248 FINAL

Example of bringing in a new leader whose style better fit the situation

if the group situation was highly unfavorable but was led by a relationship-oriented leader, the group's performance could be improved by replacing that person with a task-oriented leader.

What is the most important motivator at work?

job redesign

evidence indicates that transformational leadership is strongly correlated with...

lower turnover rates and higher levels of productivity, work engagement, employee satisfaction, creativity, goal attainment, and follower well-being

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory is also called...

motivation-hygiene theory

the 2 factors are...

motivators and hygiene

The situational leadership theory says if followers are at R3 (able and unwilling), the leader...

needs to use the participating style to gain their support

referent

other persons, systems, or selves individuals compare themselves against in order to assess equity—is an important variable in equity theory.

Benevolents

people who prefer their own ratios to be less than others

Fiedler contingency model

proposed that effective group performance depended on properly matching the leader's style and the amount of control and influence in the situation

The Fiedler contingency model

proposed that effective group performance depended on properly matching the leader's style and the amount of control and influence in the situation

Goal Setting Theory

says that specific goals increase performance and that difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals

Safety

security and protection from harm; assurance that physical needs will continue to be met

leader

someone who can influence others and who has managerial authority

Hersey and Blanchard's 4 specific leadership styles:

telling, selling, participating, delegating

Equity Theory facts

-If an employee perceives her ratio to be equitable in comparison to those of relevant others, there's no problem. -However, if the ratio is inequitable, she views herself as underrewarded or over rewarded. -When inequities occur, employees attempt to do something about it. -The result might be lower or higher productivity, improved or reduced quality of output, increased absenteeism, or voluntary resignation.

Leader Traits/Characteristics

-Leader humility -Leader narcissism -Leader sense of humor -Leader downward envy -Motivation to Lead

Limitations of Fiedler's Contingency Theory:

-Leader style is fixed -Requires the situation to change

Four contemporary views of leadership:

-leader-member exchange (LMX) -transformational-transactional leadership -charismatic-visionary leadership -team leadership

4 Early Theories of Motivation (1950s & 1960s)

1) Represent the foundation from which contemporary theories grew 2) Still are used by practicing managers to explain employee motivation.

2 factors of motivating employees:

1) When hygiene factors are adequate, people won't be dissatisfied, but they won't be motivated, either 2) To motivate people, use the motivators.

Three phases of leadership making which develops over time:

1) stranger phase 2) acquaintance phase 3) mature partnership phase

Leader-member exchange theory

A leadership theory focusing on the quality of the relationships between leaders and subordinates -Key points -Employees characterized into in-groups and out-groups -Implications for the distribution of resources -Norm of reciprocity

Example of changing the situation to fit the leader

This could be done by restructuring tasks; by increasing or decreasing the power that the leader had over factors such as salary increases, promotions, and disciplinary actions; or by improving the leader-member relations.

The leader-participation model assumes that the leader can...

adapt his or her style to different situations

According to the theory, individuals who self-select specific, difficult goals perform...

better than those who set general, easy goals

True or False? need for achievement has been researched the most

True

persistence element of motivation

We want employees to persist in putting forth effort to achieve those goals.

The situational leadership theory says if followers are at R4 (both able and willing), the leader...

doesn't need to do much and should use the delegating style.

is it good to be charismatic???

yes!!!!

Why were traits alone were not sufficient for identifying effective leaders?

-Explanations based solely on traits ignored the interactions of leaders and their group members as well as situational factors. -Possessing the appropriate traits only made it more likely that an individual would be an effective leader. -Leadership research from the late 1940s to the mid-1960s turned to finding preferred behavioral styles that leaders demonstrated.

What do we mean by readiness?

-Focuses on followers... -ability (KSAs) to accomplish a specific task -willingness (e.g., confidence, enthusiasm & commitment) to accomplish a specific task

In-Group (high-quality LMX) you get more...

