6.05 Italian and German Unification

dialects:

regional languages distinguished by pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary that differ from the standard literary language or speech pattern of the culture in which they exist

"balance of power":

the distribution of power among countries so that no one nation can seriously threaten the fundamental interests of another

infrastructure:

the fundamental facilities and systems serving a country, city, or area, as transportation and communication systems, power plants, and schools

Cause and Effect

-Cause: Cavour is elected to a political position -Effect: Diplomatic ties are created with the French to drive the Austrians out of Italy -Cause: The new nation of Italy struggles with the Church -Effect: The Lateran Pacts were signed, establishing Vatican City as its own independent nation-state -Cause: Prussia seeks to have domination in affairs of German Confederation -Effect: The Zollverein is created -Cause: France assists the Italians in driving the Austrians out -Effect: Nice and Savoy became part of another nation -Cause: The Seven Weeks' War takes place -Effect: The German Confederation was officially dissolved -Cause: King Victor Emmanuel II called for "an economic awakening" -Effect: Industrialization gains more support -Cause: The Carbonari were upset with the return to a pre-Napoleon ancien régime -Effect: A revolt against the Spanish Bourbons and an eventual constitution is established in Naples -Cause: The Franco-Prussian War ends -Effect: The nation of Germany is proclaimed -Cause: Garibaldi is appointed as an army general -Effect: The Redshirts capture island of Sicily and Naples on the mainland from the Bourbon prince -Cause: The Young Italy Movement is formed -Effect: Momentum is built towards liberating Italy from Austrian rule

Unification of Italy Over Time

1) Between the years 1815 and 1858, the Italian peninsula was divided into a number of different states and kingdoms. These kingdoms included the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Kingdom of Sardinia, Papal States, Rome, Tuscany, Romagna, Modena, Parma, Lombardy, Venetia, Nice, and Savoy. 2) In 1858, the Kingdom of Piedmont combined with the Island of Sardinia to create a larger Kingdom of Sardinia that existed both on the continent and in the Mediterranean. 3) Between the years 1859 and 1860, many of the Italian kingdoms combined to join the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia. These kingdoms included Lombardy, Parma, Modena, Romagna, Tuscany, the Papal States, and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. 4) In 1860, the areas of Savoy and Nice were traded to France during negotiations. These two areas were closest to France geographically. 5) In 1866, the large Kingdom of Venetia in the northeastern corner of the Italian peninsula joined with the other United Kingdoms of Italy. 6) In 1870, Rome and the surrounding areas finally annexed, completing the Italian unification.

Unification of Germany Over Time

1) In 1865, the German state of Prussia was becoming a dominant political force in Germany. It was large, extending in East Prussia through Silesia in the southeast in what is now Poland. It also controlled areas along the western areas bordering Belgium and the Netherlands. 2) Schleswig, Holstein, and Hanover added to Prussia. By 1866, war had helped to unite Prussia with areas in southern Denmark and central Germany. 3) By 1867, several disparate areas throughout central Germany were added to Prussia to form the North German Confederation. 4) In 1871, war again helped to lead the southern areas of Germany—Lorraine, Alsace, Baden, Württemberg, Bavaria, Hohenzollern—to join with Prussia to complete the unification of Germany.

Key Events of Italian Unification and German Unification

1805—Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte declares himself King of Italy 1806—Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte conquers Germany, and the Confederation of the Rhine is signed 1815—Napoleon Bonaparte is exiled, and the Congress of Vienna creates the German Confederation of 39 states 1820—The Carbonari lead a revolt in Naples for a constitution 1831—Mazzini founds the revolutionary group Young Italy 1834—Prussia begins Zollverein 1847—Cavour starts the newspaper Il Risorgimento 1848—The French King resigns, and revolutions occur in Germany and Italy 1849—Prussian King Frederick William the IV refuses the imperial crown 1858—Victor Emmanuel II is King of the Unified Kingdom of Sardinia 1860—Garibaldi leads the Thousand to take Sicily and Naples 1860—Savoy and Nice given over to France, and Italy declared a new nation 1862—Otto von Bismarck named Prime Minister of Prussia 1866—Prussia defeats Austria in the Seven Weeks' War, and the North German Confederation is made 1870—Bismarck sends the Ems Telegram which prompts France to begin the Franco-Prussian War 1870—Last region added, Italian unification complete 1871—German unification complete, Wilhelm I declared Kaiser (Emperor),and Bismarck made Chancellor of the German Second Reich (Empire)

