A2 SOCIOLOGY: Religion

Eckhart Tolle (Evaluation of Functionalism)

"The history of communism, originally inspired by noble ideals, clearly illustrates what happens when people attempt to change external reality - create a new earth - without any prior change in their inner reality, their state of consciousness. They make plans without taking into account the blueprint for human dysfunction that every human carries within: the ego."

Giddens (2006) (Weberianism)

'Weber differs from Durkheim in concentrating on the connection between religion and social change, something to which Durkheim gave little attention'

Crockett and Voas

'all major ethnic minority populations are more religious than British-born Whites' - high levels of deprivation exist among white working class so question is why some ethnic groups display higher levels of religiosity under similar economic circumstances - answer linked to ideas and issues related to ethnicity and experience of being ethnic minority

Cook (2003)

'collecting data on ethnicity is difficult because there is no consensus on what constitutes an ethnic group'

Zimbardo (1997

'cult methods of recruiting, indoctrinating and influencing their members' are similar to socialization methods employed in any group/organization - attraction of cults explained by fact that 'cult leaders offer simple solutions to the increasingly complex problems we all face daily', the simple path to happiness, to success, to salvation by following their simple rules, simple group regimentation and simple total lifestyle'

Robinson (2001) (Neo-Marxism)

'six conditions that shape the likelihood of religion becoming a force for social change': 1. Religious worldview shared by oppressed class/group 2. Religious teachings that challenge beliefs and practices of existing social order 3. Clergy closely associated with oppressed groups 4. Single religion shared by oppressed groups 5. Differences between religion of the oppressed and that of ruling class 6. Channels of legitimate political dissent blocked/denied

Bruce (1995) (Neo-Functionalism)

'social scientists have long been aware of the role of religion as social cement; shared rituals and shared beliefs that bind people together. What is not so often noted is the idea religion often divides one group from another'

Melton (2001)

'the term new age refers to a wave of religious enthusiasm that emerged in the 1970s'

Weber (Weberianism)

(in contrast with Marx) Religion is not necessarily conservative force - religiously inspired movements often produced dramatic social transformations - interested in developing a multi-causal analysis of social change that explored how economic, political and ideological factors could combine to promote change - eg; transformation between feudal and capitalist society, Britain as first society to undergo this transformation

Swatos (1998)

- 'feminisation of religions' - religions in Western Europe and USA undergoing 'fundamental orientational change' where 'feminine images of the nature of deity and the role of the clergy come to predominate. God is seen as loving and consoling rather than as authoritarian and judgemental' - members of clergy seen as 'helping professionals' rather than 'representatives of God's justice'

Bruce (1996)

- growth of New Age ideas and cults are consequence of loss of faith in traditional religious leaders and beliefs - attraction of world-affirming groups lies in techniques they offer to bring spiritual dimensions otherwise lacking to people's lives

Martin (1978)

- impossible to distinguish between the religious and the secular in a way that is accessible to academic study because belief systems combined under the same religion are varied and diverse - concept of secularisation has become intellectual tool that is used to attack religion

Putnam

- modern societies seen gradual withdrawal of public participation in all areas of society (eg; trade unions, political parties) - suggests secularisation of participation is part of general cultural transition, not restricted to religious organizations

Weber

- modern world had 'disenchantment with the world'; spiritual, magical and mystical aspects of life diminished and the world became more rational and predictable - secularisation is part of growing rationality, with developments in science and technology undermining religious beliefs

Jehovah's Witnesses (Christian sect)

- past: world created by Jehovah (God); 'the very existence of the intricately designed wonders in the universe surrounding us reasonably argues that a supremely intelligent and powerful Creator produced it all' - present: currently live in 'time of the end' where 'Satan is the visible ruler of the world' - the Earth will never be destroyed but people can die - will go to Hell unless they are Witnesses - future: 'Second Coming' of Christ will destroy everyone but 'True Believers' will be resurrected to enjoy Kingdom of Heaven on Earth