-Greater attention -Increased resource access -More autonomy to do work

Affective/Identity Motivation to Lead

- People who score high on this dimension like or prefer to lead and see themselves as leaders. -E.g., "I prefer being a leader rather than a follower when working in a group"

Relationship-oriented leadership

-Building rapport with employees -Providing mediation to deal with conflicts -Having more casual interactions -Creating a non-competitive and transparent work environment

Goal Setting Theory: Implications for Managers

-Training to enhance ability -Interventions to enhance employee self-efficacy -Interventions to promote a learning orientation

LMX view

A leader's work unit is viewed as a series of vertical dyads; leader forms unique relationship with each subordinate

Situational Leadership Theory

Adjusting one's leadership style to fit the development level of one's followers.

participative leader

Consults with group members and uses their suggestions before making a decision.

esteem

Internal: (self-respect, autonomy, and achievement) and External: (status, recognition, and attention)

The theories in the Process-Based Theories of Motivation

Equity, Expectancy, Goal-Setting

Goal commitment

Goal-setting theory assumes that an individual is committed to the goal. Commitment is most likely when goals are made public, when the individual has an internal locus of control, and when the goals are self-set rather than assigned

Would behavioral theories of leadership provide more definitive answers about the nature of leadership?

If behavioral theories could identify critical behavioral determinants of leadership, people could be trained to be leaders—the premise behind management development programs.

Motivation to Lead

Individual differences that affect one's decision to assume a leadership position and the level of effort in leading and persisting as a leader

When does work specialization become inefficient?

Knowledge workers -Demotivating, difficult to assess High levels of specialization -Robotic movements -Boredom, fatigue, stress -Lack of purpose/autonomy

R3

People are able but unwilling to do what the leader wants. Followers are competent, but don't want to do something.

R4

People are both able and willing to do what is asked of them.

R1

People are both unable and unwilling to take responsibility for doing something. Followers aren't competent or confident.

R2

People are unable but willing to do the necessary job tasks. Followers are motivated but lack the appropriate skills.

The final component in the model is the four stages of follower readiness:

R1, R2, R3, R4

Formal employment contract (defined-roles) = OUT-GROUP

Relationships marked by formal communication based on job descriptions

achievement-oriented leader

Sets challenging goals and expects followers to perform at their highest level.

supportive leader

Shows concern for the needs of followers and is friendly.

What are the ways that managers can design motivating jobs?

The job characteristics model developed by J. Richard Hackman and Greg R. Oldham

Participating (low task-high relationship)

The leader and followers share in decision making; the main role of the leader is facilitating and communicating.

Telling (high task-low relationship)

The leader defines roles and tells people what, how, when, and where to do various tasks.

Selling (high task-high relationship)

The leader provides both directive and supportive behavior.

Delegating (low task-low relationship):

The leader provides little direction or support.

situational leadership theory

a contingency theory that focuses on followers' readiness

Equity theory

developed by J. Stacey Adams, proposes that employees compare what they get from a job (outcomes) in relation to what they put into it (inputs) and then compare their inputs-outcomes ratio with the inputs-outcomes ratios of relevant others

Motivation has 3 key elements:

energy, direction, and persistence

Physiological

food, drink, shelter, sex, sleep, other physical requirements

Three other contingencies besides feedback influence the goal-performance relationship:

goal commitment, adequate self-efficacy, and national culture.

What are the 4 contemporary theories

goal setting, job design, equity, and expectancy

self-actualization

growth, achieving potential, self-fulfillment, "be all you can be"

A high need for achievement doesn't necessarily lead to being a good manager, especially in large organizations because...

high achievers focus on their own accomplishments, while good managers emphasize helping others accomplish their goals

the best managers tend to be...

high in need for power and low in need for affiliation.

the "self" category

refers to inputs-outcomes ratios that are unique to the individual. It reflects past personal experiences and contacts and is influenced by criteria such as past jobs or family commitments.

