3.9.R - Exam: Quarter One
Five Main Properties of Water 1-3 Our bodies are made up of 60-80% water. Water is essential for life. There are 5 properties that make up water.
1 High Heat Capacity - Water absorbs high amounts of heat before it changes temperature. This is important as it relates to our body's ability to maintain body temperature. 2 High Heat of Vaporization - Water can absorb high amounts of energy before changing phases. Example, changing water from liquid to gas. This is helpful in our bodies when we sweat (99% water) it helps to cool us down to maintain our body temperature. 3 Polarity - Water is a polar molecule. It is composed of a slightly positive charge of hydrogen and a slightly negative charge of oxygen. It allows polar molecules to dissolve easily in water, but it can only dissolve substances that are polar. This is important because for most chemical reactions to occur, they need to dissolve in water. rest is below
A "true nucleus" means that the cell's nucleus is enclosed by a membrane. Organelles, meaning "little organs," have specialized roles—similar to how the organs in our body have specialized roles. (The heart's specialized role is to deliver blood, gas, and other vital nutrients throughout the body.) Each organelle has a specific function in the cell.
1. The nucleus holds the DNA and is responsible for directing the synthesis of proteins and ribosomes. 2. A "true nucleus" is a membrane-bound organelle that holds the cell's DNA (the cell's genetic make-up). 3. The nucleus is enclosed by the double-membrane nuclear envelope, which is made up of phospholipid bilayers (which we will go into more detail about in the lesson "Components of Cells" under "Plasma Membrane"). A phospholipid bilayer is a double-layered membrane made up of phospholipids (fats). 4. The nuclear envelope is perforated with nuclear pores that allow for the passage of materials such as ions, molecules, and RNA. 5. Inside the nucleus, a semi-solid fluid substance is called the nucleoplasm. This is where a form of unraveled DNA, chromatin, can be found. 6. The nucleolus is also located in the nucleoplasm. The nucleolus makes ribosomes. Ribosomes are responsible for protein synthesis.
ATP is important because it provides energy for many chemical reactions and cell processes in the body. It is used in all living things. We will learn more about how ATP is used in the body throughout this course. Adenosine Triphosphate, ATP, is a molecule that delivers energy to cells for optimal function. ATP is considered a packet of "energy."
Carbohydrates--- We consume carbohydrates through foods such as bread, pasta, or potatoes. Our bodies break down the carbohydrates we eat into simpler forms that it can recognize. All carbohydrates are composed of simple sugars such as glucose or fructose. Carbohydrates are one of the four major macromolecules. They are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. There are 2 main types of carbohydrates: simple and complex sugars. Simple sugars are composed of monosaccharides and disaccharides. Complex sugars are also known as polysaccharides. Sugar is converted to energy to be used throughout the body. The carbohydrates you eat can impact certain conditions such as diabetes. They can affect the amount of blood sugar in your body. We will discuss diabetes further in the endocrine system.
Match the term with the definition.
Cardiac Physiology---Study of cardiovascular system functions Neurophysiology---Study of nervous system functions Renal Physiology----Study of kidney functions
Which of the following is not a function of lipids?
Cell structure support
Which type of carbohydrate is not digestible by humans?
Cellulose
Regional Terms vs. Directional Terms
Cephallic--- Regional term Superficial--- Directional term Pelvic--- Regional term Posterior--- Directional term Proximal--- Directional term Lumbar--- Regional term Inferior--- Directional Ventral--- Directional Lateral-- Directional Medial--- Directional Axillary--- Regional Axial--- Regional Gluteal--- Regional Digital--- Regional Deep--- Directional Abdominal-- Regional Appendicular--- Regional Distal--- directional
Chemistry is important when studying anatomy and physiology because it provides a foundational understanding of the role chemicals play in helping the body function properly. The cells in your body are made up of chemicals and chemical reactions. Cells function helps to understand the organs, systems, and how they all work together.
Chemistry helps you understand how energy is made into the body and how the food we eat is broken down into vitamins and minerals which are needed by each system in our body. Atoms are the smallest unit of matter. Multiple atoms are combined to form molecules. Multiple molecules are combined together to forms cells. Atoms and molecules are connected by bonds.
Match the definition to the correct body system.
Consists of bones, ligaments, and joints- Skeletal System Consists of skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle----Muscular System Consists of the heart, arteries, veins, and other blood vessels---Cardiovascular System Works closely with the cardiovascular system to assist veins in recovering body tissue fluids and returning them back to the heart---- Immune/Lymphatic System
Which is a component of anatomical study?
