A History of Modern Psychology: Chapter 8
Lewis M. Terman (1877-1956)
Developed the "Stanford-Binet"intelligence test, which has become the standard in intelligence testing. He also adopted the term "intelligence quotient" (IQ) -- a number denoting a person's intelligence, determined by multiplying mental age by 100 and dividing by chronological age - though the compulation was originally developed by a German psychologist.
Hawthorne Effect
refers to changes in behavior occurring as a function of participants' knowledge that they are being observed and their expectations concerning their role as research participants.
Munsterberg contribution to Industrial/occupational psychology
Increase employee efficiency by less talking --> partitions certain amount of work space per person breaks/work hours monotony is bad.. need variety Choose workers for which position that matches their mental and emotional abilities
Hugo Münsterberg (1863-1916)
- applied methods to perception and attention - Psychology and Industrial Efficiency (1913) : selecting works, designing work situations, using psychology in sales - determined what makes a safe trolley car operator -Anti-prohibition, intense german nationalist -Controversial attitudes toward women -"founder" of forensic psychology -Forensic psychology - expert witnesses, lie detector -Industrial/occupational psychology -Psychotherapy -He has been described as a "prolific propagandizer for applied psychology and was also a successful publicist. His work lead to the development of forensic psychology, he was particularly interested in the fallibility of human perception in viewing a criminal event and subsequently describing it accurately. He believed mental illness was really a behavioral maladjustment problem, not something attributable to underlying unconscious conflicts. Münsterberg was also a promoter of industrial psychology. -WWI accused as German spy, and very self-centered -most hated man in America-died of stroke in front of class -believed that mental illness was a behavioral maladjustment, not a result of the unconscious and that psychosis was the result of a deterioration of the nervous system and could not be treated -His colleagues were not pleased with his sensational comments to the press on controversial issues, nor did they approve of his interest in applied psychology.
Lillian Moller Gilbreth (1878-1972)
- pioneered industrial management techniques still used today - human aspect of time management - recognized effect of stress and fatigue on workers - human being most important element in industry - author of Cheaper by the Dozen -First person to receive degree in industrial/organizational psychology -Wrote book, not allowed name on book because editor thought having a women's name would devalue book -invented organization for things like shelves in their refrigerator
Harry Hollingworth (1880-1956)
-A psychologist (and husband of Leta Setter Hollingworth) who was hired by the Coca-Cola Company in 1911 to study the behavioral effects of caffeine on human beings -Ultimately, he demonstrated that sound experimental research could be funded by a major corporate entity without dictating or otherwise prejudicing the results.
Horace Mann Bond (1904-1972)
-A vocal critic of the allegedly inferior intelligence of American Blacks - published a number of books and articles arguing any recorded differences in IQ scores were the result of environmental factors rather than inherited factors. His research showed blacks from northern states scored higher than whites from southern states. -Said differences in IQ scores between blacks and whites were attributable to environmental factors not inherited factors
Alfred Binet (1857-1911) Father of Intelligence Testing
-Although Cattle coined the term mental tests, the first truly psychological test of mental ability was developed by the French psychologist, Alfred Binet. -He believed that assessing cognitive functions such as memory, attention, imagination, and comprehension would provide a more appropriate measure of intelligence -Field: testing -Contributions: general IQ tests, designed test to identify slow learners in need of remediation-not applicable in the U.S. because too culture-bound (French, cultural bias) -Developed first truly psychological test of mental ability used very complex measures -Disagreed with use of sensorimotor processes to judge intelligence -Believed more appropriate measures are memory, attention, imagination, comprehension and mental age. -Developed mental age -Age at which children of average ability can perform certain tasks
Compare the approaches of Cattell and Binet to the development of mental tests. Describe the impact of World War I on the testing movement.