Several authors have attempted to identify personal characteristics of the charismatic leader. The most comprehensive analysis identified five such characteristics:

they have a vision, the ability to articulate that vision, willingness to take risks to achieve that vision, sensitivity to both environmental constraints and follower needs, and behaviors that are out of the ordinary

Equity sensitives

those who prefer their own ratios to be equal others

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

-(bottom to top): physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, self-actualization -Each level must be substantially satisfied before the next need becomes dominant; an individual moves up the hierarchy from one level to the next. -Lower-order needs are satisfied predominantly externally, and higher-order needs are satisfied internally

Step 1: Identify the Leader's Style

-According to the theory, a leader's style is measured by a scale called Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) scale -Individuals filling out the survey are asked to think of the one person who they least enjoyed working with. Then they rate this person in terms of how friendly, nice, and cooperative this person is. -High LPC: You hate working with someone, but still view them in relatively favorable terms (i.e., you are a relationship-oriented person) -Low LPC: You hate working with someone, and view them in relatively unfavorable terms (i.e., you are a task-oriented person)

Early leadership theories focused on:

-The person (leader trait theories) -The behaviors—how the leader interacted with his or her group members (behavioral theories)

Non-calculative Motivation to Lead

-These individuals are not focused on the costs of leading. Usually leadership involves some responsibilities or costs; therefore, people with less calculative MTL (high non-calculative) do not wish to avoid leadership positions or roles due to concerns with cost or loss. -E.g., "I am only interested in leading a group if there are clear advantages for me" -E.g., "I would agree to lead others even if there are no special rewards or benefits with that role"

path-goal theory

-the leader's job is to assist followers in attaining their goals and to provide direction or support needed to ensure that their goals are compatible with the goals of the group or organization -Developed by Robert House -takes key elements from the expectancy theory of motivation

Criticism of Fiedler's contingency theory

-the major one is that it's probably unrealistic to assume that a person can't change his or her leadership style to fit the situation. -Effective leaders can, and do, change their styles. -Another is that the LPC wasn't very practical. -Finally, the situation variables were difficult to assess.

The emphasis on the followers in leadership effectiveness reflects...

-the reality that it is the followers who accept or reject the leader. -Regardless of what the leader does, the group's effectiveness depends on the actions of the followers.

Job Design

-the way tasks are combined to form complete jobs -The jobs that people perform in an organization should not evolve by chance. - Managers should design jobs deliberately and thoughtfully to reflect the demands of the changing environment, the organization's technology, and employees' skills, abilities, and preferences -When jobs are designed like that, employees are motivated to work hard

Path-goal model

-this theory proposes that a leader's behavior won't be effective if it's redundant with what the environmental structure is providing or is incongruent with follower characteristics. -For example, some predictions from path-goal theory are: -Directive leadership leads to greater satisfaction when tasks are ambiguous or stressful than when they are highly structured and well laid out. The followers aren't sure what to do, so the leader needs to give them some direction. Supportive leadership results in high employee performance and satisfaction when subordinates are performing structured tasks. In this situation, the leader only needs to support followers, not tell them what to do. Directive leadership is likely to be perceived as redundant among subordinates with high perceived ability or with considerable experience. These followers are quite capable so they don't need a leader to tell them what to do. The clearer and more bureaucratic the formal authority relationships, the more leaders should exhibit supportive behavior and deemphasize directive behavior. The organizational situation has provided the structure as far as what is expected of followers, so the leader's role is simply to support. Directive leadership will lead to higher employee satisfaction when there is substantive conflict within a work group. In this situation, the followers need a leader who will take charge. Subordinates with an internal locus of control will be more satisfied with a participative style. Because these followers believe that they control what happens to them, they prefer to participate in decisions. Subordinates with an external locus of control will be more satisfied with a directive style. These followers believe that what happens to them is a result of the external environment so they would prefer a leader who tells them what to do. Achievement-oriented leadership will increase subordinates' expectancies that effort will lead to high performance when tasks are ambiguously structured. By setting challenging goals, followers know what the expectations are.

The expectancy theory includes three variables or relationships

1) Expectancy or effort-performance linkage 2) Instrumentality or performance-reward linkage 3) Valence or attractiveness of reward

People with a high need for achievement prefer...