Bismark

A new era began in 1862 when the new Prussian King Wilhelm I appointed Otto von Bismarck as the prime minister of Prussia. Bismarck's goal was to subdue Austria and make Prussia the dominant power of a unified Germany. Bismarck publicly stated after his appointment as prime minister, "The great questions of the time are not decided by speeches and majority resolutions—that was the big mistake of 1848 and 1849—but by iron and blood." Bismarck's fearlessness and determination soon earned him the title "Blood and Iron Chancellor." Bismarck provoked Austria to fight in the Seven Weeks' War. A single battle, the Battle of Königgrätz on July 3, 1866, decided the war and decided the fate of Austria. Prussian-led Germany would forever exclude Austria. After this victory, the German Confederation was officially dissolved, and several northern German states joined into a North German Confederation with Prussia. In 1867, Bismarck was appointed Chancellor of the North German Confederation, and Wilhelm I served as president. France was afraid of a powerful Germany. Not only had Germany begun to unify, but in 1870, the Spanish throne was vacant and a Prussian-German was considering accepting the Spanish crown. A shrewd strategist, Bismarck saw this as an opportunity to provoke France into declaring war. He edited a telegram—known as the Ems telegram—in a way that insulted France and Spain and released it to the press. Bismarck said of the doctored telegram, "It will have the effect of a red flag on [a] bull," and it did. France declared war the same week, and the odds were that France would win. However, the Franco-Prussian War saw France's defeat. Nationalism and patriotism caused the southern German states to join the German side, and France's perceived aggression in declaring war kept other nations from joining their side.

What Happened in Europe After Napoleon?

After Napoleon, the key European nations—Austria, Prussia, Britain, and Russia—met at what became known as the Concert of Europe, as you read about when you studied the French Revolution. The host of the Concert of Europe, and Europe's leading statesman, was Austrian Prince Klemens von Metternich. He championed the idea of "balance of power." He led the way to legitimizing national governments, stopping revolutions, international peacekeeping, and stabilizing Europe. In short, Metternich wanted to return life as it was before the French Revolution. He held little regard for either Italy or Germany. In a letter Metternich once wrote, "Italy is only a geographical expression." He saw Italy as a cluster of insignificant old city-states and not truly a nation.

Prince Klemens von Metternich:

Austrian statesman (1773-1859)

Cavour

Count Camillo Benso di Cavour (1810-1861) was a politician, rich industrialist, and a great statesman. Opposite of Mazzini, Cavour believed in compromise and the power of the parliament. Paving the road to Italian nationalism, Cavour started the Il Risorgimento newspaper in 1847. Cavour wrote and published articles in the newspaper advocating for war against Austria. He soon moved up through the ranks of elected and appointed political positions. He worked with the French to drive the Austrians out of Italy. In exchange, France gained the territories of Nice and Savoy. It was under Cavour's leadership that northern and central Italy gained independence. Firm in his belief in the importance of a constitution, Cavour designed the national constitution and served as the first prime minister of unified Italy under King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy. He also worked tirelessly to promote industrialization on the primarily rural peninsula.

Zollverein:

German for "customs union," it was started by Prussia in 1834 to increase trade and transport of goods and was ultimately the first step toward German unification

Realpolitik:

German political philosophy meaning "practical politics," it favors material considerations over ideals or principles; Otto von Bismarck was an advocate

Otto von Bismarck:

German statesman under whose leadership Germany was united

What Led to German Unification?

German unification took a different path from Italian unification. After the 39-state German Confederation was established by the 1815 Congress of Vienna, Austria and Prussia competed for domination. In 1834, Prussia unknowingly made the first step toward German unification. It began the Zollverein (German for "customs union") to increase transport and trade of goods. It included the other 37 states and excluded Austria. This made Prussia—with Berlin as its capital city—economically stronger than Austria. In February 1848, the French king resigned from the throne and Austrian Prince Metternich was exiled. This launched the German states (especially those under French control) into a revolution by the next month, March 1848. The people had suffered crop failure and famine, political repression by a foreign monarch, and population growth that could not be economically or socially supported. They now demanded their own constitution and parliament. In response, Frederick William the IV, King of Prussia, waved the tri-colored flag and said that "Prussia is henceforth merged [with] Germany." In April 1849, Frederick William turned down the imperial crown offered him by the Frankfurt National Assembly.

Germany

Germany was also governed by foreign powers. Before the end of the Napoleonic Era, the Confederation of the Rhine counter-balanced the power of Austria and Prussia by placing the rest of Germany under French authority. After 1815, the German Confederation was divided into 39 states. Austria dominated those states while Prussia defended the western border. Although Germany was weak and fractured, the Confederation gave Germans some hope for eventual unification.