-Cattell wanted to make psychology more valuable by applying it to life situations that would help people. Cattle represented the functionalist spirit of american psychology. Cattell promoted a practical, test-oriented approach to the study of mental processes . He was concerned with human abilities rather than the consciousness. He was one of the first to stress quantification, rankings, and ratings. Cattell coined the term mental test but Binet was the first to truly test mental ability. Binet disagreed with Cattell's approach which used tests of sensorimotor processes to attempt to measure intelligence. Binet used more complex measures which initiated the era of modern intelligence testing. Binet created a test that assessed the intelligence level of recruits to assign them to suitable tasks. -WWI brought about the Army Alpha (read/write English) and Army Beta tests (pictures only). These were to help assess the recruits on level of intelligence. (Created by Robert Yerkes and team). Idea was to be able to give test to many at once (not one-on-one like others). After WWI assessment testing became VERY popular and widespread throughout both business and school realms. The U.S. government's use of psychological assessments seem to have given credibility to their use in the general population. -Importance of testing movement goes into developed group testing, implementation in schools and in the workplace, how they were used to keep "feebleminded" immigrants out of the U.S., and how tests of racial differences in intelligence came to be.
In what ways did Cattell's work alter the nature of American psychology? How did he promote psychology to the public?
-He continued to make the American and functionalist brand of psychology more distinct from Wündtian psychology. -making it more about the real world
In your opinion, are intelligence tests biased against members of minority groups? Defend your answers.
-IQ tests are culturally biased since they show differences between minority groups -National norms are unfair, since Caucasian kids are compared to Caucasian kids and African Americans or Hispanic kids are compared to Caucasian kids. -Minorities may not be culturally ready to take the test -Many intelligence tests have cultural biases because they ask questions that require specific knowledge that may not be universally available. -It requires knowledge of vocabulary, and arcane information such as sayings that many people may not have heard. Other questions, such as pattern recognition are somewhat better but they only measure certain aspects of IQ. Many people who are smart in some areas are dumb in other areas.
James McKeen Cattell (1860-1944)
-Influenced U.S psychology towards a practical, test- oriented approach; met and influenced by Galton. -1st psychologist to teach statistics in courses and stressed the statistical analysis of results (Francis Galton's Influence) -Wanted society to give incentives to brightest and healthiest people to marry their own kind -Coined mental tests highly influenced by Galton (was his student) -Idea that mental intelligence could be measured in terms of sensory capacities -He became interested in psychology as a result of his experiences with drugs (He tried a variety of substances such as hashish, morphine, opium, caffeine, tobacco, and chocolate and found the results to be of both personal and professional interest. He recorded in a journal the effects of the drugs on his cognitive functioning) -Cattell promoted a practical, test oriented approach to the study of mental processes. His psychology was concerned with human abilities rather than the content of consciousness, and to this respect he comes close to being a functionalist. Cattell chose to conduct experiments on reaction time. Cattell and Francis Galton shared an interest in individual differences and Galton provided him with a scientific goal- the measurement of the psychological differences between people. -Under Galton's influence, Cattell became one of the first American psychologists to stress quantification, ranking, and ratings. He was also interested in Galton's work in eugenics. Cattell introduced the term mental tests in an article published in 1890. The kinds of tests he used differed from the intelligence or cognitive ability tests later developed, which measure more complex tasks. His tests, like Galton's, dealt primarily with elementary sensorimotor measurements, including dynamometer pressure,mate of movement, two point skin sensitivity threshold, just noticeable differences, etc. Cattell's strongest influence on psychology was through his work as an organizer and administrator of psychological science and practice, and as an articulate link between psychology and the greater scientific community. -He was also in favor of eugenics like Galton. He promised his 7 children that he would pay them each $1,000 if they would marry sons or daughters of college professors
Mental testing
-James McKeen Cattell, who promoted a practical, test-oriented approach to the study of mental processes. Cattle's psychology was concerned with human abilities rather than the content of consciousness, and in this respect he comes close to being a functionalists -Tests of motor skills and sensory capacity supposedly to show intelligence; intelligence tests use more complex measureless of mental abilities
How did Witmer and Munsterberg differ in their views of clinical psychology?