1) jobs that offer personal responsibility for finding solutions to problems 2) receiving rapid and unambiguous feedback on their performance in order to tell whether they're improving 3) moderately challenging goals

path-goal theory proposes two situational or contingency variables that moderate the leadership behavior-outcome relationship:

1) those in the environment that are outside the control of the follower (factors including task structure, formal authority system, and the work group) 2) those that are part of the personal characteristics of the follower (including locus of control, experience, and perceived ability).

Because Fiedler treated an individual's leadership style as fixed, there were only two ways to improve leader effectiveness:

1) you could bring in a new leader whose style better fit the situation 2) change the situation to fit the leader

Vison facts

An organization's vision should offer clear and compelling imagery that taps into people's emotions and inspires enthusiasm to pursue the organization's goals. -It should be able to generate possibilities that are inspirational and unique and offer new ways of doing things that are clearly better for the organization and its members. -Visions that are clearly articulated and have powerful imagery are easily grasped and accepted. Example: Michael Dell created a vision of a business that sells and delivers customized PCs directly to customers in less than a week. The late Mary Kay Ash's vision of women as entrepreneurs selling products that improved their self-image gave impetus to her cosmetics company, Mary Kay Cosmetics.

Instrumentality or performance-reward linkage

the degree to which the individual believes that performing at a particular level is instrumental in attaining the desired outcome.

need for affiliation

the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships

need for achievement

the drive to succeed and excel in relation to a set of standards -People with a high need for achivement are striving for personal achievement rather than for the trappings and rewards of success. -They have a desire to do something better or more efficiently than it's been done before.

readiness

the extent to which people have the ability and willingness to accomplish a specific task.

The more these three conditions (skill variety, task identity, and task significance) characterize a job...

the greater the employee's motivation, performance, and satisfaction and the lower his or her absenteeism and the likelihood of resigning.

procedural justice

the perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards, and tends to affect an employee's organizational commitment, trust in his or her boss, and intention to quit.

national culture

the value of goal-setting theory depends on the national culture. It's well adapted to North American countries because its main ideas align reasonably well with those cultures. It assumes that subordinates will be reasonably independent (not a high score on power distance), that people will seek challenging goals (low in uncertainty avoidance), and that performance is considered important by both managers and subordinates (high in assertiveness). Don't expect goal setting to lead to higher employee performance in countries where the cultural characteristics aren't like this.

Entitleds

those who prefer their own ratios to exceed those of others

True or false? In contrast to Fiedler's view that a leader couldn't change his or her behavior, House assumed that leaders are flexible and can display any or all of these leadership styles depending on the situation.

true

true or false: Only 53 percent of leaders are willing to step outside their leadership comfort zone and try new techniques

true

true or false? Ninety-two percent of executives see favoritism in who gets job promotions

true

The situational leadership theory says if followers are at R2 (unable and willing), the leader needs to...

use the selling style and display high task orientation to compensate for the followers' lack of ability and high relationship orientation to get followers to "buy into" the leader's desires

The situational leadership theory says if followers are at R1 (unable and unwilling to do a task), the leader needs to...

use the telling style and give clear and specific directions.

job enrichment

vertical expansion of a job by adding planning and evaluation responsibilities

Leadership

what leaders do; that is, it's a process of leading a group and influencing that group to achieve its goals

energy element of motivation

-a measure of intensity or drive -a motivated person puts forth effort and works hard -High levels of effort don't necessarily lead to favorable job performance unless the effort is channeled in a direction that benefits the organization.

Are all managers leaders?

Because leading is one of the four management functions, ideally all managers should be leaders

direction element of of motivation

Effort that's directed toward, and consistent with, organizational goals is the kind of effort we want from employees

Feedback

The degree to which carrying out the work activities required by the job results in the individual's obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance

Task significance

The degree to which the job affects the lives or work of other people

Autonomy

The degree to which the job provides freedom, independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out

Skill variety.