Cutting a cross section through the stomach to observe folds
The human body is made up of ___ (number) important organ systems.
11
Five Main Properties of Water 4-5
4. Role in Chemical Reactions - Water is used in many chemical reactions in the body. There are many chemical reactions that are essential that need to be dissolved in water, for example, dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis where water is added or removed. 5 Protection - Water allows for the protection of tissues and organs in the body by providing cushion. For example, cerebrospinal fluid surrounds the spinal cord which provides protection, support, and cushion.
What is the normal pH of the body?
7.4
Match the body cavity term to the the letter labeled in the diagram below.
A- Cranial Cavity B- Vertebral Cavity C- Thoracic Cavity D- Superior Mediastinum
Match the body cavity term to the the letter labeled in the diagram below.
A- Dorsal Body Cavity B- Cranial Cavity C- Thoracic Cavity D- Vertebral Cavity
Match the terms to the letter.
A----Right Hypochondriac Region B---- Epigastric Region C----- Left Hypochondriac Region D---- Right Lumbar Region
These are all considered directional terms EXCEPT:
Abdominal
In the abdomen, abdominopelvic regions and quadrants are helpful to describe regional anatomy. Depending on the region of pain, health professionals can better determine the organs and tissues involved.
Abdominopelvic Quadrants Abdominopelvic quadrants are used when a quick description is necessary. For example, the right upper quadrant includes portions of the liver, gallbladder, kidney, stomach, small intestines, pancreas, colon, and small intestines, whereas the left lower quadrant would include the majority of the small intestine, a portion of the small intestines, and a ureter. If you experience pain in the left lower quadrant, a health professional may consider appendicitis.
Vinegar has a pH of 3. Describe the 3 on the pH scale.
Acid
Match the terms to the letter.
Acromial---- E Thoracic----- F Brachial---- G Antecubital---- H
What is ATP composed of?
Adenine, ribose sugar, and 3 phosphate groups
____ is the study of the structure and shape of the body and body parts and their relationships to one another.
Anatomy
Which of the following is not a major source of protein?
Apples
These are all considered directional terms EXCEPT:
Axial
The human body is made of 11 important organ systems including the skeletal, muscular, cardiovascular, nervous, endocrine, integumentary, respiratory, digestive, urinary, immune/lymphatic, and reproductive systems. Each body system is a collection of organs and structures sharing a common function. Organs and structures of a single system are not necessarily grouped together; they can be found throughout the body.
Body System - a group of organs and/or tissues that work together to perform vital functions. The skeletal system consists of bones, ligaments, and joints. The human skeleton consists of 206 bones. The skeletal system has the vital functions of creating a support framework, permitting movement, protecting vital organs, producing blood cells, calcium storage, and endocrine regulation. The muscular system includes skeletal muscle that moves the skeleton, face, and other structures. It includes the cardiac muscle of the heart and the smooth muscle of the viscera, vessels, and skin. The muscular system enables movement, posture, and balance.
What prevents large pH changes in the body?
Buffers
Another way to study anatomy is to observe structures in different body planes. Body planes divide the body into sections. The sagittal plane, the coronal plane (frontal plane), and the transverse plane are standard planes used in anatomical terminology. There are three planes used in anatomy: the sagittal plane, the coronal plane, and the transverse plane.
While these are the major reference planes of the body, other planes are commonly used in relation to these three. A longitudinal plane is any plane perpendicular to the transverse plane, while parasagittal planes are parallel to the sagittal plane. The coronal plane, the sagittal plane, and the parasagittal planes are examples of longitudinal planes. Medical imaging techniques such as sonography, CT scans, MRI scans, or PET scans are some of the primary applications of body planes. The planes can then be used to identify and locate the positions of the patient's internal organs. Even individual organs can be divided by planes to observe smaller structures within the organ. Divides body into left and right portions-- Sagittal plane Divides the body into upper and lower portions-- Transverse plane Divides the body into front and back portions-- coronal/frontal plane
These are all considered directional terms EXCEPT:
appendicular
Which of the following is in the correct order of hierarchy of structural organization?
atom, molecule, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism
These are all considered directional terms EXCEPT:
axial
These are all considered directional terms EXCEPT:
cervical
Glucose and fructose are combined to create sucrose. Water is lost during this chemical reaction. What is the name of the reaction taking place?
Dehydration synthesis
What type of body plane is this?
cornonal/frontal plane
This body plane divides the body into front and back portions.
coronal/frontal plane
All of these indicate anatomical position EXCEPT:
crossing arms
Hydrogen Bonds--- When a positively charge molecule combines with a negatively charged molecule, a hydrogen bond is formed. Hydrogen bonds helps to determine the shape of molecules. The hydrogen bond helps to hold molecules together. They share electrons through a hydrogen bond. A hydrogen bond is an intermolecular bond.
Different Types of Bonds--- Atoms and molecules can interact and connect with each other through bonds. The two major types of bonds are intermolecular and intramolecular bonds. Intermolecular bonds are between two or more molecules, and intramolecular bonds are between atoms in a molecule. There are three different types of intramolecular bonds: Non-polar, polar, and ionic. Polar is a bond between different atoms and unequal shared electrons. Polar molecules are also charged. Non-polar is a bond between the same atoms and shared electrons equally. Ionic is a shared bond when one atom is stronger than the other. An example of an intermolecular is the hydrogen bond.
What directional term is located at D?
Distal
Match the body cavity term to the the letter labeled in the diagram below.
E---Abdominal Cavity F----Diaphragm G---Pelvic Cavity
What does ATP deliver to cells in the body?
Energy
Which of the following is not a type of fat?
glycogen
What is the directional term used for A and B?
lateral
These are all considered directional terms EXCEPT:
lumbar
One of the many roles of proteins is acting as an enzyme. Enzymes help to speed up biochemical reactions and so are often referred to as catalysts.
Enzymes are very specific to the substrate (or material) on which they act. The active site of an enzyme and the substrate it acts on bind together to carry out the necessary chemical reaction. This creates a model that is called a "lock and key" model. The enzyme and substrate fit together just like a key would fit into the lock it opens. If the key doesn't fit the lock, the model will not work. If the enzyme's shape has changed due to denaturation, the lock and key will no longer fit together, the enzyme is rendered ineffective and the proper reaction does not occur. Digestive enzymes are very important to help break down protein, carbohydrates, or fats from the food we eat. However, there are very specific enzymes to break down each of the different molecules. For example, digestive enzymes used to break down protein are only specific to protein and won't break down fat.
Which cell do you think would have a high concentration of ATP? Your muscle cells! ATP in the muscle cells allows your body to keep moving. If you work your muscles long enough, they will use up the oxygen, especially during intense exercise. You may have noticed a burning in your muscles; this is the production of lactic acid. Without oxygen, cells cannot make a lot of ATP; instead, they make a small amount of ATP along with the production of lactic acid.
Extracellular Matrix Extracellular fluid (ECF) is defined as the area outside of the individual cell; in the human body, this is the fluid that surrounds the cells. Cellular secretions involve the movement of material from one cell to another. Extracellular matrix (ECM) is the external structure of cells; an example would be the extracellar matrix of skin cells.
Match the term with the definition.
Gross Anatomy----Study of large, easily observable structures Microscopic Anatomy---Study of very small structures using various magnifying instruments Histology----Study of tissues
Living organisms have many levels of organization. The simplest level is the chemical level in which atoms form molecules that form organelles. The highest level of organization is the organism. The organismal level represents the sum total of all structural levels working together to maintain life. This hierarchy of structural organization provides a better understanding of the components of the body and how they work together for a particular function.
Homeostasis is the body's ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though the internal and external conditions are constantly changing. It is often described as a dynamic state of equilibrium in which conditions may vary but always within relatively narrow limits. Most disease processes are a result of a homeostatic imbalance.
There are four types of macromolecules: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. The macromolecules can be combined and broken down into simpler molecules through chemical reactions. Dehydration Synthesis Reaction---- Dehydration in general means lack of water. In the chemistry context, it is useful to create chemical reactions. Dehydration Synthesis combines two molecules by removing water (H2O) and creating a larger molecule to be used in the body.
Hydrolysis is the opposite of dehydration. This type of reaction breaks down two large molecules into small molecules by adding water and releasing energy.
The cardiovascular system includes the heart, arteries, veins, and other blood vessels. The cardiovascular system has three main functions: transportation, protection, and regulation. Pumped blood transports oxygen, nutrients, and hormones to cells throughout the body and removes waste. White blood cells, antibodies, and other cells circulate throughout the body via blood in order to protect from disease and infection. Blood circulation regulates the body's temperature, pH, and water content.
