5 - sports science topic

response time

= reaction time + movement time

whole part whole (type of presentation)

A mixture of both; whole and part-whole. For example freestyle in swimming, the skill would be performed as a whole, kicking would be identified as a weakness and be isolated to be developed and then put back together with the other parts of the skill. The whole skill is first demonstrated and practised, before being broken down into the constituent parts to practice the individual elements and improve on these, before putting the whole skill back together.

compare motor programmes from open and closed loop

Adams argues that as we learn a skill, we develop what he called the perceptual trace. The perceptual trace is memory for the feel of successive past movements. Once we have developed a perceptual trace, we can compare the trace with the feel on ongoing movement. This allows us to correct inappropriate actions. While the perceptual trace controls an already ongoing movement, the selection and initiation of the movement is under the control of what Adams called the memory trace Perceptual trace - a reference model acquired through practice Memory trace - responsible for initiating the movement Feedback in the model - analyse the reference model actions, the results of those actions and desired goals then refine the reference model to produce the required actions to achieve the desired goals

variable (type of practice)

Best for open skills and involves repeating a skill in varying situations. Builds up schema for game situations. when the demands placed on the performance of a skill are altered, for example throwing a ball towards different targets at different distances, angles or heights. The fundamental movement form should remain the same but variety is created with the task or the environment to produce different versions of the movement.

distinctiveness of movement characteristics (approach to classifying motor skills)

Discrete skills have a clear start and finish. Usually brief and well defined, such as a penalty stroke in hockey Serial skills involves the linking of skills in order to form a longer, more complex movement, for example triple jump Continuous skills are when the end of one cycle of movement is the beginning of the next. They continue until they performer decides to end it, for example dribbling in soccer

External-Internal paced skills (approach to classifying motor skills)

Externally paced skills are when the environment, which may include opponents, controls the rate of performing the skill. The performer must pay attention to external events in order to control their rate of movement. Are usually open skills. Internally paced skills or self-paced skills are when the performer controls the rate at which the skill is executed. These skills are usually closed skills. i.e. javelin throw, discus.

distinguish between physical proficiency abilities (physical factor) and perceptual motor abilities (psychomotor)

Fleishman distinguishes between proficiency and perceptual motor ability developed a taxonomy of human perceptual motor abilities Physical proficiency abilities consist of gross motor movements, for example static and dynamic flexibility Perceptual motor abilities are a combination of how we make sense of our environment (perception) and how we act (motor control) within that environment for example control precision and multi limb coordination

brevity (method of memory improvement)

Giving a learner a small amount of information at a time to avoid overload. It is easier to remember short and specific details rather than long and vague information.

long term memory (LTM)

Holds a vast quantity of information. This includes memories and knowledge. capacity and duration is Indefinite

Interaction Continuum (approach to classifying motor skills)

Individual skills are those performed in isolation. Only one performer is involved at a certain time. e.g. high jump. Coactive skills are those performed at the same time as others but without direct confrontation. e.g. swimming. Interactive skills are those performed where other performers are directly involved, can involve confrontation. This is because there is an active opposition and this directly influences the skill. e.g. rugby, netball.

chunking (method of memory improvement)

Learners can hold more in short term memory if the information is "chunked", instead of being presented as individual items. It is literally the case of chucking several pieces of information into one meaningful chunk, which takes up less space in STM

Distinguish between learning and performance

Learning is a relatively permanent change in performance brought about by experience Performance is a temporary occurrence, fluctuating over time A change in performance over time is often used to infer learning

types of learning curves

Linear: learning an easy-to-perform skill, usually rare Positively accelerated curve: skills are difficult to learn at first but then progress improves quickly Negatively accelerated curve: initially learning quickly but then rate slows down Plateau effect: learning is positive at first but then there is no improvement in performance, practice must continue for breakthrough (still learning during plateau but no improvement shown in performance)

short term memory sensory store (STSS)