Weber (1993)

- sects are most likely to emerge among marginal groups in society - people not integrated into mainstream society - religious sects appeal to these groups by providing 'theodicy of disprivilege' - religious justification provided by sects for social marginalisation of members

Sahgal and Yuval-Davis (1992)

3 common features of all fundamentalist religions: 1. Claim their version 'to be the only true one'; all others must be opposed 2. Movement feels threatened by alternative secular and religious views of the world (eg; Christian fundamentalism sees atheism and Islam as enemies) 3. Exercise control over individual and society in 3 areas: - ideological: what members believe - internal: how members behave - external: how everyone in society should behave

Bellah (1970)

Civil religion - people in multi-faith countries (eg, USA/UK) tend to be bound together by similarities between the religions or ties to nationality (patriotism) rather than religion - eg; pledge of allegiance (USA) - a belief system that attaches sacred qualities to society itself; this could be an identity or a way of life

Alexander (1995) (Neo-Functionalism)

Draws on work of Parsons (1951); sees societies in terms of functional subsystems (groups of institutions carrying out different but unrelated functions) - cultural subsystem has autonomy from other subsystems - involves institutions whose primary function is socialisation and creation/propagation of cultural values - under certain conditions cultural institutions have potential to promote change because many religions contain theories of past, present, future, not just concerned with questions of order and stability but also change

Mestrovic (1997) (Evaluation of Durkheim's Theory)

Durkheim's theory is no longer relevant due to increasing diversity in society

O'Beirne

Found little evidence of religious belief/practice forming significant part of self-identity; only 20% of respondents considered religion 'an important part of their personal description' - religion ranked far down scale of significance after family, age, work and interests - if religion is no longer source of class identity for Christians, it is significant for some faith communities like Muslims and Hindus - however this broadly cuts across class boundaries - global context - religion is mainly source of ethnic identity for all social classes - respondents with affiliations 'lived in places with low-to-moderate levels of area deprivation'; suggests changing nature of class relationships - they're not played out in relation to strong concepts of social inequality and deprivation - reflects changing nature of established religions; no longer present source of 'hope' for most deprived Exception: Muslim faith - associated with 'the highest levels of area deprivation' - UK: Muslims largely inhabit lowers social strata and religious belief, practice and commitment are integral part of 'Muslim life and identity' - provide moral codes for community and mode of group/individual identity represented by strong and vital religious organisation

Gramsci (1934) (Neo-Marxism)

Hegemony involves idea that beliefs about the world that benefit ruling classes aren't simply imposed by religious organisations - ruling groups maintain dominant positions by 'consent' from those below the social scale

Wilson (1966)

Important feature of modernity is how religion is increasingly marginalised as a social force - religion doesn't disappear entirely but retreats from public to private sphere which results in decline in religion's power and influence over people's perceptions of the world

Bruce (1995)

In modern, secular societies a distinction arises between 2 spheres of behaviour/practice involving different basic values and norms: 1. public sphere - governed by ideas of rationality, instrumentalism and universal values and norms: 'Supermarkets do not ary prices according to the religion, gender or age of the customer' - this sphere is of community, where people meet, greet and interact according ot set of shared ideas and beliefs 2. private sphere - characterised by ideas of expression and affection; represents space where individual is set apart from communal, public sphere

Comte (1830)

In pre-modern societies, tradition, custom and religion were main ways of explaining world and individual's place in society - pre-modern societies lacked scientific knowledge to understand natural phenomena like crop failure or disease - religious/magical explanations filled gaps in people's knowledge, pricing explanations for events that seemed explicable - as scientific knowledge grew, need for religious explanations declined - religion: just necessary stage in human development characterised by superstition and primitive theorising - gradually disappeared as science provided real answers

Stark (1999)

Influence of religious organisations and beliefs in past is overstated and contribution made by religion to contemporary societies understated - religion's influence in modern societies is still strong (eg; provides rationale for moral codes that form basis for political life, religion takes lead in arguing for ethical practices to inform economic life) - strong undercurrent of individual religious belief even in secular societies