The degree to which the job requires a variety of activities so the worker can use a number of different skills and talents

Abraham Maslow

a psychologist who proposed that within every person is a hierarchy of five needs

Valence or attractiveness of reward

the importance that the individual places on the potential outcome or reward that can be achieved on the job. Valence considers both the goals and needs of the individual.

need for power

the need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise

Expectancy or effort-performance linkage

the probability perceived by the individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to a certain level of performance.

Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard developed...

the situational leadership theory

McClelland's Three-Needs Theory

three acquired (not innate) needs are major motives in work

TRUE OR FALSE? the expectancy theory is concerned with perceptions not reality

true

true or false? Fiedler assumed a person's leadership style was fixed regardless of the situation. In other words, if you were a relationship-oriented leader, you'd always be one, and the same for task-oriented.

true

Step 2: Evaluate the Situation

-According to the theory, different people can be effective in different situations -Main point: The theory predicts that in "favorable" and "unfavorable" situations, a low LPC leader would be successful, whereas when situational favorableness is medium, a high LPC leader is more likely to succeed. -Leader-Member Relations - This is the level of trust and confidence that your team has in you. A leader who is more trusted and has more influence with the group is in a more favorable situation than a leader who is not trusted. -Task Structure - This refers to the type of task you're doing: clear and structured, or vague and unstructured. Unstructured tasks, or tasks where the team and leader have little knowledge of how to achieve them, are viewed unfavorably. -Leader's Position Power - This is the amount of power you have to direct the group, and provide reward or punishment. The more power you have, the more favorable your situation. Fiedler identifies power as being either strong or weak.

Task-oriented leadership

-Delegate work roles to employees -Set goals for team members -Structure teams to maximize performance

Traits Associated with Leadership

-Drive -the desire to lead -honesty and integrity -self-confidence -intelligence -job-relevant knowledge -extraversion -proneness to guilt.

Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction Chart

-Herzberg concluded that the traditional view—the opposite of satisfaction is dissatisfaction—was wrong. -He believed that the factors that led to job satisfaction were separate and distinct from those that led to job dissatisfaction. -Removing dissatisfying characteristics from a job didn't necessarily make that job more satisfying (or motivating); it simply made you "less" dissatisfied. Proposed a dual continuum: The opposite of "satisfaction" is "no satisfaction," and the opposite of "dissatisfaction" is "no dissatisfaction."

How Does Expectancy Theory Explain Motivation?

-How hard do I have to work to achieve a certain level of performance? -Can I actually do that? -What reward will I get for reaching it? -How much do I want that reward?

How does expectancy theory explain motivation?

-How hard do I have to work to achieve a certain level of performance? -Can I actually do that? -Will I be rewarded for reaching it? -How much do I want that reward?

Three step processes of Fiedler's Contingency Theory

-Identify the leader's style -Evaluate the situation -Identify the appropriate combinations of style and situation

What is leadership like today?

-Illuminated particularly important contextual factors such as leader-member relationship quality -Provided a common theme centered around understanding the importance for leaders to interact with, inspire, and support followers -Encouraged the simultaneous consideration of leader traits, behaviors, and contextual factors

Social-Normative Motivation to Lead

-Individuals who score high on social-normative MTL are motivated by the sense of social duty and obligation. -E.g., "I was taught to believe in the value of leading others"

Fiedler's research uncovered three contingency dimensions that defined the key situational factors in leader effectiveness. These were:

-Leader-member relations -Task structure -position power

Researchers found that high-quality leader-member exchanges resulted in:

-Less employee turnover -More positive performance evaluations -Higher frequency of promotions -Greater organizational commitment -More desirable work assignments -Better job attitudes -More attention and support from the leader -Greater participation -Faster career progress

How is Maslow's hierarchy used to motivate employees?

-Managers will do things to satisfy employees' needs -Widely popular among practicing managers probably because it's easy to understand and intuitive -other studies could not validate this theory

Contingency Variables in the Revised Leader-Participation Model

-More recent work by Vroom and Arthur Jago has revised that model. -The new model retains the same five alternative leadership styles but expands the contingency variables to 12—from the leader's making the decision completely by himself or herself to sharing the problem with the group and developing a consensus decision. -These variables are listed in this model

Who is the referent?