Modality specific: sight, sound, smell, taste and touch. For information to be retained in must be attended to, and will only be passed into the STM if it is rehearsed. capacity is limitless duration is less than 1 second

coding (method of memory improvement)

Naming/labelling sets of information. Information associated with images can be recalled better than without

short term memory (STM)

Only information that is attended to enters. Requires constant rehearsal to prevent information loss and to pass info into LTM capacity is 7 items (+/- 2) duration is 6-12 seconds

stability of the environment (approach to classifying motor skills)

Open skills are skills that are significantly affected by the environment. The environment is largely variable and unpredictable and the performer has to adapt their movements accordingly. Closed skills are skills that are performed in a more stable and predictable environment, and thus are internally paced by the performer. Closed skills follow set movement patterns and are performed in the same way each time, for example archery

discuss the relationship between selective attention and memory

SA) operates in the (STSS). Only the relevant information is passed to the (STM) where it is held for several seconds. SA ensures that information overload does not occur and prevents confusion, as the brain would not be able to cope with streams of information. a filtering mechanism operates filters out noise and important signals very important when accurate or fast responses are required the way we overcome our STM's limited capacity is through SA

relationship between ability, skill and technique

Skill = ability + selection of appropriate technique Skill: something we learn, requires practice Ability: something we are born with, perceptual and motor attributes Technique: basic movement carried out for a particular task by an individual

skill

Skill is the consistent production of goal oriented movements which are learned and specific to the task

types of transfer

Skill to skill: throwing a ball to throwing a javelin → one skill helps to learn another Practice to performance: batting in cricket or baseball against a bowling/pitching machine Abilities to skills: improving dynamic strength in order to start races better Bilateral: A soccer player learning to kick with his or her weaker foot Stage to stage: from three on three basketball to the full game Principles to skills: from learning that long levers aid throwing to throwing a javelin

concept of transfer

Transfer of training refers to the effect that practice on one task has on the learning or performance of another task. Transfer of training can be positive, negative or zero Positive: the practice of one task has a facilitating effect on the learning or performance of another. Goalie kicking from hands in football, drop kick in rugby Negative: the practice of one task has an inhibiting effect on the learning or performance of another. Badminton and tennis wrist movements Zero: represents no effect

progressive part/chaining method (type of presentation)

When a skill is complex, the coach breaks down the movement into smaller parts. The parts are then linked together into the final skill. For example the layup in basketball or triple jump. Slow but allows for understanding

mental rehearsal (type of practice)

When the performers thinks about specific components of the movement without actually performing. Example: A dancer who thinks about complex footwork sequence. This aids the performer as it helps them understand and practice the cognitive components of the movement, where sequence, timing and strategy might be critical to successful performance

individual differences of coaches (factor affecting rate of learning)

a coaches teaching style may appeal to one learner but not another, learning also depends of quality and type of feedback given

decision making (welfords model of information processing)

a decision based on the relevant information or stimulus is made

effector control (welfords model of information processing)

a process that allows the decision to be put into action by sending impulses to the muscles

teaching environment (factor affecting rate of learning)

a safe teaching environment/ limited distractions/small group learning/ attention/ facilities and space available for learning

describe a motor programme

a set of movements stored as a whole in memory, regardless of whether feedback is used in their execution a number of programmes can be put together to form an executive programme a motor programme is hitting a tennis ball, catching a netball, doing a somersault triple jump is an executive program and so are gymnastic routines

massed (type of practice)

a skill is practiced without a break until the skill is developed. Little or no gaps in practice. Best for simple skills. For example, practicing drop shots (badminton) continuously to simulate the late stages of a game

feedback (welfords model of information processing)

after the response, feedback can be intrinsic or extrinsic plays an important role in movement execution

sense organs (welfords model of information processing)

an organ of the body that responds to external stimuli. they recieve information from our senses

distributed (type of practice)

attempts at the skill are divided up with intervals in between to allow for rest and mental rehearsal. For example, a shooting practice in basketball that is punctuated at regular points with opportunities for a short scrimmage game. Defined as having intervals between the trials that are greater than the time it takes to complete one trial. Can lead to better performance as it reduces the levels of fatigue and boredom experienced by the performer. Best used in difficult, dangerous or fatiguing skills with young or lowly motivated individuals

clarity (method of memory improvement)

avoiding trying to learn two similar but distinct items in the same session as the memory of one may interfere with the other. If the information is clean and understood, it will be easier to remember.

