5

Chain Schedule

Reinforcement is delivered only on completion of the last in a series of schedules. Example: The bird pecks a red disk; after the tenth peck the disk changes after 15 seconds, pecking the disk changes it from yellow to green. Working at the green disk results, after an average of 20 pecks, in food.

Aggression

almost universal response to punishment. Because the causal mechanism of punishment is the emotional response (or the CS if we are to remain strict behavioral observers), it triggers the autonomic nervous system or the "fight or flight" response

Positive Punishment

an aversive event is added to the situation. Example: If you go for a walk in the park and are mugged, you may be less likely to walk in that park in the future.

Observational Learning

change in behavior due to the experience of observing a model.

Fixed Interval Example (Fixed Ratio)

not sure you are getting into college...you are waiting for the mailman to bring the big envelope. Mail always comes at 4:30 but you check the mailbox multiple times before 4:30.

David Camp

rats periodically received food for pressing a lever. They also sometimes received shocks for lever pressing. For some rats, the shocks came immediately after pressing the lever; for others, the shocks were delayed by 2 seconds; and for still other rats there was a delay of 30 seconds between lever presses and shock. The results showed that immediate shocks suppressed lever pressing very effectively. When shocks followed lever presses by 2 seconds, they were far less effective in suppressing the behavior; a shock delayed by 30 seconds had even less value.

Negative Punishment

something is subtracted from the situation. Example: If you have had to pay a fine for speeding, you may have more slowly after that. If so, speeding has been punished. Parents and teachers try to use this sort of punishment when they take away privileges, such as eating dessert.

Inoculation training

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Non-contingent reinforcement (NCR)

A schedule in which reinforcers are delivered independently of behavior.

Vicarious Punishment

An observer looks on as a model's behavior is punished. Example: You're at an international food festival. You decide to order shepherd's pie. Before you place the order, you see someone throw away the shepherd's pie. Are you still inclined to order shepherd's? Probably not.

Albert Bandera

Argues that observational learning is accounted for by four processes that occur during or shortly after observation of a model. These processes are attentional, retentional, motor reproductive and motivational.

Teacher and the Classroom Example

As we've seen, in humans, advanced learning and operant learning occur simultaneously.The use of punishment (ranging from nonconstructive criticism to corporal punishment) is negatively correlated with educational outcomes. When one teacher was taught, after years of being critical, to switch to catching and R+ desired behaviors, not only the target students responded but the entire classroom changed."I was amazed, "She later wrote, "at the difference the procedure made in the atmosphere of the classroom and even my own personal feelings. I realized that in praising the well-behaved children and ignoring the bad, I was finding myself looking for the good in children."

Effect of violence on television and children's behavior

Bandura's experiment: nursery school children watched a 5 minute videotape of 2 men, Rock and Johnny, interacting in a playroom. In the video, Johnny plays with toy cars, plastic farm animals, and various other appealing toys. Rocky asks Johnny to share the toys, but Johnny refuses. Rocky then hits Johnny several times with a rubber ball, overpowers him when he tries to defend his property, hits him with a baton, and generally gives poor Johnny a rough time. Rocky's aggressive behavior is reinforced because he ends up having all the fun. After watching the videotape, each child went to a playroom that contained a number of toys. The data indicated that children were more likely to commit aggressive acts if they had seen a model reinforced for the same behavior.

Process Addiction

Behavioral addictions. Gambling, video games and even sex

Karen Pryor

Dolphin trainer in Hawaii. To liven things up a bit, the trainer decided to demonstrate how the animals were trained by waiting for Malia, one of their start performers, to do something and then reinforcing that behavior. The audience would actually see learning take place as the reinforced behavior increased rapidly. Realized that all a trainer had to do to get novel behavior was to reinforce novel behavior.

Eisenberger

Found that rewarding people for making a strong effort on one task increases the level of effort made on other tasks, a phenomenon they call learned industriousness. This means that trying hard, if reinforced in one situation, may generalize to another situation even though "trying hard: is not a specific act.