Mazzini

Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872) was a patriot and a propagandist. He was forced into exile while in his twenties for his radical beliefs. In 1831 he founded the Young Italy movement. Members called for the creation of a republican nation of Italy free from Austrian rule. Many rallied around Mazzini, agreeing with his cry of "God and People" and call for a "Third Rome." Mazzini spread his ideas and increased his following through publications and speeches. Mazzini was called "the Prophet," preparing the way for future leaders in Italy's unification. When King Victor Emmanuel II helped in the fight for Italian independence, Mazzini criticized him rather than congratulated him. Mazzini wrote in a letter: "You did not act like a brother of the people of Italy. . . You rejected the arm of our People and in an auspicious hour needlessly called for military help from a foreign tyrant."

German Nation Is Born

In January 1871, even before the end of the Franco-Prussian War, Wilhelm I was declared Kaiser (Emperor) of Germany and Otto von Bismarck made Chancellor of the German Second Reich (Empire). The city of Paris was then captured, and France surrendered in February 1871. Germany had subdued its enemies, and its unification was complete.

Italy

In the early 19th century, the Italian peninsula was like a bunch of puzzle pieces loosely connected. The Spanish Bourbons, descendants from French monarchs, ruled some Italian regions. Rome, however, was a Papal State under the pope. Venice and Tuscany were part of the Austrian Empire, which was the dominant power on the peninsula. The King of Sardinia ruled Piedmont, Nice, and Savoy. It seemed unlikely that national unity would develop from such roots; however, Italians were unhappy with the multiple dynasties. Some, like the Carbonari, were especially displeased with the return to a pre-Napoleon ancien régime. They were among the first to challenge the monarchies. They successfully led a revolt in Naples in 1820 to have the Spanish Bourbon king agree to a constitution for that region. However, no one could imagine a truly unified Italy. The country was too diverse politically, culturally, linguistically, and geographically.

Role of Industrialization in Italy's Progress

Industrialization was an important step for Italy's progress. King Victor Emmanuel II called for "an economic awakening . . . closely associated with the political awakening." Upon unification, the new republic could better share resources. Italy utilized hydroelectric and steam power when these became available; railways were laid across the Alps; steel and textile production began; trade increased; compulsory school laws were implemented; people began to prosper; and national pride grew.

Risorgimento:

Italian for "rebuilding," it started as a newspaper published by Cavour, and turned into the major unification movement in Italy

Giuseppe Garibaldi:

Italian patriot; a leader of the Risorgimento; he fought against the Austrians and French in Italy and, with 1000 volunteers, conquered Sicily and Naples for the emerging kingdom of Italy (1860)

Giuseppe Mazzini:

Italian patriot; he founded the Young Italy movement in 1831 and was a leader of the Risorgimento

Count Camillo Benso di Cavour:

Italian statesman who promoted the cause of national unity

Garibaldi

Italian unification was not simply a result of efforts in the north of Italy. In the south, Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882) was the key military leader of the Risorgimento. A supporter of Mazzini, Garibaldi was a revolutionary, spent time in exile, and was also a skilled propagandist. He was trained in guerrilla warfare and won military victories. In 1858, Cavour appointed the rebel Garibaldi an army general to fight Austria. Garibaldi returned a hero. In 1860, Cavour and Garibaldi's relationship soured due to the planned cession of Savoy and Nice (Garibaldi's hometown) to France. In response, Garibaldi led 1,000 men—known as Redshirts—to take the island of Sicily and Naples on the mainland from the Bourbon prince. Shouting the rallying cry, "For Italy and Victor Emmanuel," he won both Sicily and Naples by September 1860 and declared himself dictator of southern Italy. He planned a march on Rome; however, at this point Cavour re-entered the scene and preempted Garibaldi. Despite his unparalleled military accomplishments, Garibaldi was still seen as a rebel. By November 1860, he resigned as dictator and military general. Italy was officially unified in 1871 as a result of the Franco-Prussian War.

How Do Italian and German Unification Compare?

Italy began its unification process first but had more barriers to overcome. The move to nationalism was slow because of political and cultural diversity. Further, industrialization came late, and illiteracy levels were high. In contrast, German industrialization came early, and its literacy was the second highest in Europe. Germany was on its way to being unified before the process actually started. In Italy, many doubted if the states could unify into one country; and three distinct individuals, not including the king, led the way. In Germany, it was a question of who would lead the unification, Austria or Prussia. One key leader, Bismarck, in cooperation with the king, led Germany to unification.

Who Unified Italy?

Italy went through Risorgimento (Italian for "rebuilding") to become the unified nation that it is today. Three men—not working together, but sharing a common goal—were the leaders of Italy's unification period from 1858 to 1870.