Boff and Boff (1987)

Liberation theology: involvement of Roman Catholic priests in revolutionary political movements in parts of South America from the 1960s onwards

Johal (1998)

Many younger British Asians have forged single new hybrid identity ('Brasian') derived from blending British and Asian cultures - established identity by adopting selective elements from religion of parents with strong dimensions of personal choice - eg; religious beliefs might be important, but they may expect to marry who they wish rather than have arranged marriage/partner from same ethnic group, may not necessarily follow traditional religious customs like diet or dress

Wessinger (2012) (Neo-Functionalism)

Millenarian movements expect an 'imminent transition to a collective salvation, earthly and/or heavenly' - followers expect to be rewarded by God for religious beliefs and behaviour - may occur in 2 ways: 1. Catastrophic millenarianism - 'a cataclysmic destruction of the current order so that the "millennial kingdom" can be created' 2. Progressive millenarianism - 'humans working under divine or superhuman guidance to create the millennial kingdom'

Canin (2001)

Mistake to see religion and its relationship to change as either conservative or radical - may play contradictory role - research into Santo Domingo fiesta in Nicaragua - in recent years religious organisations have faced dilemma of pursuing two roles: 1. Conservative - 'traditional paternalistic control of the faithful, focusing their attention away from poverty and suffering in this world and toward miracles and salvation in the next world 2. Liberating - role that developed out of peasant discontent. 'Beyond merely functioning as an "escape valve" for dissent against the status quo, the ritual rebellion of the Santo Domingo fiesta has exploded into actual rebellion at specific historical moments that have preserved a historically forged culture of rebellion. More than providing the sensation of liberation, rituals such as the fiesta provided the framework, if not the material conditions, for the transformation of the social order'

Lambert (1999)

Modernity produces 2 processes: 1. Decline, evidenced by: a) fewer people overtly engaging in religious practices b) more people defining themselves as atheists/agnostics c) general loss of secular political influence 2. Adaptation and reinterpretation, whereby religions: a) adapt to changed position in modernity b) reinterpret role and function to carve out new niche in different societies 3. Conservative reactions resulting in various forms of religious fundamentalism as people struggle to come to terms with demands of change 4. Innovation where religions adapt to new and different challenges people face - defining feature of religion is ability to reinvent for many purposes

Brown

NAM followers are 'less inclined to accept the personal compromises needed to maintain a stable group' - gives NAMs appearance of 'consumerist movements': loose collections of individuals engaging in spiritual shopping whose most cohesive feature is desire to buy into particular belief system

Sedgwick (2004)

NAMs are reflection of individualistic tendencies of postmodern society; people 'want the feel-good factors, but not the cost of commitment. Putting it bluntly it is essentially selfish religion'

Aldridge (2007)

NRMS are mainly sects and cults, and although they consist of very diverse range of groups, they contain some of the most controversial social movements in modern world, posing threats to lives of their own members and wider society

Kelley (1992)

NRMs are founded and populated by educated middle class

Wallis (1984)

NRMs can be classified into 3 broad types based on orientation to and relationship with 'outside world': 1. world rejecting 2. world accommodating 3. world affirming

Miller (1995)

NRMs don't represent newreligious category but combination and repackaging of 2 old categories (sects and cults)

Chryssides (2000)

NRMs involve: - answering fundamental questions about life and death - rites of passage that mark 'key life events' - life-coping strategies addressing 'problems of existence' rather than just personal life issues - ethical codes that set out how life should be lived

Bruce (2002)

New Age religion has 5 main features: 1. The emphasis on the self: freeing the 'self-within' that is seen as essentially good and divine 2. Everything is connected: holistic approach with mind, body and spirit all connected, and individuals connected to environment and supernatural 3. Self is the final authority: there is no authority higher than the individual and no single truth - truth is what individual believes and what works for them 4. The global cafeteria: there is range of beliefs, therapies and techniques drawn from across the globe and people can mix these as they choose 5. Therapy: ideas designed to be therapeutic - to make you more successful, healthier and happier

Berthoud (1998)

Pakistani and Bangladeshi are among poorest ethnic groups in British society - suggests correlation between poverty/class and religiosity

Durkheim

Periods of social change create anomie (sense of normlessness, confusion and uncertainty over social norms, often found in periods of rapid social change and other disruptions of routines and traditions of everyday life) - sects and cults provide solutions by providing new and clearly define belief systems and close-knit supportive social groups - sense of certainty in an uncertain world

Taylor (1987) (Postmodernism)

Postmodernist approaches to religion include arguments that: - 'God is dead' and religion is disappearing - we are witnessing 'return of traditional faith' (resacrilisation) - religion evolves and takes new forms

Barrett (1977)

Rastafarianism (religion appealing mainly to African-Caribbean men) involves assumption that women will take on traditional roles of housewife and mother which Rasta men believe will protect women from racial and sexual harassment by white society - apparent defence of women gives power to men by discouraging women's active engagement and participation in society

Weber (Weberianism)

Religion (in form of Calvinism) provided 'final push' that allowed society with particular level of technological development to break through barrier dividing pre-modern, agriculture based, feudal societies from modern, industrial capitalist societies - Calvinism provided necessary 'spirit of capitalism' - set of ideas and practices that promoted strong and lasting social transformation - religion was source of social change because two things came together at right moment: 1. Technological changes that provided opportunities to create wealth in new and dynamic way 2. Social group (Calvinists) with ideology that allowed opportunities to be exploited

Marx (1844) (Marxism)

Religion did two main, interrelated things: - acted as 'opium of the people', cushioning pain of oppression and exploitation in unequal societies - legitimized and maintained power of ruling class

Durkheim (1912)

Religion fulfills 3 necessary functions: 1. Social solidarity: creates feeling of belonging to group by providing individuals with shared beliefs and values. Acts as source of personal and social identity by specifying moral code to follow (eg; Ten Commandments of Christianity) 2. Social integration: specific ways how social solidarity is created through mechanisms like shared practices and experiences (eg; religious services, ceremonies) 3. Social control: enforce religious-based morals and norms to help maintain conformity and control in society, offering meaning and purpose to answer any existential questions

McGuire (2002)

Religion has a 'dual character' that involves measurement across two dimensions: 1. individual indicators (eg; whether someone hold religious beliefs and whether these are orthodox or unorthodox) 2. social indicators that measure things like religious participation (eg; attendance at religious services and membership)

Modood et al (1994)

Religion is important in lives of minority ethnic communities as source of socialisation and means of maintaining traditional morality (eg; conceptions of mutual responsibility, trust, right and wrong) - helped to cope with worries and pressures arising from hostility and discrimination arising from racism in wider society

Luckmann (1967)

Religion is unique belief system because it: - explains individual's place in the world - provides sense of moral and political order - explains 'why we are here' and what happens after death

Balibar and Althusser (1970) (Traditional Marxism)

Religion provides the ideological justification for things like social inequality that flow from capitalist economic relationships - therefore, religion is inherently conservative force that exists to support economic status quo in two main ways: 1. Oppressively by imposing 'god-given' values and beliefs. This role is played out in societies where religious leaders exercise wide-ranging political and economic power. (eg; Iran, where the religious authorities' interpretation of Shari'ah/Islamic law places restrictions on various aspects of individual freedoms relating to food and dress) 2. Supportively; there are times when capitalist societies undergo economic crises that threaten their stability. In these times, religion channels social dissent and helps preserve status quo by either promoting limited but crucial forms of social change or by managing social transformations

Alpert (1939)

Religion serves 4 major functions: - discipline - cohesion - vitalisation - euphony

Glock and Stark (1965)

Sects emerge as form of religious or social protest of some kind as many embody elements of protest against society - may thus appeal to those who find their values are different to those of existing society or of other religious groups which they see as corrupted

O'Beirne

Christian women slightly more likely than men to participate in 'groups or clubs with a religious link' - reverse true for Muslims

Sark and Bainbridge (1985)

3 types of cult 1. Audience cults - provide little beyond information services for individuals - little if any organization or involvement of followers - service often consumed individually and spread by media (eg; internet, books and magazines) - eg; New Age ideas like astrology, horoscopes, belief in UFOs, reincarnation 2. Client cults - have more organization, offer services to followers (eg; therapy, courses), often sold to clients by practitioners - eg; spiritualism offering contact with the dead or alternative medicine and treatments 3. Cult movements - more organized, involving wider range of activities, support, personal involvement and commitment - eg; scientology - highly organized and commercial, claiming to offer followers route to improved mental health

Hughes and Church (2010)

A way around the problem of reliability in uncovering relisious beliefs is to use a proxy indicator of belief (eg; whether people believe in a 'higher being') - if they do this indicates they hold some form of religious belief - if they don't thus suggests they are unlikely to hold further beliefs that could be classified as religious

O'Beirne (2004)

Across major UK religions: - more women (83%) than men (74%) claimed some form of affiliation to religious organisation like church/denomination - pattern maintained across non-traditional religions like spiritualism and Wicca (both 70% female)

Malinowski (1954)

Agrees with Durkheim that religion promotes solidarity, but does so by performing psychological functions for individuals: 1. where the outcome is important but uncontrollable and uncertain, - lagoon fishing safe and predictably successful; no ritual - ocean fishing dangerous and uncertain; 'canoe magic': gives people sense of control, eases tension, raises confidence to undertake dangerous task, reinforce group solidarity 2. at the times of life crises. - events like birth, puberty, marriage and death; major disruptive changes to social groups - religion helps to minimise disruption (eg, funeral rituals reinforce feelings of solidarity among the survivors and notion of immortality gives comfort to bereaved

Parsons (1967)

Agrees with Malinowski but sees 2 other important functions: 1. religion creates and legitimates society's central values - moral beliefs and values in religion may become so deeply ingrained through socialisation that it may impact everyday behaviours of believers and non-believers - eg; if rules social rules about killing, stealing and adultery are broken, most will experience guilty conscience about doing something wrong- powerful controlling influence 2. it is the primary source of meaning (eg, death - everything happens for a reason) - religion provides 'mechanism of adjustment', providing means of emotional adjustment in face of various crises and providing means of returning to some sense of normality

Crockett and Voas (2004)

As societies modernise, 'the social significance of religion, and participation, declines' because: - ideas and organisations that once had strong hold on people's lives are weakened in large-scale, complex societies - people are exposed to knowledge (eg; scientific explanations/different cultural beliefs) that challenge religious ideas and weaken their power - people develop more individualistic outlook in modernity so their choices of behaviour and belief are reflected in religious pluralism; different form so freilogus, quasi-religious and nonreligious belief

Daly (1973)

Benefits come at price for women in terms of submission to patriarchal control - religions are male-dominated, hierarchical institutions that serve the interest of sexist society' - applies to traditional religions like Islam and Christianity where women rarely have position of power and influence (Church of England - female priests since 1992) - NRMs - men hold most powerful positions

Hadden (2001)

Best understand secularisation by thinking in terms of impact on 3 main dimensions of behaviour: - cognitive dimensions focus on how information and beliefs are organized; people in postmodernity think differently about nature of God or social/natural worlds from people in past with decline in plausibility of religious explanations - institutional dimensions involve ideas that many functions once performed by religious have been taken over by secular institutions - behavioural dimensions suggest religious behaviour retreats from public to private sphere; 'personal faith'

Glock and Stark (1965)