Immune/Lymphatic System--- This system works closely with the cardiovascular system. Lymphatic vessels assist veins in recovering body tissue fluids and returning them back to the heart. Lymph nodes work with the immune system to filter lymph (the fluid within lymph nodes) and remove infection. The immune/lymphatic system functions to resist invasive microorganisms and remove damaged or abnormal cells. The nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord, sensory organs, and all of the nerves connecting these organs with the rest of the body. The organs of the nervous system are responsible for the control of the body and communication among its parts. The endocrine system is made of glands that secrete hormones into tissue fluid and blood. The hormones secreted affect the function of multiple areas of the body.
Membrane-bound Organelles Organelles that have a membrane are called membrane-bound organelles. Membrane-bound organelles include mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, vesicles, and vacuoles.
Intracellular Structures Intracellular structures are in reference to organelles on the inside of the cell. It includes structures such as the plasma membrane, cytoplasm, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi body, vesicles, lysosomes, and mitochondria. Plasma Membrane The plasma membrane is the outermost layer of the cell, which consists of a phospholipid bilayer that controls what comes in and out of the cell. Cytoplasm The cell's plasma membrane also helps contain the cell's cytoplasm, which provides a gel-like environment for the cell's organelles. The cytoplasm is described as intracellular fluid (ICF). Here in the cytoplasm, most of the cellular processes are being carried out, such as metabolism, protein synthesis, and internal transportation.
intermolecular bonds vs intramolecular bonds
Ionic bond- intramolecular bond bond between molecules- intramolecular bond polar bond- intramolecular bond hydrogen bond- intermolecular bond non-polar- intramolecular bond bond between atoms- intermolecular bonds
A body is in homeostasis when its needs are being adequately met, and it is functioning smoothly. Some key points about homeostasis include:
It is a state of balance required to maintain life at that moment. Ex. The conditions necessary to maintain life while running ("running" homeostasis) are very different than the conditions necessary to maintain life while sleeping ("sleeping" homeostasis). It is constantly adjusting through the use of feedback mechanisms to maintain the necessary ranges for life at that moment. It is affected by age, health, nutrition, pathological condition, etc. In other words, by everything that we do and everything that we are.
Anterior View of Body Cavities--- The only dorsal cavity that can be seen is the cranial cavity. Within the cranial cavity, you will find the organ called the brain. The ventral body cavities include the thoracic cavity. Within the thoracic cavity are the superior mediastinum, pleural cavity, and pericardial cavity. Within the pleural cavity, you will find the lungs. Within the pericardial cavity, you will find the heart.
Lateral View of Body Cavities---- You can see the vertebral cavity, which was not seen in the anterior view.
Appendicitis is associated with pain in this abdominpelvic quadrant.
Left lower quadrant
Mitochondria are nicknamed the "powerhouse" of the cell because they make adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is the short-term energy of the cell. Cellular respiration makes ATP from glucose and oxygen with carbon dioxide as a waste product.
Lysosomes are organelles filled with enzymes that break down and digest macromolecules, repair cell membranes, and respond against foreign substances entering the cell. Lysosomes are able to recycle a cell's organelles; therefore, lysosomes are considered to be a part of the endomembrane system. Cells use enzymes to destroy unwanted foreign substances, such as pathogens (disease-causing agents) by a process known as phagocytosis or endocytosis. The cell folds over and engulfs the pathogen and uses vesicles to bring the pathogen inside the cell where the lysosome's enzymes destroy the pathogen.
Lateral is used to describe anything close to the sides of the body (toward the arms, in the standard anatomical position).These two terms are helpful since many structures in the body are symmetrical (ex: lungs, arms). Medial is used to describe anything toward the middle of the body.
Medival--- (GOING TO THE SPINE MOVING AWAY FROM ARMS) LATERAL--- (GOING TO AMS MOVING AWAY FROM SPINE) The nose is _____ to the ears.---- Medial The ears are located ____ to the nose.---- Laterally
Polysaccharides are complex sugars that are large in size and don't break down as easily. They provide longer energy storage. The two types of polysaccharides: starches and glycogen. Starches are the main energy storage in plants. Cellulose is a type of starch that is indigestible by humans. Some foods that contain starch are corn, potatoes, rice, and wheat. Glycogen serves as energy storage in animals. It is stored primarily in the cells of skeletal muscle and liver.
Monosaccharides & Disaccharides---- These simple sugars are found in common items: raw sugar, brown sugar, and corn syrups. These sugars are small in size, break down easily, and are used for quick energy in the body. Monosaccharides are one sugar molecule, and disaccharides are two sugar molecules. These simple sugars can be broken down into glucose, fructose, galactose, sucrose, maltose, or lactose. You may have seen the names of these sugars on the ingredients list of your foods. Glucose or blood sugar is a monosaccharide found in your blood and a nutrient for many cells in the body. Diabetes is a condition in which people are unable to regulate healthy levels of blood glucose. Lactose is a disaccharide commonly found in milk. It is formed from the combination of the two monosaccharides glucose and galactose.
Simple sugars are composed of which of the following?
Monosaccharides and disaccharides
Which of the following is NOT a main property of water?
Nonpolar
The main axis of the human body which includes the head, neck, chest, and trunk is called the axial region. The limbs and appendages that connect to the axial skeleton are called the appendicular region.
Not to be confused with directional terms, regional terms are used to identify different parts of the body associated with a specific area. These terms describe regions of the body that must work together to perform specific functions. There are two primary terms that describe the main regions of the body.
Notes from lesson-- Anatomy is the study of the structure and shape of the body and body parts and their relationships to one another. The term is derived from the Greek words meaning to cut (-tomy) apart (ana-). There are many different sublevels of anatomical study such as: gross anatomy = study of large, easily observable structures microscopic anatomy = study of very small structures using various magnifying instruments histology = study of tissues
Notes from lesson-- Physiology is the study of how the body and its parts work or function. The term is derived from the Greek words meaning nature (physio-) and the study of (-ology). Like anatomy, physiology has many subdivisions such as: cardiac physiology = study of cardiovascular system functions neurophysiology = study of nervous system functions renal physiology = study of kidney functions While anatomy studies the structure of the parts of an organism, physiology is concerned with how those parts function together. It is possible to study anatomy and physiology separately, but since structure determines function, the two are really inseparable.
Standard Anatomical Position
Penguin feet position--NOT the standard Anatomical position Legs straight down---Standard Anatomical position Palms up--- Standard Anatomical position Face forward-- standard anatomical position Feet pointing forward-- Standard anatomical position Arms at side--standard anatomical position arms straight up---NOT the standard anatomical position crossing arms---- NOT the Standard Anatomical position One leg kicked up--- NOT the standard anatomical position turning head--- NOT the standard anatomical position palms down-- NOT the standard anatomical position
Match the regional terms to the letter.
Popliteal---LL Sural ----MM Plantar ----NN Calcaneal ----FF
These are the three essential concepts of A&P:
Principle of Complementarity, Hierarchy of Structural Organization, Process of Homeostasis
Match the term with the definition.
Principle of Complementarity--Structure determines function Hierarchy of Structural Organization -Living organisms have many levels of organization Homeostasis- Maintaining relatively stable internal conditions even though the internal and external conditions are constantly changing
Match the definition to the correct body system.
Protects vital organs, provides a framework for the body, and produces red blood cells----Skeletal System Transports vital nutrients throughout the body and helps regulate body temperature and pH--Cardiovascular System Moves the body, assists in proper posture, and enables balance--Muscular System Secretes hormones that affect the function of multiple parts of the body--Endocrine System
Ribosomes Ribosomes are involved in protein synthesis.
Protein and lipids synthesis occurs in the interconnected membranes known as the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The ER synthesizes, folds, modifies, and transports proteins within the cell. Protein synthesis occurs in the rough ER, and lipid synthesis occurs in the smooth ER. The Golgi apparatus (Golgi body) is a series of flattened membranes that packages materials before they leave the cell. Vesicles bud from the ER to transport the contents and make a stop at the Golgi apparatus to be sorted, tagged, and packaged for distribution of lipids and proteins. Then, the Golgi secretes vesicles for the final fusion with the cell membrane, and the contents within the vesicles exit the cell. Vesicles are membrane-bound sacs that are used to transport materials. Vesicles can fuse with the cell membrane to export these materials.
What directional term is located at E?
Proximal
Match the word(s) to the term directional, regional, plane, or cavity.
Proximal----Directional Term Cephalic ----Regional Term Transverse---- Plane Pericardial Cavity ----Cavity
Which is a component of physiological study?
Quantifying the force of a muscle contraction
What is a copy of DNA converted into?
RNA
This body plane divides the body into left and right portions.
Sagittal plane
What type of body plane is this?
Sagittal plane
The characteristics of a eukaryotic cell are important to the human body because the cell is carrying out similar functions on a cellular level. In this lesson, we will be going over organelle function. A eukaryotic cell is a complex cell that is characterized by having a true, membrane-bound nucleus. A eukaryotic cell has a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, organelles, and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA).
Specialized Cells Each cell in the body is specialized for a specific purpose, and this is called cellular differentiation. A home is made from bricks, pipes, drywall, and other building materials. In the same way, the human body is constructed from many cell types. Epithelial cells are an example of specialized cells because they are responsible for protecting surfaces of organs, the body, and body cavities. Other examples of specialized cells include bone cells (to support and protect the body), cells of the immune system (to fight invading bacteria), and blood cells (to carry nutrients and oxygen throughout the body while removing carbon dioxide). Specialized cells play a specific and vital role during the growth, development, and daily maintenance of the body.
How do enzymes affect biochemical reactions?
Speed up
Anatomical Position: a person is standing upright, facing forward, arms at the side, palms facing forward—this position is used when describing the body parts in relation to one another.
Standardization of the anatomical position is necessary to avoid confusion since most organisms can take on many different positions that may change the relative placement of organs. All anatomical descriptions refer to the organism in its standard anatomical position, even when the organism's appendages are in another position. Thus, the standard anatomical position provides a "gold standard" when comparing the anatomy of different humans. In the standard anatomical position, a person is standing upright with feet flat on the floor with lower limbs either together or slightly apart, upper limbs with palms facing forward so that the hands do not touch the sides, thumbs pointing away from the body, and facing forward with eyes directed straight ahead.
Directional Terms Directional terms provide descriptions in relation to other structures by "direction." The elbow is ____ to the hand.----- Superior The knee is ____ to the hip.---- Inferior The ribs are ____ to the spine.-----Anterior The spine is ___ to the heart.---- Posterior
Superior (cranial) are used to refer to the top-end of the body. Superior structures are toward the head (cranial). (GOING UP FROM FEET) ----Example: the superior vena cava, which carry deoxygenated blood away from the head (superior). Inferior (Caudal) are used to refer to the bottom-end of the body. Inferior (caudal) structures are toward the feet. ----Example: inferior vena cava (GOING DOWN TO FEET) Anterior is used to refer to the upwards-facing side. In anatomical position, the upwards-facing side would be the belly. (GOING TO THE BOOBS/CHEST) ----For example, there is an anterior and posterior side to the pituitary gland, which is important because each side secretes different types of hormones. Posterior is used to refer to the downwards-facing side. In anatomical position, the downwards-facing side would be the back. (GOING TO THE BACK AWAY FROM CHEST/BOOBS)
Match the word(s) to the term directional, regional, plane, or cavity.
Superior---Directional Term Axial ----Regional Term Coronal Plane ----Planes Superior mediastinum cavity ----Cavity
What are the most common types of cholesterol from hormones?
Testosterone and estrogen
Communication Communication in the body is crucial for maintaining homeostasis. The electrical components of the nervous system and the endocrine system's chemical components work together to allow information to be communicated throughout the body. Although the nervous and endocrine systems help regulate the body systems, there are some key differences between them.
The Elements of a Control System All homeostatic control mechanisms are processes involving at least three components that work together to regulate the variable. The variable is the factor or event being regulated. Explore the components in the graphic below.
Notes-- "The Principle of Complementarity can be stated: Function follows Form or Structure determines Function"
The Molecular Level Proteins fold together in unique 3-D structures held together by hydrogen bonds. Even at the molecular level, STRUCTURE DETERMINES FUNCTION. Molecular Level Example STRUCTURE: The substrate (reactants) must fit into the active site (location of the reaction) of an enzyme (protein molecule catalyst) for the reaction to occur. This is known as enzyme specificity and is a direct result of the molecular structure of the enzyme. DETERMINES FUNCTION: Enzyme specificity is essential because it keeps separate the many pathways involving hundreds of enzymes that function during metabolism.
Levels of Organization-- Living organisms are made up of four levels of organization: cells, tissues, organs, and systems. Having a structured order allows us to better understand the components of the body and how they work together for a particular function. 1. Cells 2. Tissues 3. Organs 4. Organ systems 5. Organisms
The cell is the smallest unit of life. Being the smallest unit of life means the cell is the smallest unit capable of reproduction. Cells have a wide array of shapes, sizes, and functions. There are a few things that define a cell of any shape or size: they are made of organic molecules, contain nucleic acids (like DNA and RNA), are filled with a fluid called cytoplasm, contain organelles, and are bound by a membrane. Human cells are further defined as eukaryotic. Eukaryotic means the cell has a nucleus enclosing the DNA. Some cells will function alone in the body. For example, the red blood cell can be found circulating in the bloodstream carrying oxygen throughout the body. Unlike the red blood cell, most cells will combine to form tissues.
Respiratory System The main function of the respiratory system is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. The respiratory system consists of upper and lower tracts that act as an airway. Small air spaces called alveoli allow a gas exchange from the lungs to the circulatory system.
The digestive system starts in the mouth and continues down the abdomen all the way to the anus. The digestive system breaks down, digests, and assimilates food into the body, as well as excreting the waste products. The urinary system includes the kidneys and bladder. These organs function with the urinary system to conserve water in the body, maintain an acid-base balance, and remove waste through urine. The male and female reproductive systems work together to continue the human race, but each function with different parts. The female reproductive system secretes sex hormones and produces an egg in hopes of fertilization and the development of an embryo. The male reproductive system secretes male sex hormones and produces sperm which is prepared for a journey to the female genital tract.
Where does the substrate bind?
The enzyme's active site
Negative Feedback Mechanisms
The majority of body processes such as breathing rate, heart rate, blood glucose, and others require continuous adjustment. All negative feedback mechanisms, the most common type, have the same goal of preventing severe changes in the body. The output shuts off or reduces the intensity of the original effect of the stimulus. This results in the variable changing in direction opposite to that of the initial change, returning to its original set point required to maintain life at that moment.
DNA, also known as Deoxyribonucleic Acid is a double-stranded nucleic acid. DNA carries all the information about you, from the color of your hair to how organs in your body work. This information is found in your genes and is located in every cell of your body. DNA is specific for every person and is inherited from your parents. There can be mutations in your DNA that can lead to health conditions. It is composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus.
The other nucleic acid is the single-stranded RNA, or Ribonucleic Acid. RNA is important because of its role in helping to make proteins which are essential for human life.
Buffers are chemicals that prevent huge changes in pH in the body. They are very important because they help your body maintain homeostasis or balance. When the body is unable to maintain balance of pH in the body, disease can occur.
The pH scale measures the power of hydrogen. Hydrogen is a positively charged ion. Hydrogen ions are used to distinguish acid, base, and neutral compounds. The human body is able to maintain a balance between acids and bases. The normal pH in the body is 7.4. The pH scale runs from 0-14. pH 0-7 - acidic pH 7 - neutral pH 7-14 - basic The pH in the human body varies depending on the location, for example, the stomach is very acidic, while the blood is basic.
Phospholipids are complex carbohydrates. They are composed of a polar end (phosphate) and a lipid end (fatty acid). The polar end is hydrophilic or water-loving, meaning it can be dissolved in water. The lipid end is hydrophobic or water-hating, meaning it doesn't like water and cannot dissolve in water. The hydrophilic end is on the outside, and the hydrophobic end is on the inside. The main function of phospholipids is that they provide a barrier and protection of the cell membrane.
The structure of steroids is different from other lipids; they have a hydrocarbon ring. The most common type of steroid is cholesterol. Cholesterol is found in all animals but not in plants. Cholesterol can come from two sources: the food you eat or from your liver. The most common type of cholesterol is derived from hormones such as estrogen and testosterone. Many athletes have illegally used steroids in sports to enhance performance and build muscle mass. We will discuss those hormones further in the reproduction chapter. Steroids also play a role in the structure of membranes, brain activity, and metabolism.
Abdominopelvic Regions These regions are used for specific diagnostic purposes.
The umbilical region is near the belly button, which is the location of the umbilical cord in a fetus and newborn infant. The lumbar region is described as such because it is in the lower back. You may have heard of "lumbar support." You may have heard of an inguinal hernia, which is a protrusion of contents through the inguinal canal. Men are more susceptible to an inguinal hernia because of the anatomy of the male reproductive system. They have a hole in the abdominal wall for their reproductive structures, while women do not. Using these facts may help you remember the abdominopelvic regions
Proximal and distal describe points in relation to each other. Proximal refers to a point closer to the reference point. ----When describing appendages, the proximal end of the appendage connects the appendage to the body, while the distal end is away from the body. Distal refers to a point farther away. --- When describing appendages, the proximal end of the appendage connects the appendage to the body, while the distal end is away from the body.
The wrist joint is ____ to the elbow joint.-----distal Superficial is used to describe structures that are closer to the exterior surface of the body. ----The outer layers of the skin are superficial to the deeper layers of skin. Deep is used to describe structures closer to the interior center of the body. Bones are deeper than muscles. Muscles are deeper than the skin.
Proteins are essential for our body to function properly. We consume protein from meat, dairy, nuts, seeds, and legumes. Proteins are composed of amino acids connected by peptide bonds. Peptide bonds combine two amino acids. The protein we eat gets broken down into amino acids, which is what our body can recognize and use. Protein can be broken down into carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur.
There are many different functions of proteins. The two main types are structural and functional. Structural proteins help to support, strengthen, and provide a framework for organs in the body. For example, hair, skin, and nails are made up of keratin which is a structural protein. Structural proteins are composed of a linear sequence of amino acids. The main job of functional proteins is to provide a function in the body. They are important for many biological activities in the body. For example, hormones and enzymes are both functional proteins. Hormones are responsible for functions such as regulating blood sugar to contractions during childbirth. Functional proteins are composed of a globular shape.
Organisms are living things that are made up of one or more cells. Cells that share the same functions form tissues; several tissues form an organ, such as the stomach, heart, or brain; and finally, several organs contribute to an organ system, such as the digestive, circulatory, or nervous system. All the systems together form an organism, such as the human being organism.
There are two types of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic: no membrane-bound nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles (Bacteria and Archaea) Eukaryotic: complex cells with a membrane-bound nucleus (Protist, Plant, Animal, Fungi)
What happens to hydrogen bonds during protein denaturation?
They break up
Protein Synthesis is the process through which proteins in the body are made. There are two steps in this process: transcription and translation.
Transcription: Transcription is the process of creating a complementary strand of messenger RNA (mRNA) from the DNA template that holds the genetic code for the protein. The information in the genes found in DNA is used to construct the single-stranded RNA molecule that will carry the "code" to the ribosome of the cell where the protein will be assembled. Like a message, the information is "transcribed" or written into the mRNA molecule. Translation: During this step, a protein is created by using the code carried to the ribosome by the messenger RNA. The mRNA template tells the ribosome and other RNA molecules what amino acids to assemble into the necessary protein chain.
What type of body plane is this?
Transverse plane
Name the three types of fats.
Triglyceride Phospholipid Steroid
Lipids are the second major group of macromolecules. They are important because they provide protection, insulation, and energy that is non-polar and hydrophobic. Hydrophobic means it does not dissolve in water. Water is also polar and only dissolves polar molecules. Lipids are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are different because of the long chain of carbon and hydrogen atoms that create a fatty acid tail. There are three types of fat: triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids.
Triglycerides are neutral fats. They are found in your blood. There are two types of triglycerides: saturated and unsaturated. Saturated fats are found in animal fat such as butter, lard, milk, and processed meats. They have single bonds. Unsaturated fats have double bonds. They are found in plant fats such as olive, canola, and vegetable oils. They are liquid at room temperature. There are 4 main functions of neutral fats: Insulate the body Provide energy Cushion organs Absorb fat-soluble vitamins—Vitamins A, D, E, and K need fat to be absorbed
When a protein is "denatured" this means that the protein structure is altered. This is because when protein denaturation occurs, hydrogen bonds and other types of bonds that help create the shape of the protein are destroyed. Once the structure or shape of the protein is altered, it usually can no longer perform its function.
Two examples of situations that may cause protein denaturation are extreme changes in temperature or pH. This may cause issues with proper body function. For example, if the pH of the stomach is significantly altered, some of the important digestive enzymes may not function properly to break down the food you eat in order to extract the nutrients the body needs. On the other hand, the increased temperature due to fever may aid the body by damaging the capsid or protein coating of an invading virus, thereby preventing the virus from replicating and slowing its spread in the body.
Match the regional terms to the letter.
Vertebral---- HH Lumbar---- II Sacral---- JJ Gluteal---- KK
Describe positive feedback mechanisms.
WRITE IN YOUR OWN ORD- NOTES FROM LESSON Positive Feedback Mechanisms In positive feedback mechanisms, the initial response enhances the original stimulus so that subsequent responses are even greater. The change that results proceeds in the same direction as the initial change, getting further from the original set point. These episodic events are often referred to as cascade events that amplifies the original stimulus. The two main examples are the processes of labor and blood clotting.