Variable Ratio

High rate of response. Very resistant to extinction. Higher rate of firing nucleus accumbens with the ___ reinforcement schedule compared to any other reinforcement schedule.

Abuse

If an individual is negatively reinforced for a behavior the behavior will become a regular part of the individual's behavioral repertoire. If the individual being punished starts to engage in typical punishment behaviors (escape, displaced aggression, etc.) this puts the punishing behavior on a VR schedule, the most powerful of the schedules, and most resistant to extinction.

FR 10

If you get a job picking cantaloupes, for every 10 cantaloupes you pick, what schedule are you on?

Escape

Instead of shaping the behavior to decrease the target, we inadvertently shape escape behaviors. These include sneaking, lying or alternative methods to obtain the reinforcement. Your book describes a rat that learned to lie on it's back to avoid shocks because the electricity was absorbed by it's fur.

Semantic Generalization

Learned behavior generalizes on the basis of an abstract feature. Examples: Three adults chew gum, lick lollipops or eat sandwiches to make them salivate. As they ate, they watched the words style, urn, freeze and surf flash on a screen. Then Razran presented the worlds alone and collected saliva in cotton balls that rested under each individual's tongue. Razran weighed the cotton after each testing period to determine the effectiveness of the procedure: The heavier the cotton, the stronger the CR. After the people had learned to salivate at the sight of the words, Razran showed them words that were either homophones or synonyms of the words used in training. The idea was to determine whether the CR would generalize more to words that had similar sounds or to words that had similar meaninsgs. The results showed that the participants salivated in response to the homophones. However, they salivated even more in response to the synonyms. Thus, although there was some generalization based on the sounds of the words, there was even more generalization based on the word meanings.

Example of Generalization

Little Albert learned to fear a white rat. After establishing this fear, Watson and Rayner tested Albert to see whether other stimuli would frighten him. They presented Albert with a rabbit, raw cotton and a Santa Claus mask. None of these stimuli had been around when Albert learned to fear the rat, yet Albert was afraid of them, too. Albert's fear had spread, or generalized, from the white rat to other white, furry objects,

Characteristics of the Model

Numerous studies have demonstrated that human observers tend to learn from models who are competent, attractive, likable and prestigious than from models who lack these characteristics.Model was actually the same person in each case and behaved in the same way, so the difference in the observer's behavior apparently was due to the model's status.

Apathy

Often the organism (again, including humans) will not only suppress the target behavior, but behavior in general

Imitation of the abuser

Particularly in higher primates, including humans, observational learning is a strong factor in shaping behavior.

Differential Reinforcement of high rate

Required that a behavior be performed a minimum number of times in a given period. A pigeon might be required, for example, to peck a disk five times in a ten-second period. If it pecks fewer than five times during that period, it receives nothing.

Stretching the ratio

Successive approximations of the desired behavior are reinforced. FR8, FR12, FR20, FR30 and so on.

Fixed Interval

The behavior under study is reinforced the first time it occurs after a constant interval. For example, a pigeon that has learned to peck a disk may be put on an ___ 5 schedule. The first time the bird pecks the disk, food is delivered into its food tray, but for the next five seconds, disk pecking produces no reinforcement.

Contingency (punishment)

The degree to which punishment weakens a behavior varies with the degree to which a punishing event is DEPENDENT on that behavior. Example: If a rat receives a shock each time it presses a lever, but not otherwise, then there is a clear ____ between lever pressing and shock.

Initial Intensity

The intensity of the punishment is strongest at the outset. If a mild punisher with gradually increasing consequences follows a behavior, much higher levels of stimulus are required.

Differential Reinforcement of Low Rate (DRL)

The interval begins each time the behavior is performed. A pigeon that pecks a disk receives reinforcement only if five seconds have elapsed since the last disk peck. Each disk peck in essence resets the clock so that pecking before the interval has elapsed delays reinforcement. The longer the interval required, the lower will be the rate of pecking.

