5&6 psychology

Although B. F. Skinner and John B. Watson refused to believe that thoughts and expectations play a role in learning, ________ suggested a cognitive aspect to learning.

Edward C. Tolman

When you watch the teacher at the front of the room, you are easily able to distinguish her from the white board (or chalk board) behind her. This demonstrates the Gestalt principle of ________.

a figure-ground relationship

Which two concepts can be thought of as opposite processes within the classical conditioning model?

acquisition and extinction

Which of the following is an example of vicarious reinforcement?

Babs saw Martin receive a candy bar for completing his reading list. She is careful to complete her reading list because she saw Martin get a reward for doing it.

What is the main idea of operant conditioning?

Behavior is motivated by the consequences we receive for the behavior: reinforcements and punishments.

If the principles of social learning theory are true, then children may model aggressive behavior ________.

after seeing a television character receive a reward for taking violent action against another character

What term describes the continuation of a visual sensation after removal of the stimulus?

afterimage

Classical and operant conditioning are forms of ________ learning.

associative

Sarit is at a bar full of music, chatter, and laughter. He gets involved in an interesting conversation with a woman named Mona, and he tunes out all the background noise. Sarit's friend, Karen, taps him on the shoulder and asks what song just played on the jukebox. Sarit says he doesn't know, even though he is sitting right next to the jukebox and is familiar with popular music. This illustrates the role that ________ plays in what is sensed versus what is perceived.

attention

Which of the following is an example of instinct?

baby turning its head to suckle when its cheek is stroked

________ disparity refers to the slightly different view of the world that each eye receives, and is a distance cue that allows us to perceive the depth of a given visual stimulus.

binocular

When a child works on a "connect the dots" puzzle, she can often see the completed work before she has finished all of the dots. Once there is enough visual information present, she's able to perceive the completed picture even though it is still incomplete. Which Gestalt principle does this demonstrate?

closure

Tabetha has a mental picture of the layout of her house, also called a ________, so when she comes home late at night she can navigate through the rooms without turning on a light.

cognitive map

Stanley was diagnosed with lymphoma and had to undergo several months of chemotherapy. During this time he would become very nauseated as a side effect, and unintentionally came to associate that nausea with his favorite grilled cheese sandwich. Now, years later, even thinking about a grilled cheese sandwich makes him sick. In this example, Stanley's nauseous reaction to a grilled cheese sandwich is the ________.

conditioned response

Ravon is deaf. He was born without the ability to hear, and has never experienced an auditory stimulus. When people write using "sound" type words like "loud," "soft," and "quiet," he sometimes has difficulty understanding what they are trying to convey. Ravon has ________ deafness.

congenital

Ronaldo was born without the ability to experience pain, though he can perceive temperature differences and changes in pressure. What is his condition called?

congenital analgesia

Jemma wants to teach her son to say thank you. Every time he says thank you, Jemma praises him and gives him a hug. Which reinforcement schedule is this?

continuous

Light waves are first transmitted through the ________ at the front of the eye and enter an opening called the ________ before shining onto the retina.

cornea;pupil

The amplitude of a wave is the height of a wave as measured from the highest point on the wave________ to the lowest point on the wave ________.

crest; trough

What did John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner demonstrate with their studies of Little Albert?

emotion can be a conditioned response

Molly attempts to condition her puppy to greet her when she enters the house. She repeatedly pairs her entry to the house with a treat for the puppy. The puppy eventually acquires this ability, and Molly realizes how irritating it is for the puppy to run up to her every time she enters the house. She attempts to make the puppy stop, and eventually the puppy no longer feels motivated to greet her when she enters the house. The puppy no longer greeting her when she enters the house is an example of ________.

extinction

Gus receives a paycheck at the end of every week. Which reinforcement schedule is this?

fixed interval

One principle of civil engineering is that when you design a highway you should have traffic flow in the same direction and avoid interruptions to that flow as much as possible. Exit ramps tend to be curved so that cars don't have to stop rather than having 90-degree angles that force stops and starts. This is an application of which Gestalt principle?

good continuation

________ amplitudes are associated with ________ sounds.

higher;louder

As you are talking to a friend on your cell phone, you might find that you can't hear them because they are speaking very softly. If you ask them to "speak up," from a physical perspective you are asking them to ________ of the sound waves they are producing.

increase the amplitude

Which of the following is an example of fixed ratio reinforcement schedule?

knowing you will get to play miniature golf as soon as you collect 10 gold stars for your reward chart

Learning that occurs but is not observable in behavior until there is a reason to demonstrate it is called ________ learning.

latent

In Pavlov's classical conditioning, the term conditioned is approximately synonymous with the word ________.

learned

What do psychologists call a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience?

learning

In a person whose eyes work in the usual fashion, the ________ will focus images perfectly on a small indentation in the back of the eye known as the ________.

lens;fovea

Within the visible spectrum, our experience of red is associated with ________ waves of light.

longer wavelengths

Dave's boss told him that he doesn't have to attend the company picnic (which everybody dislikes) if Dave meets his sales quota this month. Dave's boss is using ________.

negative reinforcement

In classical conditioning, the association that is learned is between a ________.

neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus

Dymesha watches her older sister do headstands. Dymesha falls over when she attempts to do a headstand herself. She watches her older sister more carefully, and she notices that her sister leans backward slightly to complete her headstand. Dymesha is then able to do headstands herself. Which type of learning is this?

observational

Hideki tells a lie and is grounded. He does this several times, finally learning that his behavior (lying) is associated with a consequence (being grounded). Which kind of learning is this?

operant conditioning

Which nerve carries visual information from the retina to the brain?

optic

________ reinforcers have innate reinforcing qualities.

primary

If you watch a flock of birds flying overhead, each very close to the next one, you may perceive them as all being part of the same group. If they were all spaced very much apart, however, you may see them as individual birds not flying together. This distinction takes advantage of which Gestalt principle?

proximity

Which of the following experiments involves the use of operant conditioning?

rewarding a child for finishing his oatmeal mush and counting how many times the child needs to be rewarded before he finishes his oatmeal voluntarily

Which term best describes rewarding successive approximations of a target behavior?

shaping

Nikki was walking around a department store shopping one day, and did not realize that the shirt she was wearing looked just like the shirts worn by employees. When a stranger asked, "do you work here," she thought it was funny. The other customers' assumption that Nikki was a store employee demonstrates the Gestalt principle of _______.

similarity

After a hurricane warning came across the television, young Eli became terrified of the alarm sound that signaled a severe weather warning. Over the next few months he heard it several times when the "required monthly tests" came on the television, and his fear faded away. One day the alarm sounded and Eli jumped up and ran out of the room. This return of a previously extinguished response is called ________.

spontaneous recovery

You begin to salivate when you smell your favorite cake in the oven, but not when you smell the gross scent of a dirty diaper. This is an example of ________.

stimulus discrimination

Some neurons can only generate action potentials up to a certain speed, and no faster. This fact is a limitation of the ________ theory of pitch perception.

temporal

The auditory cortex, in which sound stimuli are processed for perception, is located in the ________ lobe.

temporal

Which of the following is an example of a reflex?

the pupil of your eye contracting in the presence of bright light

Your ears receive sound waves and convert this energy into neural messages that travel to your brain and are processed as sounds. This is an example of ________.

transduction

Gambling at a slot machine is an example of which reinforcement schedule?

variable ratio

Vinnie is standing on one leg with his arms in the air. The ________ sense helps keep him balanced so he has less chance of falling over.

vestibular

Sometimes, classical conditioning can lead to habituation. Habituation occurs when we learn not to respond to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly without change. As the stimulus occurs over and over, we learn not to focus our attention on it. For example, imagine that your neighbor or roommate constantly has the television blaring. This background noise is distracting and makes it difficult for you to focus when you're studying. However, over time, you become accustomed to the stimulus of the television noise, and eventually you hardly notice it any longer. The best summary is:

Habituation happens when the individual learns not to respond to a stimulus, even when the stimulus is duplicated again and again. Over time, the individual becomes accustomed to the stimulus and does not react when it happens.

What has research shown about processing subliminal messages?

In laboratory settings, people can process and respond to information outside of their awareness.

How does a cochlear implant enable the deaf to hear?

It receives incoming sound information and directly stimulates the auditory nerve to transmit information to the brain.

Which option is the most valid criticism of Watson and Rayner's work with "little Albert"?

It would be unethical by today's research standards

In classical conditioning, the initial period of learning is known as acquisition, when an organism learns to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus. During acquisition, the neutral stimulus begins to elicit the conditioned response, and eventually the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus capable of eliciting the conditioned response by itself. Timing is important for conditioning to occur. Typically, there should only be a brief interval between presentation of the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus. Depending on what is being conditioned, sometimes this interval is as little as five seconds (Chance, 2009). However, with other types of conditioning, the interval can be up to several hours.The best summary is:

Learning in classical conditioning begins with the acquisition period where the individual learns to link a neutral and unconditioned stimulus. When the conditioned and unconditioned stimulus are introduced in short periods of time, conditioning/learning can occur.

Two lines appear to be a different length, though in reality they are the same length. This is known as the ________ illusion.

Müller-Lyer

What is the main idea of social learning theory?

One can learn new behaviors by observing others.

________ refers to the way that sensory information is interpreted and consciously experienced; ________ refers to what happens when sensory information is detected by a sensory receptor.

Perception; sensation

What does the place theory of pitch perception suggest?

Receptors on different portions of the basilar membrane are sensitive to sounds of different frequencies.