-Other people -The system itself -Oneself

Expanded/negotiated role responsibilities (extra-roles) = IN-GROUP

-Relationships marked by mutual trust, respect, liking, and reciprocal influence -Receive more information, influence, confidence, and concern than out-group members

Integrating Contemporary Theories of Motivation Model

-The individual effort box has an arrow leading into it. This arrow flows from the individual's goals. Consistent with goal-setting theory, this goals-effort link is meant to illustrate that goals direct behavior. -Expectancy theory predicts that an employee will exert a high level of effort if he or she perceives a strong relationship between effort and performance, performance and rewards, and rewards and satisfaction of personal goals. Each of these relationships is, in turn, influenced by certain factors. You can see from the model that the level of individual performance is determined not only by the level of individual effort but also by the individual's ability to perform and by whether the organization has a fair and objective performance evaluation system. The performance-reward relationship will be strong if the individual perceives that it is performance (rather than seniority, personal favorites, or some other criterion) that is rewarded. The final link in expectancy theory is the rewards-goal relationship. -The traditional need theories come into play at this point. Motivation would be high to the degree that the rewards an individual received for his or her high performance satisfied the dominant needs consistent with his or her individual goals. -Achievement-need is seen, in that the high achiever isn't motivated by the organization's assessment of his or her performance or organizational rewards, hence the jump from effort to individual goals for those with a high nAch. Remember that high achievers are internally driven as long as the jobs they're doing provide them with personal responsibility, feedback, and moderate risks. They're not concerned with the effort-performance, performance-reward, or rewards-goals linkages. -Reinforcement theory is seen in the model by recognizing that the organization's rewards reinforce the individual's performance. If managers have designed a reward system that is seen by employees as "paying off" for good performance, the rewards will reinforce and encourage continued good performance. -Rewards also play a key part in equity theory. Individuals will compare the rewards (outcomes) they have received from the inputs or efforts they made with the inputs-outcomes ratio of relevant others. If inequities exist, the effort expended may be influenced. -Finally, the JCM is seen in this integrative model. Task characteristics (job design) influence job motivation at two places. First, jobs that are designed around the five job dimensions are likely to lead to higher actual job performance because the individual's motivation will be stimulated by the job itself—that is, they will increase the linkage between effort and performance. Second, jobs that are designed around the five job dimensions also increase an employee's control over key elements in his or her work. Therefore, jobs that offer autonomy, feedback, and similar task characteristics help to satisfy the individual goals of employees who desire greater control over their work.

relationships among goals, motivation, and performance.

-The intention to work toward hard and specific goals is a powerful motivating force. Under the proper conditions, it can lead to higher performance -no evidence that such goals are associated with increased job satisfaction

The key to expectancy theory is...

-Understanding an individual's goal and the linkage between effort and performance, between performance and rewards, and finally, between rewards and individual goal satisfaction. It emphasizes payoffs, or rewards. -As a result, we have to believe that the rewards an organization offers align with what the individual wants. -Expectancy theory recognizes that no universal principle explains what motivates individuals and thus stresses that managers understand why employees view certain outcomes as attractive or unattractive. -After all, we want to reward individuals with those things they value positively. -Also, expectancy theory emphasizes expected behaviors.

leader-participation model

-Victor Vroom and Phillip Yetton developed it -related leadership behavior and participation to decision making -Recognizing that task structures have varying demands for routine and nonroutine activities, these researchers argued that leader behavior must adjust to reflect the task structure. -Vroom and Yetton's model was normative

Replied that showed there are 2 factors about Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

-When people felt good about their work, they tended to cite intrinsic factors arising from the job content (job itself), such as achievement, recognition, and responsibility. -When they were dissatisfied, they tended to cite extrinsic factors arising from the job context, such as company policy and administration, supervision, interpersonal relationships, and working conditions