-Munsterberg: Believed that mental illness was just a behavioral maladjustment -Witmer: Didn't appreciate that simplistic characterization of clinical issues
Define the concepts of mental age and IQ (intelligence quotient). How are they calculated?
-The concept of mental age and IQ defined the different levels of intelligence. -Mental age: The age at which children of average ability can perform certain tasks -IQ: The study was expected to define the levels in terms to measure abilities of children at different ages. This score was calculated by dividing the test taker's mental age by their chronological age, and then multiplying this number by 100 (For example, a child with a mental age of 12 and a chronological age of 10 would have an IQ of 120)
Why did the approaches to psychology pursued by Wundt and by Titchener fail to survive in the United States?
-Their structuralism did not survive, so they evolved to functionalism, because their psychology was not practical in everyday life -Their structuralism could not long survive in their original form in the American intellectual climate, the American Zeitgeist, and so they evolved into functionalism. -A structuralist is interested in mental contents, the "what?" of consciousness experience, while the functional psychologist wants to study mental operations, the "how?" and "why?" of consciousness
How did economic forces influence the development of applied psychology in the United States?
-Those without an independent source of income, were forced to look beyond the university for means of economic survival. The solution was to make psychology valuable by applying it to public schools -Large number of Americans with doctoral degrees who needed to look beyond the university for employment -Application to education was key (around 1910) in applied psychology -Applied psychologists took their psychology into the real world; into schools, factories, advertising agencies, courthouses, chill guidance clinics, and mental health centers -Psychology was advancing not only in the classrooms and experimental laboratories but also out in the real world
Henry Goddard (1866-1957)
-Translated Binet's test to English and presented it to American Psychologists. Later, he would use it to support his belief that believed physicians were identifying less than 10% of the "mentaly retarded" immigrants entering at Ellis Island. He also introduce the word "moron" into the English vocabulary. -Believed that intelligence affected morality -Sterilize uninltelligent immoral women -Testing immigrants at Ellis Island -He was also eugenicist, and his views on population growth and control were very similar to those of the Englishman Francis Galton. Goddard believed that compulsory sterilization would solve the American problem. -Stanford-Binet intelligence test (overestimated mental disabilities in English=speaking places)
Name some women in psychology.
1. Florence L. Goodenough, Ph. D. developed the Draw-A-Man Test, a widely used nonverbal intelligence test for kids. She worked 20 years at the Institute of Child Development. Many other women got involved in the testing movement. 2. Maude Merrill James, director of child psychology clinic, revised edition of the Stanford-Binet with Terman (Terman-Merrill) 3. Psyche Cattle, was the daughter of James Mckeen Cattell. Contributed the testing movement included extending the age range of the Stanford-Binet downward with the Cattell Infant Intelligence Scale 4. Anne Anastasi, third woman to become head of the Psychological Association; used/studied test validity (was unable to bear children so she was free of motherhood and pursued her career)
In what ways did psychology grow and prosper in the United States in the period from 1880 to 1900? Give specific examples.
American psychologist that studied in Germany came back to the united states with information from Darwin, and not Wundt. People did not want to hear about the mind any longer, they wanted practical information that they could use. In 1880 there were no laboratories in the United States and by 1990 there were 41, which were more equipped than the labs in Germany. In 1880 there were no American psychology journals, and by 1895 there were three. In 1880 Americans had to go to Germany to study psychology but by 1900 most chose to enter programs in the US. By the end of the 1900s more then 100 ph.d.s were awarded in psychology. The number of articles written in English went from 30 percent to 52 percent.
How were tests used in the United States to support the notion of racial differences in intelligence and the alleged inferiority of immigrants?
Binets intelligence test were used to detect higher numbers of morons among non-white American racial groups stating that further research into race difference on intelligence should be conducted. Also that the "enormously significant racial differences in general intelligence" could not be fixed by education. The IQ tests were argued to be used in order to control immigration into the USA.
Psychotherapy
Hugo Munsterberg Not subconscious Act opposite to feelings, hypnosis highly criticised wrote "psychotherapy," said some emotions are due to inhibition of emotions behavioural maladjustment
Forensic psychology
Hugo Munsterberg (Founder of Forensic Psychology) Crime prevention - hypnosis in interrogation, mental tests to detect guilt falliability of human perception in viewing a criminal event and subsequently describing it psychological factors can influence a trial expert witness liedetector - rudimentary resp/heart rate tracker above all asserted that psychology has a place in law
Clinical psychology
Largely started by Witmer's efforts to apply psychology to the assessment and treatment of abnormal behavior. Freud's ideas provided clinical psychologists with their initial psychological techniques of therapy. The situation changed dramatically when the US entered WWII in 1941. During and especially after the war, the need for clinical psychologists was great, the demand for mental health professionals was staggering and far exceeded the supply. To help meet these needs, the VA founded university level graduate programs and paid tuition for graduate students willing to work at VA hospitals and clinics. This allowed psychologists to start working with adult disabilities rather than just children's'.
Walter Dill Scott (1869-1955)
Scott left the world of pure introspective psychology to apply the new science to advertising and business. He wanted to make the marketplace and the workplace more efficient and to determine how business leaders could motivate employees and consumers. He was the first person to apply psychology to personnel selection, management, and advertising. Scott argued that because consumers often do not act rationally, they can be easily influenced by advertising. He cited emotion, sympathy, and sentimentality as factors that heighten consumer suggestibility. He also believed women were more easily persuaded than men. He recommended that companies use direct commands to sell products. For selecting employees, Scott devised rating scalds and group tests to measure the characteristics of people who were already successful in those occupations. He was not only measuring general intelligence but in addition was interested in determine how a person used their intelligence. WWI brought about monumental increase in the scope, popularity, and growth of industrial-organizational psychology and WWII brought even more psychologists into war work for testing, screening, and classifying recruits.
Discuss the roles of Scott and Munsterberg in the origin of industrial-organizational psychology. How was industrial-organizational psychology affected by the Hawthorne studies and the two world wars?
Scott was considered one of the founders of industrial-organizational psychology while Munsterberg's work in industrial-organizational psychology was experimental. He looked at problems with attention and fatigue, physical and social influences on the working power, and how the effects of advertising were doing. The Civil Rights movement affected industrial-organizational Psychology because of new way of hiring and firing employees.
How were Scott and Munsterburg different?
Scott-Made rating scales and tests for employees already successful in their careers Munsterburg- Gave selection tests to potential employees before they were hired to determine where they would fit best
What role did Lillian Gilbreth play in the development of industrial-organizational psychology?
She promoted time and motion analysis as a technique to improve efficiency in job performance. She was also one of the first to recognize the value of filming people on the job as a way of analyzing their movements.
How did Hollingworth's research for the Coca-Cola trial help to change American psychology?
The truck was stopped because they believed that Coca-Cola was actually a drug that had negative effects on people. The agents busting the truck claimed that Coca-Cola was poisonous and habit forming. The ingredient in the Cola that they thought was causing these issues was caffeine. The coca-cola company knew they would be in serious trouble if the drink was proved to be a drug, so they decided to hire a psychologist to do research. They first asked James McKeen Cattle, but he wasn't interested. That is when they brought in Harry Hollingworth, a man who was desperate for money and was happy with the services provided.
Explain the WWI and Group Intelligence Testing.
WWI brought about the Army Alpha (read/write English) and Army Beta tests (pictures only, non English speakers). These were to help assess the recruits on level of intelligence. (Created by Robert Yerkes and team). Idea was to be able to give test to many at once (not one-on-one like others). After WWI assessment testing became VERY popular and widespread throughout both business and school realms. The U.S. government's use of psychological assessments seem to have given credibility to their use in the general population. -Importance of testing movement goes into developed group testing, implementation in schools and in the workplace, how they were used to keep "feebleminded" immigrants out of the U.S., and how tests of racial differences in intelligence came to be. -As the American army mobilized for war, military leaders faced the problem of assessing the level of intelligence of great numbers of recruits, to classify them and assign them suitable tasks. The army needed a group test that was impel to administer. Arthur S. Otis developed the multiple choice type question. The Yerkes group then prepared the Army Alpha and Army Beta tests (Beta is for non-English speaking and illiterate people). These tests however lead to false and harmful notions like racial differences in intelligence and they were also very culturally biased.