Sects normally develop around two forms of dissent: 1. Religious - including disenchantment with prevailing religious orthodoxy or belief that 'purity' of religious organisation's ideals are compromised through contacts with secular authorities. 2. Social - relating to feelings of individual deprivation. Different types of deprivation lead people to form/join sects: - economic - monetary benefits from membership - social - membership providing status, prestige, power - ethical - values of individual not compatible with those of group/society where they life; sect provides community of 'like-minded individuals'

Wilson (1982)

Sects' main features are that they: - exist in state of tension/conflict with wider society, frequently rejecting society and its values - impose tests of merit on would-be members who claim elite status as alone having access to what they regard as the only route to salvation - exercise stern discipline, regulating beliefs and lifestyles of members, using sanctions against those who deviate (eg; expulsion) - demand ongoing and total commitment, overriding all other interests - often led by charismatic leader - someone with powerful, imposing, 'magnetic' personality that gives them power over other group members

Singer et al (1996)

Some argue NRMs use brainwashing techniques to recruit and keep members; NRMs have 'used tactics of coercive mind control to negatively impact an estimated 20 million victims [in America]. Worldwide figures are even greater'

Heelas et al (2004) (The Kendal Project)

Study of town of Kendal (UK) looked at conventional and unconventional religious behaviour: - recording church attendance Interviewing congregations - observing and interviewing new age spiritual practitioners of things like t'ai chi, reflexology, TM Objective: build as full a picture as possible of 'religious activity', continuities and changes across multiple spiritual domains. This included: - counting everyone who attended one of Kendal's 23 churches on 1 Sunday - counting everyone who participated in alternative forms of spiritual behaviour - difficult as this behaviour doesn't conform to regular weekly/monthly cycles Shows it's possible to accurately measure various dimensions of religiosity across different kinds of spiritual behaviour - also demonstrates difficulties and limitations: - study of a small town (28,000 people) in 1 small area took 2 years to complete - study only looked at Christian churches (no other major religions practiced in town) - defining 'alternative spiritualities' involves grouping variety of practices that may have different spiritual significance to practitioners (eg; yoga or t'ai chi could be seen as lifestyle rather than practice)

Yip (2002)

Summarises contradictory nature of secularisation debate as one that sees religion in 'constant state of transformation (and persistence)'. Evidence for or against secularisation depends more on how religiosity is defined than on any real sense of either decline/resacrilisation: - pro-secularisation theory takes top-down approach; modern societies are more prone to secularisation; institutions, then organisational practices then individual beliefs become secularised - anti-secularisation theory reverses process with individuals being prone to religion; religion is cultural universal that serves human need - while organisational and practical features may change, people remain essentially religious

Baudrillard (1998) (Postmodernism)

Symbols become simulacra: things that simulate meaning of something that may once have had a real meaning - simulations are not imitations; just as real as things they simulate (eg; televised religious services give appearance of participation in real religious services - two experiences are equally real but qualitatively different) - religious simulacra give appearance of religiosity but actually devalue meaning and substance of religion - religion no longer hold central place in everyday life or identity - symbols and beliefs are merely adornments to identity

Stark and Finke (2000)

Traditional explanations argue women are more religious because they are: - more involved in socialising children - less involved in their careers - more likely to join social groups

Bruce (2002)

We can only measure secularisation across 2 types of decline: 1. institutional: reflected in reduced role for religious organisations in areas like government and economy 2. organisational - reflected in general questioning of religious ideas, explanations and practices

Tawney (1926) (Evaluation of Weberianism)

capitalism came into being through technological developments that revolutionised how goods could be produced and distributed

Fafani (2003) (Evaluation of Weberianism)

capitalism developed in some areas of Europe where Calvinism wasn't a religious force

Bental (Traditional Functionalism)

collective conscience involves 'collective presentations that hold society together' which are expressed through norms and values

Durkheim (Traditional Functionalism)

collective conscience: 'will of society experienced as external force that controls individual behaviour