factors that affect the signal detection process (decision comparison recognition process)

background, non essential info = noise. not actual noise but info that is not part of the signal that makes it difficult to detect important signals stimulus intensity can determine whether a signal is detected or recognised as probability of detecting a signal depends on the intensity of the signal compared to the intensity of the background noise training/practice can improve signal detection/recognition. Can also be improved by ensuring that the performer is optimally aroused and them having good selective attention sensory organ efficiency may determine whether a signal is detected or not

perceptual-motor skills (type of skill)

combination of perception (visual interpretation) and movement. most sports involve perceptual motor skills because they involve thought, interpretation and movement For example dribbling in soccer to beat a defender

difference between a skilled and a novice performer

consistency: a skilled performer can repeat the task successfully time after time/achieve their goals consistently/there is maximum certainty eg % success of a basketball free- thrower or vice versa for a novice performer goal-oriented movements/goal-directed: a skilled performer has a clear understanding of the goal eg aim towards a goal/eg to make a pass to another player eg basketballer passing to open team mates or putting themselves into positions to shoot or vice versa for a novice performer skill has an end result ‹pre-determined result› eg, the ball going in when they shoot - or getting very close so that a teammate may assist or vice versa for a novice performer a skilled performer will be at the autonomous stage of skill acquisition, eg, players able to adapt their shooting to the situation - irrespective of the other players or environmental conditions (crowd etc...) or a novice performer will be at the cognitive stage of skill acquisition efficiency: a novice performer may use a lot of energy and still be unsuccessful, eg, movements to complete tasks such as dribbling use only those that are required to move to positions fluency: this will be apparent in the skilled performer eg movements are linked, with no noticeable breaks/eg coordination of limb segments in goal-directed activity/eg relative movements between segments of one limb ‹intra-segment coordination› or different limbs ‹inter-segment coordination›, or between limb segments and an object to intercept. movement appears fluent, controlled and aesthetically pleasing/well coordinated and precise/aesthetic ‹and smooth› for a skilled performer, eg, a high-level gymnastics routine OR accuracy: a skilled performer will selectively attend to, recognize, analyze and interpret visual information more accurately and in turn make the correct decision, eg, movements place the shot in or extremely close control: a skilled performer has the ability to vary precisely the parameters of the motor production, eg, force, speed and duration, to suit speci c performance constraint

Knowledge of performance (KP) (role of feedback)

consists of post response information concerning the nature of the movement. The most obvious type of KP is the 'feel' of the movement. KP can be both concurrent, such as the feel of a movement while doing it, or terminal, feedback from a coach about how we moved. It can also be from a video or film.

motor skills (type of skill)

emphasises movement and does not require much thinking, for example weight lifting

intrinsic (role of feedback)

feedback is available to the performer without outside help. We can see results of our actions without anyone needing to tell us what happened. The feel of a movement is intrinsic by definition.

outline the role of feedback with the learning process

feedback is information resulting from an action or response Reinforcement of learning: the giving of a reward such that the behaviour will be repeated. Motivation: the internal state of a performer which drives them to behave or perform in a particular way. Adaption of performance: intrinsic feedback or concurrent feedback (KP/KR) Punishment: an unpleasant response designed to prevent occurrence of unwanted behaviour

Outline the role of feedback in information processing models

feedback is the term used to describe information resulting from an action or response. Intrinsic Extrinsic Knowledge of results (KR) Knowledge of performance (KP) Positive Negative Concurrent Terminal

ability

general trait of an individual that is related to the performance of skills

terminal (role of feedback)

given after the performance

concurrent (role of feedback)

given during the performance

association (method of memory improvement)

good coaches and teachers always ensure that new learning is linked to what players already know. Semantic understanding increases recall.

size of musculature involved (approach to classifying motor skills)

gross motor skills are movements that involve large muscle groups, for example jumping Fine motor skills involve much smaller muscle groups and finer movements. They are more intricate and precise. For example, playing darts.

rehearsal (method of memory improvement)

information is processed mentally or physically. Required to get information into LTM and to increase the chances of being able to recall that information

describe a simple model of information processing

information processing is the system by which we take information from our surrounding environment, use it to make a decision and the produce a response black box model: input, decision making, output, feedback

extrinsic (role of feedback)

information that is provided by something or someone other than the performer. For example a coach, teacher, stopwatch or tape measure.

motivation (factor affecting rate of learning)

intrinsic (inner drive) or extrinsic (trophies) motivation, motivation is linked to a person's state of arousal if the performer is not motivated, learning will be slowed

practice (method of memory improvement)

no skill is learned without practice. Practice shuttles the image of the skill backwards and forwards between STM and LTM and in doing so establishes what is known as a memory trace

Reciprocal C (teaching style)

peer teaching, the teacher sets the agenda and then students provide each other with feedback. Task cards can be used. This style is useful when the learners know the task well and are willing to help one another. Learners can progress at their own rate and work on specific aspects of their own performance

explain the signal detection process (detection, comparison and recognition process)

perception is the process by which the brain interprets and makes sense of information from the sensory organs perception consists of three elements: detection, comparison, recognition detection is the process by which the brain identifies that a stimulus is present comparison is what happens when we attend to something we have sensed stimulus and is then compared with similar codes stored in memory recognition occurs when the code of the incoming information matches a code stored in the long-term memory

age (factor affecting rate of learning)

physical and emotional maturation as well as experience will affect the progress of a learner

Knowledge of results (KR) (role of feedback)

post response information concerning the outcome of the action. The most obvious form of KR is visual. You see the end product of your action.

Divergent H (teaching style)

problem solving method, the coach sets a problem and lets the learners work out the solution themselves. Makes the learners be innovative and independent, may boost self esteem. Learners will be more interested if it is their own strategy. Main limitation is that coach must set realistic problems and explain it well. Learners need experience to complete it successfully

difficulty of task (factor affecting rate of learning)

progress will be slowed if the task is too difficult for the learner and this may also have an impact on the motivation of the learner

interoceptors (component of sensory input)

provide information about the events in blood vessels information from receptors sensing blood pressure

exteroceptors (component of sensory input)

provide information about the external environment through the senses are further subdivided into general exteroceptors that are present in the skin and the special exteroceptors present in the head ‹

proprioceptors (component of sensory input)

provide information about the position and posture of our body in space sense stimuli from the skeletal muscles, tendons and the joints

fixed/drill (type of practice)

repeatedly practicing a whole skill in order to strengthen the motor programme. Best with discrete, closed skills

factors that determine response time

response time is an ability that has individual and group variances reaction time includes stimulus transmission, detection, recognition and decision to respond response time increases throughout childhood and adolescence however as we get older it gets slower movement time is affected by fitness, particularly power and speed of limb movement. Training can greatly improve movement time but reaction time is less easy to improve the main factor is the number of choices that an individual has to make if there are no choices, it is a simple reaction time hicks law states that as the number of stimulus response couplings is doubled, reaction time is increased if reaction time is plotted against the log of the stimulus response couplings there is a linear increase

physical fitness (factor affecting rate of learning)

size, shape and level of fitness may assist in learning. A learner has greater ability to make decisions if they are not fatigued. One learner may be more flexible/stronger than the other

perceptual skills (type of skill)

skills that use the senses like vision or audition, for example reading the golf green

positive (role of feedback)

telling someone that they have done well. It can also be what is called prescriptive feedback i.e the coach tells the learner how to improve performance by saying 'do it this way'. This type of feedback occurs when the performance of a task was correct or successful. It can be used to reinforce learning.

Command A (teaching style)

the coach is in charge, they select the content and the methods of practice. No ambiguity in their role. Good for working with a large group or when an activity involves an element of danger.

cognitive/verbal - early phase (phase of learning)

the individual attempts to make sense of instructions through using lots of verbal labels to aid memory. Often mistakes are made, like attending to irrelevant stimuli. Their motor skills are often characterised by unrefined and uncoordinated movement. large number of errors

autonomous - final phase (phase of learning)

the individual can perform consistently and with little cognitive activity. Movements are almost automatic, short reaction time Distractions are ignored and the performer is able to concentrate on strategies and tactics. Performer can improve without external feedback.

associative/motor - intermediate phase (phase of learning)

the individual has developed knowledge of what to do, practice is required to perfect the skill and develop the consistent, coordinative movement that demonstrates learning. Performer begins to feel what a good performance should be. They can detect their errors.

whole (type of presentation)

the movement is practised entirely. used when all the component parts of skill are highly integrated, interdependent and when the parts on their own do not have any meaning in relation to the whole skill. For example a volleyball serve from start to finish

open loop (compare motor programmes)

the open loop is utilised when skills are well learnt, executed quickly and without feedback. All the information for one movement is sent in a single message to the effectors. Depends on the difficulty of the task and the level of skill of the performer

perception (welfords model of information processing)

the process by which the brain makes sense of the stimuli received.

sensory input

the senses are responsible for relaying information about the environment to the brain

evaluate the concept of the psychological refractory period (PRP)

the single channel mechanism explains that our STM has a limited capacity welford's PRP model explains that when two stimuli are presented close together the reaction time to the second stimulus is much slower than the normal reaction time. This period is the PRP. Welford claimed that the processing of S2 could not take place until the processing of S1 had been completed Can be used as deception in sports feints, dodges or dummies. The feint is S1 and the dodge is S2. If the timing is correct, the defender will be comparatively slow in reacting to the real movement

cognitive skills (type of skill)

thinking and decision making, for example tactics chess

negative (role of feedback)

this feedback concentrates on errors. Sometimes coaches point out errors and then follow up with prescriptive feedback. Prescriptive feedback has been shown to be effective following either a negative or positive approach. However, negative often includes, "don't do it like that" or "you got it wrong, you did this and you shouldn't have". Can be demotivating and is of no use to beginners as they require prescriptive feedback

long term memory (welfords model of information processing)

unlimited time and capacity for storage selected stimuli are compared to past experiences stored in LTM to select the appropriate response

technique

way in which sports skills is performed

organisation (method of memory improvement)

we remember things more easily if we organise the way in which we learn to ensure that the information is meaningful. Coaches often use imagery to aid organisation. If information is in a clear and logical format it makes it easier for us to recall

describe Welford's model of information processing

we take in information through our senses and temporarily store all of these inputs prior to sorting them out the inputs that are seen as relevant to the decision are then stored in the short term memory a decision is made by comparing the info in the STM to previous experiences stored in the LTM with reference to the LTM for the required action, the decision is carried out the action and the results are stored for future reference the whole process begins again

physical maturation (factor affecting rate of learning)

when a learner is mature, they are good at knowing when they are ready to gain a skill. Young learners have more difficulty in focusing on important cues and have difficulty in processing information. As performer matures more motor plans are generated

closed loop (compare motor programmes

when a skill uses feedback throughout its execution. Control centre uses information to effectors to initiate movement. Errors are detected and adjustments are made (juggling).

part (type of presentation)

when one part of a skill is practiced in isolation, particularly complicated and serial skills. For example practicing run up only in long jump.