A& P Exam # 1- Study Guide (Given)

Simple Diffusion (Chapter 3)

(Passive transport) -collisions cause molecules to move down or with their concentration gradient (diff. in concentration b/w two areas) -Speed influenced by molecule size and temp. -Lipid-soluble (hydrophobic) substances diffuse directly through phospholipid bilayer (e.g., oxygen, CO2, fat-soluble vitamins)

Facilitated Diffusion (Chapter 3)

(Passive transport) Certain lipophobic molecules (glucose/amino acids) transported passively by either: 1) Binding to protein carriers 2) Moving through water-filled channels

Describe the chemical composition of the plasma membrane and relate it to membrane functions. (Chapter 3)

-75% phospholipids (lipid bilayer) -5% glycolipids (lipids w/ polar sugar groups on outer membrane surface) -20% cholesterol (increases membrane stability) -Lots of proteins! (allow communication with environment)

Homeostatic imbalance (Chapter 1)

-Disturbance of homeostasis --> increase risk of disease --> Contributes to change associated with aging -------> control system less efficient - If negative feedback mechanisms overwhelmed --> destructive positive feedback mechanisms may take over (ex. heart failure )

List the three major regions of a generalized cell and their overall functions. (Chapter 3)

-Plasma Membrane (separates intracellular fluid from extracellular fluid; cellular activity) -Cytoplasm (Hold cytosol, organelles, inclusions) -Nucleus (responds to signals; dictates kinds and amounts of proteins synthesized)

Effector (Chapter 1)

-Receives output from control center -Provides the means to respond -responses either reduces (negative feedback) or enhances stimulus (positive feedback)

3 types of Diffusion (Chapter 3)

-Simple diffusion -Facilitated diffusion -Osmosis

Define a Cell (Chapter 3)

-Structural unit of life -all organisms are composed of one or more/differ in size, shape, functions

Carrier-Mediated Facilitated Diffusion

-Transmembrane integral proteins are carriers -Transport specific polar molecules (sugars/amino acids) too large for channels -Carriers saturated when all engages

What are the 2 types of Passive transport? (Chapter 3)

1) Diffusion 2) Filtration

Many organic compounds are polymers: (Chapter 2)

Chains of similar units called monomers (building blocks)

Name the different levels of structural organization that make up the human body (Chapter 1)

Chemical -Atoms and molecules; and organelles Cellular -Cells Tissue -Groups of similar cells Organ -Contains 2 or more types of tissue Organ System -Organs that work closely together Organismal -All organs systems

Proximal (chapter 1)

Closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk Example: The elbow is proximal to the wrist

Appendicular region of the body (chapter 1)

Consists of the appendages, or limbs, which is attached to the body's axis

Sections (chapter 1)

Cuts or sections made along a body plane

dehydration synthesis (Chapter 2)

A hydrogen atom is removed from a monomer and a hydroxyl group is removed from the monomer it is to be joined with

Adenosine Triphosphate (Chapter 2)

ATP is the energy currency used by the cell. ATP is an adenine-containing RNA nucleotide that has two additional phosphate groups attached. The additional phosphate groups are connected by high-energy bonds. Breaking the high-energy bonds releases energy the cell can use to do work.

What are the nitrogenous bases used in nucleic acids? (Chapter 2)

Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), Uracil (U), and Thymine (T).

Explain the principle of complementarity (Chapter 1)

Anatomy & physiology are inseparable -What a structure can do depends on its specific form -Function always reflects structure

Define anatomy and physiology (Chapter 1)

Anatomy: The study of structure -Subdivision: Gross or macroscopic Physiology: Study of function of the body. -Subdivisions based on organ systems -Often focuses on cellular and molecular level

Deep (internal ) (Chapter 1)

Away from the body surface; more internal Example: the lungs are deep to the skin

Inferior (caudal) (Chapter 1)

Away from the head end or towards the lower part of a structure or the body; below Example: The navel is inferior to the chin

Lateral (chapter 1)

Away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of Example: The arms are lateral to the chest

What are the 2 fundamental divisions of the body? (chapter 1)

Axial appendicular

Why are directional terms so important? (Chapter 1) A. Because they allow us to designate specific areas within major body divisions. B. Because they allow us to accurately describe the position of a human body. C. Because they enable us to identify an extreme anatomical variation in a human body. D. Because they allow us to explain where one body structure is in relation to another.