Zimbardo

converts consciously choose to become part of total institution because such institutions offer qualities that many people feel are lacking in modern societies: 'Imagine being part of a group in which you will find instant friendship, a caring family, respect for your contributions, an identity, safety, security, simplicity and an organised daily agenda. You will learn new skills, have a respected position, gain personal insight, improve your personality and intelligence. There is no crime or violence and your healthy lifestyle means there is no illness. Who would fall for such appeals? Most of us, if they were made by someone we trusted in a setting that was familiar, and especially if we had unfulfilled needs'

Stark and Bainbridge

cults draw members from higher social classes

Aldridge

cults see themselves offering one route to self-realization out of a choice of others, with followers making individual choices and drifting in and out of cults depending on what works best for them at the time

Davies (2002)

decline in religious participation is therefore part of general 'process of withdrawal from the public sphere' in contemporary societies

Weber

defines religion as belief in a superior/supernatural power that's above nature and can't be explained scientifically - to be a religion, set of beliefs must include belief in God/supernatural

Kung (1990) (Neo-Functionalism)

functions of religion are now more closely related to questions of personal identity

Bruce (1995)

general attraction of NAMs to middle classes is based on idea that 'spiritual growth appeals mainly to those whose more pressing material needs have been satisfied. Unmarried mothers raising children on welfare tend to be too concerned with finding food, heat and light to be overly troubled by their inner lights and when they do look for release from their troubles they prefer the bright outer lights of bars and discotheques'

Lewis (1998)

identifies 1000+ cults worldwide encompassing huge range or beliefs, behaviours, practices - difficult to identify essential characteristics

Turner (1983) (Evaluation of Marxism)

if we measure religious conviction in terms of things such as church attendance and membership of religious groups, working classes have never been particularly religious

The Iranian Revolution (1979)

involved overthrow of secular regime of the Shah of Persia and establishment of a theocratic democracy

Strinati (1995) (Neo-Marxism)

lower classes 'accept the ideas, values and leadership of the dominant group not because they are physically or mentally induced to do so, not because they are ideologically indoctrinated' - accept ideas because they are powerless to challenge or change them

McLeod (1997) (Postmodernism)

one contradictory link between religion and postmodernity is that religion becomes: - less important in terms of practice (eg; fewer people attend services) - more important as source of personal and social identity

Durkheim (1912) (Functionalism)

page 4 of notes

Jencks (1996) (Postmodernism)

postmodernity 'is a time of incessant choosing. It's an era when no orthodoxy can be adopted without self-consciousness and irony, because all traditions seem to have some validity' - outcome of greater choice and more opportunities, meanings and behaviours is that religious symbols lose original meaning and power as they are adopted into profane world of fashion and display

Lyotard (1979) (Postmodernism)

postmodernity involves 'incredulity toward metanarratives' - no single set of beliefs has/can sustain claim to monopoly of truth

Stark and Bainbridge

saw many world-rejecting NRMs acting as 'compensators' to help deal with problems of marginality, esp. as secularization of mainstream religions has meant they're less able to perform this role

The civil rights movement (USA):

social change was promoted and supported by Black religious organisations and leaders like Martin Luther King

Althusser (1971) (Neo-Marxism)

social scale manufactured 'ideological state apparatus' (religion, education, media) which give messages supporting hegemony of ruling class (eg; there are legitimate ways to express dissent like voting for a change of government - forms of expression never directly challenge economic status quo or hegemony of ruling class)

Barker

the fact that young adults lack responsibilities of work, paying rent or mortgage gives them time and freedom to get involved should they choose to

Weber (Weberianism)

wanted to understand why capitalism developed in some societies (eg; England) but not others even though they reached similar levels of economic and technological development Calvinism (Protestant religion) provided 'final push' allowing England to change in 16h century from poor, agriculture-based, pre-modern society to wealthy, modern, industrial society - provided 'spirit of capitalism' - powerful ideas, beliefs and practices that promoted strong and lasting social transformation; basis of spirit was predestination - believed God would know if individuals were destined to achieve salvation - nothing a person did in course of life could change situation - predetermined before birth