Contiguity (Punishment)

The interval between a behavior and a punishing consequence has a powerful effect on learning. The longer the delay, the slower the learning. Example: Experiment by David Camp, rats periodically received food for pressing a lever. They also sometimes received shocks for lever pressing. For some rats, the shocks came immediately after pressing the lever; for others, the shocks were delayed by 2 seconds; and for still other rats there was a delay of 30 seconds between lever presses and shock.

Post-reinforcement pauses

The pauses that follow reinforcement follows.

Fading

The process of stretching the ratio, or reducing the level of reinforcement from a CRF to an intermittent schedule, then becoming progressively leaner. Is an important process once a person or animal has achieved a desired rate of behavior. The organism will work just as hard and often harder for a leaner R+ schedule

Stimulus Intensity

The strength of the punisher is an important factor in its effects on behavior. Example: Skinner trained rats to press a lever for food and then put the behavior on extinction. During the first ten minutes of extinction, some rats received a slap from the lever each time they pressed it. When Skinner compared the cumulative records of these rats, he found that punishment markedly reduced the rate of lever pressing, but the rate increased quickly once punishment ended.

Self-control

The tendency to do things now that affect our later behavior. We exert ___ when we do something that is in our own long-term interests. Involves a choice. Behavior has immediate positive consequences but delayed negative consequences. Example: The student can hang out now with friends, but he will do less well on the test.

Tandem Schedule

There is no distinctive event that signals the end of one schedule and the beginning of the next.

Self-Awareness

To observe one's behavior. Example:" I noticed that my voice trembled, my face and neck felt warm, I clenched my teeth, made fists with my hands, felt my heart beat fast, and curse silently." We make observations about our own behavior that are essentially the same as the observations we make about others.

Video Game Addiction

Variable ratio reinforcement schedule. In the US, addiction is a small problem. Asia has the highest rate

Aversive Stimulus

What do we call stimulus that act as a punisher?

Reinforcement in nucleus Accumbens and punishment in sympathetic nervous system (autonomic nervous system)

What is the difference in the neurological underpinning of reinforcement versus punishment?

Negative reinforcement is the opposite of positive punishment.

What the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment?

Stimulus control

When discrimination training brings behavior under the influence of discriminative stimuli

Intermittent schedule (definition)

When reinforcement occurs on some occasions but not others. Falls into four groups: FR, VR, FI, FR

Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible Behavior (DRI)

You reinforce a behavior that is incompatible with the unwanted behavior. Moving rapidly is incompatible with moving slowly; smiling is generally incompatible with frowning; standing is incompatible with sitting down.

Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible Behavior

You reinforce into an existence of behavior that cannot co-occur with something you want to stop

Continuous reinforcement (definition)

a behavior is reinforced every time it occurs. Example: A rat receives food every time it presses a lever, then lever pressing is on a ____ schedule.

Fixed ratio (definition)

a behavior is reinforced when it has occurred a fixed number of times. For example: a rat may be trained to press a lever for food. After shaping the behavior, the experimenter may switch to a schedule in which every third lever press is reinforced.

Multiple Schedule

a behavior is under the influence of two or more simple schedules, each associated with a particular stimulus. Example: A pigeon that has learned to peck a disk from grain may be put on a multiple schedule in which pecking is reinforced on an FI 10 schedule when a red light is on but on a VR 10 schedule when a yellow light is on.

Punishment

a decrease in the strength of behavior due to its consequences.

Fixed time

a reinforcer is delivered after a given period of time without regard to behavior. No behavior is required for reinforcement. Pigeon receives food every ten seconds regardless if it pecks the disk or not.

Extinction (definition)

a schedule in which a behavior is never reinforced.

Vicarious Reinforcement

an observer looks on as a model's behavior produces reinforcement. Example: Supposed you are at an international food festival, you see someone eat a strange food and he shows evident delight at the test and eats some more. Under the circumstances, you might inclined to try the food yourself. Your inclination to eat the food has been strengthened by seeing that the behavior had positive consequences for someone else.

pre-ratio pauses

another name for post-reinforcement pauses

Punishers

consequences involved in punishment.