Because they allow us to explain where one body structure is in relation to another. Directional terms allow us to explain where one body structure is in relation to another. (p.13)

Intermediate (chapter 1)

Between a more medial and a more lateral structure Example: The collarbone is intermediate between the breastbone and shoulder

Carbohydrates (Chapter 2)

Carbohydrates are a group of molecules including sugars and starches. -contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Monosaccharides are simple sugars containing 3-7 carbon atoms (one sugar) -Pentose (Ribose and deoxyribose)and Hexose (glucose) sugars Disaccharides are formed when two monosaccharides are joined by dehydration synthesis. Too large to pass through cell membrane. (two sugars) -Sucrose, maltose, lactose Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides linked together by dehydration synthesis. (many sugars)

Organic compounds (Chapter 2)

Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and nucleic acids. Contain carbon (except C02 and CO which are considered inorganic). usually large, and are covalently bonded.

Which of the following best describes a sagittal plane? (chapter 1) A. a vertical plane that divides the body into right and left parts B. a horizontal plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior parts C. a horizontal plane that divides the body into superior and inferior parts D. a vertical plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior parts

a vertical plane that divides the body into right and left parts

Positive Feedback Mechanisms (Chapter 1)

a. A positive feedback mechanism causes the variable to change in the same direction as the original change, resulting in a greater deviation from the set point. b. Positive feedback mechanisms typically activate events that are self-perpetuating. -Responses enhances or exaggerates original stimulus - May exhibit cascade or amplifying effect -Usually controls infrequent events that do not require continuous adjustment

Negative Feedback (Chapter 1)

a. Most homeostatic control mechanisms are negative feedback mechanisms. b. A negative feedback mechanism causes the variable to change in a way that opposes the initial change. c. Both the nervous system and the endocrine system are important to the maintenance of homeostasis. d. The goal of negative feedback mechanisms is to prevent sudden, severe changes in the body.

Which of the following is an example of a positive feedback mechanism? (Chapter 1) A. the control of blood sugar by insulin B. the regulation of body temperature C. the control of blood volume by ADH D. blood clotting

blood clotting Blood clotting is a normal response to a break in the lining of a blood vessel, and is an excellent example of an essential body function controlled by positive feedback. (p. 10-11)

Amphipathic (Chapter 2)

chemical compound possessing both hydrophilic (water-loving, polar) and lipophilic (fat-loving) properties.

Describe how negative and positive feedback mechanisms maintain body homeostasis (chapter 1)

EXAMPLE: Temperature. Like a heating system your body will

What are organic compounds synthesized by? (Chapter 2)

dehydration synthesis

Control Center (Chapter 1 )

determines the set point, which is the level or range at which a variable is to be maintained. -Determines set point at which variable is maintained -receives input from receptor -Determines appropriate response

Which of the following processes requires a receptor, a control center, and an effector? (Chapter 1) A.homeostatic control B. responsiveness C. movement D. maintaining boundaries

homeostatic control

What are organic compounds broken down by? (Chapter 2)

hydrolysis reactions

Steroids (Chapter 2)

interlocking 4-ring structure Most important steroid: CHOLESTEROL

Receptor (chapter 1)

is some type of sensor that monitors the environment and responds to changes , called stimuli , by sending information (input) to the second component (control center) (Sensor) -Monitors environment -Responds to stimuli (something that causes changes in controlled variables)

The human body as a whole is enclosed and protected by the integumentary system. This is an example of a necessary life function. Select the correct function from the list below. (Chapter 1) A. metabolism B. homeostasis C. maintaining boundaries D. responsiveness

maintaining boundaries Every living organism must maintain its boundaries so that its internal environment (its inside) remains distinct from the external environment surrounding it (its outside). The human body as a whole is enclosed and protected by the integumentary system, or skin, which protects our internal organs from drying out, bacteria, and the damaging effects of heat, sunlight, and an unbelievable number of chemicals in the external environment. (p. 5)

Which of the following represents the sum total of all structural levels working together to keep us alive? (Chapter 1) A. molecular level B. organismal level C. chemical level D. organ system level

organismal level The organismal level represents the sum total of all structural levels working together to keep us alive. (p. 3)

What 4 elements make up 96% of the human body? (Chapter 2)

oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon

Which of the following is the regional term designating the limbs? (Chapter 1) A. the lateral part B. the appendicular part C. the axial part D. the medial part

the appendicular part The appendicular part consists of the appendages, or limbs, which are attached to the body's axis.( p. 14)

DNA (Chapter 2)

the genetic material of the cell found within the nucleus. Structure:double-stranded polymer containing the nitrogenous bases A, T, C and G and the sugar deoxyribose A bonds to T and C bonds to G

Blood flows in one direction through the heart because the heart has valves that prevent backflow. This phenomenon exemplifies __________. (Chapter 1) A. the principles of cardiovascular physiology B. the hierarchy of structural organization C. the principle of microscopic anatomy D. the principle of complementarity of structure and function

the principle of complementarity of structure and function

Which of the following best defines physiology? (Chapter 1) A. the study of tissues B. the study of how the body parts work and carry out their life-sustaining activities C. the study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another D. the study of all chemical reactions that occur within body cells

the study of how the body parts work and carry out their life-sustaining activities Physiology concerns the function of the body: how the body parts work and carry out their life-sustaining activities. (p. 2)

Which of the following best describes macroscopic anatomy? (Chapter 1) A. the study of structures too small to be seen with the naked eye B. the study of structural changes that occur in the body throughout one's lifespan C. the study of structural changes caused by disease D. the study of large body structures visible to the naked eye, such as the heart, lungs, and kidneys

the study of large body structures visible to the naked eye, such as the heart, lungs, and kidneys Gross, or macroscopic, anatomy is the study of large body structures visible to the naked eye, such as the heart, lungs, and kidneys. (p. 2)

The ventral body cavity is subdivided into which of the following sets of cavities? (Chapter 1) A.the vertebral/spinal and cranial cavities B. the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities C.the vertebral/spinal, abdominopelvic, and thoracic cavities D.the vertebral/spinal, cranial, and pleural cavities

the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities The ventral body cavity has two major subdivisions, the thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity. (p. 14)

A serosa, or serous membrane, can be found within which one of the following body cavities? (Chapter 1) A. the ventral body cavity B. the cranial cavity C. the dorsal body cavity D. the spinal cavity

the ventral body cavity The walls of the ventral body cavity and the outer surfaces of the organs it contains are covered by a thin, double-layered membrane, the serosa, or serous membrane. (p. 18)

The coronal plane divides the body into superior and inferior parts. (Chapter 1) A. True B . False

False A coronal plane is also called a frontal plane; these planes lie vertically, and divide the body into anterior and posterior parts. (p. 14)

Distal (chapter 1)

Farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk Example: The knee is distal to the thigh

Some important polysaccharides and their role in the body: (Chapter 2)

Glycogen-storage carbohydrate of animal tissues stored primarily in skeletal muscle and liver cells. Liver cells break down glycogen and release its glucose into the cells when blood sugar gets too low Starch-storage carbohydrate stored by plants. It is important for providing the bulk (form of fiber) that helps moves feces through colon. Cellulose: plant product made of unbranched glucose polymers (cotton, linen) like molecular cables. all glucose

Define homeostasis and explain its significance. (Chapter 1)

Homeostasis is the ability of the body to maintain a relatively constant internal environment, regardless of environmental changes -Maintenance of relatively stable internal conditions despite continuous changes in environment -A dynamic state of equilibrium -Maintained by contributions of all organ systems

Mid-Sagittal Plane (median) (Chapter 1)

Lies on midline

Lipids (Chapter 2)

Lipids are insoluble in water Contain C, H, O and sometimes P Triglycerides (neutral fats) are commonly known as fats when solid and oils when liquid. Phospholipids are diglycerides with a phosphorus-containing group and two fatty acid chains, important in the cell membrane. Amphipathic!

Triglycerides (Chapter 2)

Main functions are energy storage, insulation and protection -Rich in chemical energy -Long term energy storage -insoluble in water Three fatty acids + glycerol

Axial region of the body ( Chapter 1)

Makes up the main axis of our body , includes the: -head -neck - & trunk

Phospholipids (Chapter 2)

Modified triglycerides "head" (polar, attracts water) and "tail" (non polar) regions have different properties Important in cell membrane structure

Parasagittal Plane (Chapter 1)

Not on midline -All other planes off set of midline

Nucleic Acids (DNA and RNA) (Chapter 2)

Nucleic acids are the largest molecules in the body. Nucleotides are the structural units (monomers) of nucleic acids. Each nucleotide consists of three components: a pentose sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen-containing base.

Filtration (Chapter 3)

Passive transport usually across capillary walls

Relate plasma membrane structure to active and passive transport processes. (Chapter 3)

Plasma membranes are selectively permeable: some molecules pass through lipid bilayer easily/some do not Active processes: -Energy (ATP) required -Occurs only in living cell membranes Passive processes: -No ATP required -Substance moves down its concentration gradient

Four structural levels of proteins: (Chapter 2)

Primary- linear sequence of amino acids Secondary-twisting and bending of linear chains Tertiary-superimposed on a secondary structure Quaternary-two or more polypeptide chains aggregate to form a complex protein

Proteins (Chapter 2)

Proteins compose 10-30% of cell mass. They are the basic structural material of the body. They also play vital roles in cell function. Proteins are long chains of amino acids connected by peptide bonds. 20 different building blocks (amino acids)

Major function of carbohydrates in the body: (Chapter 2)

Provide cellular fuel

RNA (Chapter 2)

RNA is located outside the nucleus and is used to make proteins using the instructions provided by the DNA. The structure of RNA is a single-stranded polymer containing the nitrogenous bases A, G, C, and U, and the sugar ribose. In RNA, G bonds with C, and A bonds with U.

Example of Negative Feedback : Regulation of Blood Glucose by insulin (Chapter 1)

Receptors sense increase blood glucose Pancreas (control center) secretes insulin into blood Insulin causes blood cells (effectors) to absorb more glucose, which decreases blood glucose levels

Pedal (foot) (chapter 1)

Regional Term Consist of: Tarsal (ankle) Calcaneal Metatarsals Digital Plantar Hallux

Upper limb (chapter 1)

Regional term Consist of: Acromial Brachial (arm) Antecubital Olecranal Antrebrachial (forearm) Carpal Wrist

Lower limb (chapter 1)

Regional term Consist of: Coxal (hip) Femoral (thigh) Patellar Popliteal Crural (leg) Sural(calf) Fibular or peroneal

Pelvic (chapter 1)

Regional term Consist of: Inguinal (groin)

Manus (hand) (chapter 1)

Regional term Consist of: Pollex Metacarpal Palmar Digital

Back (dorsal) (Chapter 1)

Regional term Consist of: Scapular Vertebral Lumbar Sacral Gluteal Perineal (between anus and external genital

Thoracic (chapter 1)

Regional term Consist of: Sternal Axillary Mammary

Abdominal (chapter 1)

Regional term Consist of: Umbilical

Cephalic (chapter 1)

Regional term Consist of: Frontal Orbital Nasal Oral Mental

Regional terms used to designate specific body areas (chapter 1)

See diagram

Interactions among the elements of a homeostatic control system maintain stable internal conditions (Chapter1)

See picture

Carbon is electroneutral: (Chapter 2)

Shares electrons, never gains or loses them. Forms four covalent bonds with other elements.

Examples of diseases that can result from misfiled proteins: (Chapter 2)

Sickle cell anemia- abnormal hemoglobin. change in an amino acid in a beta chain globulin molecule . hemoglobin becomes stiff and sharp and cell is crescent shaped Prion diseases- protein misfolding Alzheimers disease: protein misfolding, more common. a membrane-bound protein (amyloid) in brain neurons is cleaved by two secretes enzymes.

Which of the following statements is correct? (Chapter 1) A. The breastbone is ventral to the spine. B. The heart is ventral to the breastbone. C. The breastbone is posterior to the spine. D. The heart is posterior to the spine.

The breastbone is ventral to the spine.

Which of the following statements is correct? (chapter 1) A. The navel is cranial to the chin. B. The navel is lateral to the chin. C. The navel is medial to the chin. D. The chin is superior to the navel.

The chin is superior to the navel. The terms cranial and superior are synonymous, meaning "toward the head end or upper part of a structure or the body; above." As such, the chin is cranial/superior to the navel (p. 12)

Which of the following is true of positive feedback mechanisms? (Chapter 1) A. Their purpose is to prevent sudden severe changes within the body. B. The output shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its intensity. C. The variable changes in a direction opposite to that of the initial change. D.The result or response enhances the original stimulus, and the response is accelerated.

The result or response enhances the original stimulus, and the response is accelerated.

Compare the structure and function of tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions. (Chapter 3)

Tight Junctions (Adjacent integral proteins fuse --> form impermeable junction encircling the cell; prevent molecules from passing through extracellular space) Desmosomes ("rivets" or "spot-welds" that anchor cells together; prevents cell separation "velcro") Gap junctions (communicating junction between adjecent cells; allow ions and small molecules to pass for intercellular communication

Where would you find tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions in the body? (Chapter 3)

Tight Junctions (b/w epithelial cells lining the digestive tracts) Desmosomes (abundant in skin & heart muscle) Gap Junctions (electrically excitable tissue, such as heart and smooth muscle)

Describe the anatomical position. (Chapter 1)

To describe body parts & position accurately, we need an initial reference point , and we must indicate direction. The body is erect with feet slightly apart. Body looks as if it is "Standing at attention," except the the palms face forward and the thumbs point away from the body.

Dorsal (posterior *) (chapter 1)

Toward or at the back of the body; behind Example: The heart is posterior to the breastbone

Medial (chapter 1)

Toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of Example: The heart is medial to the arm

Superficial (chapter 1)

Towards or at the body surface Example: The skin is superficial to the skeletal muscles.

Ventral (anterior*) (chapter 1)

Towards or at the front of the body ; in front of Example: The breastbone is anterior to the spine

Superior (Cranial) (chapter 1)

Towards the head end or upper part of a structure or the body; above Example:The head is superior to the abdomen

Embryology is a subdivision of anatomy that deals with developmental changes that occur before birth. (Chapter 1) A. True B. False

True

It is possible for slight anatomical variations to occur in a human body; for example, a nerve or blood vessel may be somewhat out of place, or a small muscle may be missing. (Chapter 1) A. True B. False

True

Metabolism includes all three of the following: (1) breaking down substances into their simpler building blocks, (2) synthesizing complex cellular structures from simpler substances, and (3) using nutrients and oxygen to produce ATP. (Chapter 1) A. True B. False

True

The knee is distal to the thigh. (Chapter 1) A. True B. False

True

How are proteins able to carry out virtually all cell's activities? (Chapter 2)

Virtually unlimited in molecular structure. Each protein has a unique structure suited for its function HIGH DEGREE OF SPECIFICITY

Inorganic compounds (Chapter 2)

Water, salts, and many acids and bases Do NOT contain carbon

Can we make sugar on our own? (Chapter 2)

We can make sugar on our own, we do not have to rely solely on ingesting it

Why is there extreme anatomical variations inconsistent with life? (chapter 1)

We see these extreme variations because they are incompatible with life