The Pygmalion Effect

-a sculptor who created a statue of a woman so beautiful and realistic that he fell in love with it. -Management scholars have applied the idea to a concept called the Pygmalion effect where individuals can shape a person's attitudes and behavior to expectations, much like Pygmalion shaped the statue to become his idea of a perfect woman

least-preferred coworker (LPC) questionnaire

-contained 18 pairs of contrasting adjectives—for example, pleasant-unpleasant, cold-warm, boring-interesting, or friendly-unfriendly. -Respondents were asked to think of all the coworkers they had ever had and to describe that one person they least enjoyed working with by rating him or her on a scale of 1 to 8 for each of the sets of adjectives (the 8 always described the positive adjective out of the pair and the 1 always described the negative adjective out of the pair). -if you score a high LPC 64 and above that means the person is relationship oriented -if you score a low/unfavorable LPC 57 or below that means the person is task oriented

The Fiedler Contingency Model was based on the premise that a certain leadership style would be most effective in different types of situations. The keys were:

-define those leadership styles and the different types of situations -identify the appropriate combinations of style and situation

The term path-goal is...

-derived from the belief that effective leaders clarify the path to help their followers get from where they are to the achievement of their work goals and make the journey along the path easier by reducing roadblocks and pitfalls

House identified four leadership behaviors:

-directive leader -supportive leader -participative leader -achievement-oriented leader

Expectancy Theory

-explanation of how employees are motivated -Victor Vroom's theory -an individual tends to act in a certain way based on the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.

the "persons" category

-includes other individuals with similar jobs in the same organization but also includes friends, neighbors, or professional associates. -Based on what they hear at work or read about in newspapers or trade journals, employees compare their pay with that of others.

transactional leaders

-leaders who lead primarily by using social exchanges (or transactions). -Transactional leaders guide or motivate followers to work toward established goals by exchanging rewards for their productivity

procedural justice

-more recent research looks at this -the perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards

The three needs in the three-needs theory are...

-need for achievement -need for power -need for affiliation

distributive justice

-original way -the perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals

Job Design

-refers to the way tasks are combined to form complete jobs. -Managers should design jobs deliberately and thoughtfully to reflect the demands of the changing environment, the organization's technology, and employees' skills, abilities, and preferences.

Leader-member exchange (LMX) theory

-says that leaders create in-groups and out-groups and those in the in-group will have higher performance ratings, less turnover, and greater job satisfaction. -Leaders also encourage LMX by rewarding those employees with whom they want a closer linkage and punishing those with whom they do not. -For the LMX relationship to remain intact, however, both the leader and the follower must "invest" in the relationship.

According to Hackman and Oldham, any job can be described in terms of the following five core job dimensions:

-skill variety -task identity -task significance -autonomy -feedback

Job Characteristics Model

-skill variety, task identity, and task significance—combine to create meaningful work. -What we mean is that if these three characteristics exist in a job, we can predict that the person will view his or her job as being important, valuable, and worthwhile. Notice, too, that jobs that possess autonomy give the job incumbent a feeling of personal responsibility for the results and that, if a job provides feedback, the employee will know how effectively he or she is performing

transformational leader

-stimulates and inspires (transforms) followers to achieve extraordinary outcomes -They do this by paying attention to the concerns and developmental needs of individual followers; changing followers' awareness of issues by helping those followers look at old problems in new ways; and being able to excite, arouse, and inspire followers to exert extra effort to achieve group goals

The 3 referent categories

-the "persons" category -the "system" category -the "self" category

McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y

Based on two assumptions about human nature: 1) Theory X: a negative view of people that assumes workers have little ambition, dislike work, want to avoid responsibility, and need to be closely controlled to work effectively. 2) Theory Y: a positive view that assumes employees enjoy work, seek out and accept responsibility, and exercise self-direction. ******To maximize employee motivation, use Theory Y practices—allow employees to participate in decisions, create responsible and challenging jobs, and encourage good group relations.******* -No evidence to confirm either set of assumptions or that being a Theory Y manager is the only way to motivate employees.

implications for managers in expectancy theory

Expectancy -Train/hire quality employees -Reduce office politics -Set expectations (e.g., justify with evidence such as past employee performance) Instrumentality -Tie pay to performance (e.g., appropriate reward systems) -Measure and explain desired job performance adequately Valence -Identify what employees value -Individualize rewards?