Fixed interval scalp

curve shape in the intermittent schedules of reinforcement.

Koichi Ono

established superstition in university students. The students sat at a table with three levers. At the back of the table was a partition with a signal light and a counter that recorded points earned. Students were told they were to earn as many points as they could. In fact, nothing the student did had any effect on the accumulation of points. Periodically the light would go on and the counter would register one point-regardless of what the student did. Data revealed that superstitious acts began after it happened to be followed by delivery of a point.

Learned helplessness

model for depression in humans

Extinction

opposite of CRF, which can be thought of as a schedule of nonreinforcement.

Differential Reinforcement of Zero Responding (DRH)

reinforcement is contingent on NOT performing the behavior for a specified period of time. For example, the pigeon that is pecking a disk one or two times a second may receive food only if two seconds pass without pecking. When the pigeon meets this standard consistently, we might require a period of three seconds without pecks, then five seconds, then eight and so on. If a student curses frequently, the teacher might give her a friendly smile and a wink every time she goes five minutes without cursing.

Fixed Duration Schedule

reinforcement is contingent on the continuous performance of a behavior for some period of time. Example: the child who is required to practice playing a piano for half and hour. At the end of the practice period and provided the child has practice the entire time, he receives a reinforcer.

Variable Time

reinforcement is delivered periodically at irregular intervals regardless of what behavior occurs.

Most effective way of eliminating behavior

remove the reinforcement that they're getting from that behavior in the first place. Let extinction take its place. Example: Johnny is misbehaving in class. What reinforcement does he get from that behavior? Attention? Eliminate that reinforcement.

Generalization gradient

shows the tendency for a behavior to occur in situations that differ systematically from the training situation. They yield a figure, when these results are plotted on a curve.

Excessive Gambling

starts off with small reward/risk tolerance, but through the process of habituation, larger contingencies are needed to produce the same level of R+. When you win, that is the positive reinforcement. The punishment for the behavior starts off small. You start off at the 1 dollar blackjack, 5 dollar, 10 dollar.. your tolerance for that punishment will become hardened over time. Imbalance of reinforcement being stronger and stronger. Normal reaction to punishment stays the same.

Discriminative stimuli

stimuli that are associated with different consequences for behavior. Examples: We might arrange an experimental chamber so that a rat receives food each time it presses a lever, but onlyh if a lamp is on. the result will be that when the lamp is on (S+), the rat presses the lever, and when the lamp is off (S-) it does not press. At this point, we say that the rat discriminates between the "light on" situation and the "light off" situation: It behaves differently in the two situations.

Variable Interval Schedule

the length of the interval during which performing is not reinforced varies around some average. In a __ 5 schedule, the average interval between reinforced pecks is 5 seconds. Produce high, steady run rates, higher than FI schedules but usually not so high as comparable FR and VR schedules.

Variable Ratio

the number of lever presses required for reinforcement varies around an average. Reinforcement might occurs after one to ten lever presses, but the overall average will be one reinforcement for every five presses.

Run rate

the rate at which behavior occurs once it has resumed following reinforcement.

Variable Duration

the required period of performance varies around some average. With the child and the piano, any given session might end after 30 minutes, 55, 20 or 10 minutes. On average, the student will practice for half an hour before receiving the milk and cookies.

Generalization

the tendency for behavior to occur in situations different from the one in which the behavior was learned. Examples: In Pavlovian conditioning, a dog may learn to salivate to the sound of a tuning fork vibrating a 1,000 cycles per second. After this training, the dog may then be found to salivate to the sound of a tuning fork vibrating, 950 cps to 1000 cps, even though it was never exposed to these stimuli. The conditional response spreads, or generalizes, to stimuli somewhat different from the CS.

Discrimination

the tendency for behavior to occur in situations that closely resemble the one in which the behavior was learned but not in situations that differ from it. Examples: