imperium within the pomerium In extraordinary situations (Pompeys special command against the pirates Lex Gabinia) individuals were granted imperium maius, meaning they outranked all others with imperium within their sphere of command (the seas and 50 miles inland for Pompey)

Roman Imperialism and its Consequences Veii

The richest/most important of the Etruscan cities Located 16km north of Rome on the southern border of Etruria Veii wa alternatively at war and in alliance with the Roman kingdom and Republic for 300 years, falling to Rome in 396 BC in the Batlle of Veii. According to Plutarch, Veii was the first to oppose Romulus/Rome and so the first Roman victory at war Veii helped the Tarquini in trying to reinstate the Tarquin monarchs in 509BC- failed and Republic prevailed In 396 BC, Dictator Camillus defeated Veii and wasnt interested in their surrender- slaughtered the entire adult male population and made the women and children into slaves; also prevented a plebeian plan to populate Veii with half of Rome's population to alleviate overcrowding

Perseus of Macedon

The son of Philip V, and the last king of Macedonia, whose attempts to dominate Greece brought on the final defeat of Macedonia by the Romans, leading to annexation of the region Lived 213-165 BC He accused his brother Demetrius, who had been a Roman captive for some time after the Second Macedonian War, of being pro-Rome and trying to steal the succession to the throne from him, so Philip had Demetrius executed. As king, Perseus tried to spread his influence in the Greek world through diplomacy in some areas and encouraging revolutions in others. He visited Delphi with his army, causing Pergamum to incite Rome against Perseus' allegedly aggressive actions, starting the Third Macedonian War. Perseus lost the war at the Battle of Pydna and was forced to march as a captive in the triumph of Amilius Paullus. Reflected inability to reconcile Greek kingdoms with the predominance of Rome after their defeat of Carthage.

Tacitus ("The Annals")

Tiberius Nero Diocletian

Plutarch ( "Parallel Lives" )

Tiberius and Gaius Gracci Sulla Pompey Caesar Brutus (the one who killed Caesar)

Gaius (= Caligula)

Tiberius' successor, reigned from 37 to 41 AD As emperor, claimed by historians to treat the Roman senate and equestrian order cruelly, restoring the treason trials and putting people to death. As such, a conspiracy arose to assassinate him and succeeded through a conspiracy of the Praetorian guard and senators. The senate used his assassination to try and restore the Republic but was unsuccessful. Shows that the old form of government is gone for good.

princeps, principate

Title of "First citizen" Unofficial title first adopted by Augustus in 23 BC to represent his title and place in the Roman constitution and used in this context until Diocletian in earth third century Contributed to Augustus' control over Roman governance by saying he was first citizen rather than king, which would have been rejected immediately As a result, period from Augustus to Diocletian is sometimes referred to as the Principiate

tribunicia potestas (tribunician power)

Tribuinary powers granted to Caesar without actually holding office in 48 BC These privileges extended to Augustus in 23 BC and became a tradition to be granted to every emperor after him. "He formalized his tenure of annually renewable tribunicia potestas, henceforth reckoning his years of rule by it. This assumption of tribunician power, alongside enhanced imperium, definitively established the legal basis of his principate, and that of subsequent emperors for at least the next three and half centuries."

Insula (i.e. urban apartment building)

Up to 7 stories Tall buildings surrounding cities Cells of apartments shared by lots of people Rents very high in rome with huge amount of rental debt Danger of fire due to poor construction, denseity, and high height

The Second Punic War

War fought between Rome and Carthage largely as a result of tensions from the First Punic War (Hamilcar's anger over loss of Sicily and Sardinia, and Carthaginian expansion in Spain that annoyed Rome) March 218-201 BC Fought in Spain, Sicily, Italy, Sardinia, and North Africa Hannibal famously crossed the alps in the winter and won a string of victories against the Romans who assumed his army would be weak from the journey Before the war, Rome had the naval advantage after the First Punic War, but Carthage and Rome roughly matched in land armies due to spoils collected by Carthage in Spain. After the war, Rome forced Carthage to give up its entire fleet, all its elephants, and all Roman prisoners, and pay 10,000 talents over next 50 years- Carthage would never again be the power it once was and Rome was established as central power of the Mediterranean Sea. (Carthage limited to just North Africa) Again reaffirmed Rome's ability to replenish men, ships, and resources in battle- testament of citizen militia. Hannibal was forced to flee Italy to defend Carthage and Rome ended up getting Carthaginian holdings in Spain, further expanding Rome's provincial empire.