Leader-member relations

the degree of confidence, trust, and respect employees had for their leader; rated as either good or poor.

Position power

the degree of influence a leader had over activities such as hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, and salary increases; rated as either strong or weak.

Task structure

the degree to which job assignments were formalized and structured; rated as either high or low.

Process-Based Theories of Motivation

Individuals analyze their environment, develop reactions and feelings, and react in certain ways

visionary leadership

It's the ability to create and articulate a realistic, credible, and attractive vision of the future that improves on the present situation -This vision, if properly selected and implemented, is so energizing that it "in effect jump-starts the future by calling forth the skills, talents, and resources to make it happen

Original view

Leader's treat follower's in a collective way.

Out-Group (low-quality LMX) you get...

Lesser likelihood of being exposed to benefits that go beyond the formal employment contact

directive leader

Lets subordinates know what's expected of them, schedules work to be done, and gives specific guidance on how to accomplish tasks.

task identity

The degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work

adequate self-efficacy

The higher your self-efficacy, the more confidence you have in your ability to succeed in a task. So, in difficult situations, we find that people with low self-efficacy are likely to reduce their effort or give up altogether, whereas those with high self-efficacy will try harder to master the challenge.24 In addition, individuals with high self-efficacy seem to respond to negative feedback with increased effort and motivation, whereas those with low self-efficacy are likely to reduce their effort when given negative feedback.

motivation

The process by which a person's efforts are energized, directed, and sustained toward attaining a goal

What are the implications for managers?

They should consider openly sharing information on how allocation decisions are made, follow consistent and unbiased procedures, and engage in similar practices to increase the perception of procedural justice. By increasing the perception of procedural justice, employees are likely to view their bosses and the organization as positive even if they're dissatisfied with pay, promotions, and other personal outcomes.

procedural and distributive justice findings

This research shows that distributive justice has a greater influence on employee satisfaction than procedural justice, while procedural justice tends to affect an employee's organizational commitment, trust in his or her boss, and intention to quit

What does goal-setting theory tell us?

a) Working toward a goal is a major source of job motivation. Studies on goal setting have demonstrated that specific and challenging goals are superior motivating forces.19 Such goals produce a higher output than does the generalized goal of "do your best." The specificity of the goal itself acts as an internal stimulus. For instance, when a sales rep commits to making eight sales calls daily, this intention gives him a specific goal to try to attain. b) Will employees try harder if they have the opportunity to participate in the setting of goals? Not always. In some cases, participatively set goals elicit superior performance; in other cases, individuals performed best when their manager assigned goals. However, participation is probably preferable to assigning goals when employees might resist accepting difficult challenges. c)We know that people will do better if they get feedback on how well they're progressing toward their goals because feedback helps identify discrepancies between what they've done and what they want to do. But all feedback isn't equally effective. Self-generated feedback—where an employee monitors his or her own progress—has been shown to be a more powerful motivator than feedback coming from someone else

social

affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship

charismatic leader

an enthusiastic, self-confident leader whose personality and actions influence people to behave in certain ways

self-efficacy

an individual's belief that he or she is capable of performing a task

A prescriptive approach to leadership

emphasizes that a leader should develop high-quality exchanges with all of her or his subordinates, rather than just a few

the "system" category

includes organizational pay policies, procedures, and allocation.includes organizational pay policies, procedures, and allocation.

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction, while extrinsic factors are associated with job dissatisfaction -Popular theory from the 1960s to the early 1980s. -Criticized for being too simplistic. -Influenced today's approach to job design

Situation leadership theory 2 leadership dimensions:

task and relationship behaviors