What Were the Effects of Italian Unification?

The people of Italy spoke many different regional languages known as dialects. Most people lived in poor, rural areas and were not well educated. They could not read, write, or speak one another's languages. Geographically they were also separated, not only by mountains and waterways, but by the lack of roads, railways, and other infrastructure. In addition, the Catholic Church—based in Rome and led by Pope Pius IX—denounced the new nation of Italy. Italy's unification threatened the power of the Papal State that included Rome as its capital. When Italy occupied Rome, Pius IX retreated to the Vatican Palace and announced himself a prisoner. The next popes did the same. This tension was not resolved until February 11, 1929 when the Lateran Pacts were signed, establishing Vatican City as its own independent nation-state within Rome. Vatican City is in fact its own nation independent of Italy.

What Were the Effects of German Unification?

To achieve his dual goals of beating Austria and unifying Germany, Otto von Bismarck followed the philosophy of Realpolitik. This steered him to make some unexpected decisions that would bring desired final outcomes. For example, after defeating Austria in the Seven Weeks' War, Bismarck did not require Austria to forfeit any land. This decision to sacrifice a short-term gain led to the exclusion of Austria from unified Germany. German unification brought a period of stability to the cultural landscape. This led to a number of intellectual achievements, including the work of scientist Max Planck, philosopher Nietzsche, composer Richard Wagner, and engineer Karl Benz. To keep the desired peace, most German politicians learned to exercise diplomacy with the many neighboring countries. Possibly the most important effect of the unification of Germany is that it upset the delicate balance in Europe. It also established a pattern of war that would wreak havoc on Europe in the 20th century. Following unification, Wilhelm II dismissed Bismarck from his position as Chancellor because he wanted control over the foreign policy of Germany. This decision however resulted in the breakdown of the balance of power created by Bismarck between Russia, Germany, and France. The result was a complex system of treaty arrangements that finally led to World War I, followed shortly thereafter by World War II. It is interesting to see how humanity tries to strategize with the goal unity in mind. But if their desired unity works out "too well", a stronger nation emerges; and often times, the nation is hungrier for more power. Germany desperately sought vast domination twice within twenty-five years. That greedy desire resulted in internal devastation, a chaotic continent, and millions of lives lost.

Carbonari:

a 19th century revolutionary group in Italy; the name means "charcoal burners"

Bourbons:

a dynasty that descended from French King Louis IX; Bourbon royalty reigned in France (16th to 19th century), Spain (18th to 20th century), and parts of Italy (18th to 19th century)

patriot:

a person who vigorously supports their country and is prepared to defend it against enemies or detractors

Redshirts:

a volunteer fighters, the men who fought with and for Garibaldi during the Risorgimento

Seven Weeks' War:

also known as the Austro-Prussian War; it was a war between Prussia and Austria (who received help from Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, and other minor German states); Austria was militarily defeated after the Battle of Koniggratz on July 3, 1866

cession:

formally giving up of rights, property, or territory, esp. by a state

Frankfurt National Assembly:

from 1848-1849, a group of German intellectuals met and wrote a constitution for a constitutional monarchy in Germany; they offered the imperial crown to Prussian King Fredrick William the IV, but he refused it

Prussia:

historical region of northern Germany bordering the Baltic Sea that once served as a major European power

nationalism:

identity from and devotion to one's country; the 19th century was the age of nationalism in Europe

Confederation of the Rhine:

named after the natural boundary of the Rhine River, the Confederation gave all of the German states, minus Austria and Prussia, to France

Franco-Prussian War:

or aptly named, the Franco-German war; it was a war between France and young Germany that lasted from July 1870 until France's surrender in February 1871; it marked the end of France's military domination and the beginning of Germany's military domination in Europe; resentment from the Franco-Prussian War led to the First World War

Victor Emmanuel II:

ruler of the kingdom of Sardinia 1849-1861 and first king of United Italy

Blood and Iron Chancellor:

the name given to Otto von Bismarck because he preferred armed force; he was appointed Chancellor of the North German Confederation in 1867 and then Chancellor of the German Empire in 1871

German Confederation:

the organization of 39 German states determined by the Congress of Vienna after the fall of the Napoleonic Empire; the 2 dominant states of the Confederation were Austria and Prussia

unification:

the process of joining parts together into a whole; in national unification, diverse regions are brought together as one nation

Young Italy:

the revolutionary movement started by Mazzini for an independent Italian nation; because he was in exile, he led the movement from London

guerrilla warfare:

the use of hit-and-run tactics by small, mobile groups of irregular forces