Annona (grain supply)

When grain supply was low in 22 BC due to food shortage, Augustus accepeted the role of dictator to "save rome" after supposedly refusing the power multiple times. After a theatrical display of refusal before the Senate, Augustus finally accepted authority over Rome's grain supply "by virtue of his proconsular imperium", and ended the crisis almost immediately. Augustus created prefect of the grain supply to deal with food shortages in 8-14 AD.

Livia

Wife of Augustus throughout his reign When Augustus met Livia, he fell in love with her although he was already married to Scribonia, who he divorced as soon as Scribiona gave birth to Augustus' daughter Julia. Livia was previously married to Tiberius Claudius Nero (with whom she had the future emperor Tiberius), but he was forced to divorce her so she could marry Augustus Livia and Augustus got married in 39 BC and remained married for 51 years She was given unusual control over her own finances and acted as an advisor influencing Augustus' politics, unprecedented for a woman at the time Was influential in making her son Tiberius heir to the throne, marrying him to Augustus' daughter Julia; however, after Augustus' death, Livia and Tiberius had a strained relationship and he refused to fulfil her will and her cancelled her honors and deification given by the senate

Lucretia

Wife of Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, the most virtuous woman in Rome among the wives of the elites; raped by Sextus Tarquinius and committed suicide, sparking the end of the regal period. Raped at the governor's mansion in Collatia, 15km northeast of Rome 509 BC Lucretia's rape by the king's son and subsequent suicide exemplified the tyranny of the monarchy, spurring Brutus to depose the monarchy; Brutus went to the Forum and told people to "act as men and Romans" in opposing monarchy; started a debate on changing government while King Tarquinius Superbus was away on a military campaign-> ended in the vote on a republican government and established rule by two annual consuls. Lucretia's rape brought the beginning of the Republic, and her suicide was used by Livy to portray what it means to be virtuous: even used as a standard of virtue by Julius Caesar to divorce his wife because she might have cheated.

L. Cornelius Sulla

Winner of Republic's first civil war and subsequent dictator- carried out constitutional reforms to try to strengthen the republic but they were quickly undermined Lived 138 - 79 BC Captured Jugurtha and had the event printed into a seal- making Marius jealous; Marius continued to use Sulla during the fight against the invading Cimbri tribe, but then in the Social war Sulla was much more successful, allowing him to get the consulship and command of Mithridatic War in 88 BC Marches on Rome when Marius reassigns command of Mithridatic war, then defeats Mithridates, and returns with an army- takes Rome from populist Marius party that had returned in his absence with a lot of violence and with Pompey's help Sulla is granted dictatorship but for the first time without a term limit- institutes massacres and proscriptions Creates constitutional reform to try to strengthen the Senate and weaken individual power: increased the size of senate, tribunes no longer able to propose bills without senate approval and cant hold any positions after (tribunate a political dead- end), stricter rules of cursus honorum, governors can't make war without Senate's approval Wanted to prevent the rise of popular politicians like Marius and to give power back to the senate, so he resigns so that no one else would be dictator for life afterwards; but instead paved the way for Julius Caesar to take dictatorship for life soon after.

Imperial Cult

Worshipping of emperor (or those with imperium) Augustus refused to be worshipped by Roman citizens openly(seen as too kingly), but was fine with being worshipped by non-citizens at around 20 BC For noncitizens, imperial cult an important facet of Roman religion Temples dedicated to Augustus in pronvinces, Augustus not considered deified until after his death Encouraged the worship of Caesar (cult of Caesar) and associated himself with the divine by claiming to be descended from Aeneas and calling himself Augustus