Discuss the role of women in the psychological testing movement. Why was their work at a professional disadvantage?
We have seen that for much of psychology's history, women were effectively prohibited from seeking university positions. For that reason, many female psychologists found employment in the applied fields, particularly the helping professions such as clinical and counseling psychology, child guidance, and school psychology. Women have made significant contributions in those areas, notably in the development and application of psychological tests. Florence L. Goodenough, Ph. D. developed the Draw-A-Man Test a widely used nonverbal intelligence test for kids. She worked 20 years at the Institute of Child Development. Many other women got involved in the testing movement. Although some women became successful in areas such as testing, working in applied psychology put them at a professional disadvantage. Jobs in nonacademic institutions rarely provide the time, financial support, or graduate-student assistance required to conduct research and write scholars articles, which are the primary vehicles for professional visibility. In an applied setting such as a business agency or a clinic, one's contributions often go unrecognized beyond the confines of that organization. The workforce was still discriminating against women to some extent. Women's roles in the testing movement were to create tests for children and applied work (any work done with people) because they had a lot of knowledge on that specific topic. They didn't have the financial support, time or assistance to go into a university. Which held them back from writing scholarly journals or conduct research, which is why they were always unknown.
Lightner Witmer (1867-1956)
Witmer applied psychology to the assessment and treatment of abnormal behavior. He began the filed he called clinical psychology and opened the world's first psychology clinic. He was interested in assessing and treating learning and behavioral problems in school children, an applied speciality area now called school psychology. As the world's first clinical psychologist, Witmer had no examples or precedents for his actions, so he developed his own diagnostic and treatment approaches. He believed that genetic factors were largely responsible for behavioral and cognitive disturbances, but later realized that environmental factors were more important. He also believed that it was necessary to involve families and schools in the treatment of his patients, arguing that if home and school conditions were improved, a child's behavior might change for the better.
How did the work of Witmer and Munsterberg influence the growth of clinical psychology?
Witmer-First psych clinic, thought environment played a role in childhood behavioral issues. Munsterbug-Believed that mental illness was a behavioral maladjustment. Wrote a book on psychotherapy.
Industrial/organizational psychology
the specialty area within psychology that is concerned with: *The study of behavior in work settings. *The application of psychology principles to change work behavior The primary focus of industrial psychologists firing the 20's was the selection and placement of job applicants, matching the right person with the right job. Studies conducted at the Hawthorne plant extended the filed beyond selection and placement to more complex problems of human relations, motivations, and morale. The Hawthorne studies led psychologists to explore the social psychological climate in the work place. This form of psychology historically has provided career opportunities for women, like Lillian Moller Gilbreth.
Applied psychology
use of psychological principles to improve and influence the lives of others, not treatment -the use of psychological principles and research methods to solve practical problems -Applied psychologists took their psychology into the real world; into schools, factories, advertising agencies, courthouses, chill guidance clinics, and mental health centers -American culture was oriented toward the practical, people valued what worked. Although the American zeitgeist helped foster the emergence of applied psychology, other more practical forces were also responsible for its development. It appeared that the only way to increase departmental budgets and faculty salaries was to demonstrate that the science of psychology could help cure society's ills. Starting with Hall, psychology began to find a place in the real world through its application to education. None of these areas of application would have been possible had psychology remained focused on mental elements or the contents of conscious experience. Consider the following agents of that massive change: 1) Darwin's notion of adaptation and function. 2) Galton's measurement of individual differences. 3) The American intellectual focus on the practical and the useful. 4) The shift within academic research labs from content to function brought about by James, Angell, and Woodworth. 5) Economic and social factors and the forces of war.
