A&P 201 Midterm Study Guide

Name the hormones of the body, where they are released, how they are controlled, and how they affect the body.

(Pituitary Gland: Anterior Lobe) Growth hormone. Prolactin. Thyroid-stimulating hormone. Adrenocorticotropic hormone. Luteinizing hormone. (Posterior Lobe) Antidiuretic hormone. Oxytocin. (Thyroid Gland) Thyroxine. Triiodothyronine. Calcitonin. (Adrenal Gland) Aldosterone. Cortisol. Adrenal androgens. (Pancreatic Islets) Glucagon. Insulin. Somatostatin

Describe difference between T cells and B cells

--B cells are most effective in fighting bacteria. Major function is to produce antibody. There are memory B cells that stay in the body for long periods of time and when same antigen enters the body, they can make antibody very quickly. They start in the bone marrow as undifferentiated cells and then somehow are altered to have surface antigens that identify them as B cells. The fully mature B cell is a plasma cell that has the ability to make antibody. --T cells are a type of white blood cell that is of key importance to the immune system and is at the core of adaptive immunity, the system that tailors the body's immune response to specific pathogens. The T cells are like soldiers who search out and destroy the targeted invaders.

Compare and contrast primary versus secondary immune responses

--The primary immune response occurs the first time that the immune system comes in contact with the antigen. During this time the immune system has to learn to recognize antigen and how to make antibody against it. This primary response takes time (about two weeks) and during this time the person experiences signs of illness. --The secondary immune response occurs the second time (3rd, 4th, etc.) the person is exposed to the same antigen. At this point immunological memory has been established and the immune system can start making antibodies immediately. The antigen usually is killed within minutes and the person is not aware that he/she was attacked.

Which metabolic reactions release hydrogen ions into body fluids?

-Anaerobic respiration of glucose -Aerobic respiration of glucose -Incomplete oxidation of fatty acids -Oxidation of sulfur-containing amino acids

What are the functions of the accessory organs/glands in the digestive system

-liver (produces bile, which emulsifies fat) -gallbladder (stores bile and introduces it into the small intestine) -pancreas (produces and secretes pancreatic juice, containing digestive enzymes and bicarbonate ions, into small intestine) -salivary glands (secrete saliva, which contains enzymes that initiate breakdown of carbs)

Describe the layers of the digestive tract

4 layers: -mucosa (epithelium, connective tissue, smooth muscle) -submucosa (loose connective tissue, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, nerves) -muscular layer (smooth muscle fibers in circular and longitudinal groups) -serosa (epithelium, connective tissue)

What are normal levels and percentages of RBC

4,600,000-6,200,000 in males. 4,200,000-5,400,000 in females. 4,500,000-5,100,000 in children. RBCs are 45% of the blood.

What happens if a clots forms within blood vessels

A thrombus is made. If it breaks loose of the vessel wall and begins circulating through the body, then it is called an embolus, which can travel into tighter vessels and get trapped, causing death

What antigens can be found on RBC? What antibodies can be found in the plasma? How do these create different blood types?

A, B, AB, or none. A, B, AB, or none. A, B, AB have antigens on their surfaces, creating the blood types.

Describe non-steroid hormones.

Amines, proteins, peptides, and glycoproteins. The endocrine gland secretes nonsteroid hormones, which body fluid carries hormone to its target cell. Hormone combines with receptor site on membrane of its target cell, activating G protein. Adenylate cyclase molecules are activated in cell's membrane. Adenylate cyclase circularizes ATP into cyclic AMP. Cyclic AMP activates protein kinases. Protein kinases activate protein substrates in the cell that change metabolic processes. Cellular changes produce the hormone's effects.

Describe the different enzymes/chemicals used within digestion, where they are used, and what they digest

Amylase, produced in the mouth. It helps break down large starch molecules into smaller sugar molecules. Pepsin, produced in the stomach. Pepsin helps break down proteins into amino acids. Trypsin, produced in the pancreas. Trypsin also breaks down proteins. Pancreatic lipase, produced in the pancreas. It is used to break apart fats. Deoxyribonuclease and ribonuclease, produced in the pancreas. They are enzymes that break bonds in nucleic acids like DNA and RNA.

How does an autoimmune disease work?

An autoimmune disease arises when the body's cells lose their ability to distinguish between self and non-self antigens. When this happens, the body mounts an immune response against what is really healthy tissue, (but they think is a foreign particle), and the body attacks itself causing tissue, organ, and joint damage as well as pain, fever, and swelling.

What is a trace element?

An element that is required in miniscule amounts for life

How is an incomplete protein different than a complete protein

An incomplete protein cannot by itself maintain human tissues or support normal growth and development. A complete protein has adequate amounts of the essential amino acids to maintain human body tissues and promote normal growth and development.

What is interferon? Compliment?

An interferon blocks viral replication, stimulates macrophages to engulf viruses, stimulates B cells to produce antibodies, and attacks cancer cells. A compliment is a group of proteins in plasma and other body fluids that interact in an expanding series of reactions of cascade.

How is the anterior pituitary gland different than the posterior pituitary gland?

Anterior pituitary gland (andenohypophysis): secretes a number of hormones, including growth hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, adrenocoticotropic hormone, follicle-stiumlating hormone, luteinizing hormone, and prolactin. Posterior lobe (neurohypophysis): cells of this lobe do not synthesize hormones, specialized neurons whose axons endings enter the posterior lobe secrete into the bloodstream two important hormones: antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin

Compare an antigen to an antibody.

Antigens are substances that provoke an immune response (they're the ultimate target for the immune system). Antibodies are simply proteins that are secreted as a result of the antigen provoked immune response. In short, antigens cause the disease and antibodies cure it.

What terms are used to describe abnormal heart rhythms

Atrial fibrillation. Ventricular fibrillation. Tachycardia. Bradycardia. Atrial flutter.

Describe what is happening in the heart during atrial systole/ventricular diastole and atrial diastole/ventricular systole

Atrial systole: Blood under low pressure flows into the left and right atria from the pulmonary vein (left) and vena cava (right). As atria fill pressure against atrioventricular valves pushes them open and blood starts leaking into the ventricles. The atria walls the contract forcing more blood into the ventricles. Ventricular diastole: Ventricles contract from base upwards increasing the pressure, pushing the blood up and out through semilunar valves into the aorta on the left side and the pulmonary artery on the right side. The pressure of blood against the atrioventricular valves closes them and prevents and prevents back-flow into the atria. Atrial diastole: Atria and ventricles relax during diastole. Elastic recoil lowers pressure in the atria and ventricles. Blood under higher pressure in the arteries is drawn back towards the ventricles, closing the semi-lunar valves and preventing further backflow. The coronary arteries fill during diastole. Low pressure in the atria helps draw blood into the heart from the veins. Ventricular systole: Contraction, blood is forced into the aorta and pulmonary artery

What is BMI? BMR?

BMI - Body mass index, used to assess weight considering height. BMR - Basal metabolic rate, rate at which body expends energy at rest.

What is bile? How does is work?

Bile is a yellowish-green liquid that is continuously secreted from hepatic cells. In addition to water, bile contains bile salts, bile pigments, cholesterol, and electrolytes. Hepatic cells use cholesterol to produce bile salts, and in secreting these salts, they release some cholesterol into the bile. Bile pigments (bilirubin and biliverdin) are breakdown products of hemoglobin from red blood cells.

Describe the pathway of blood into, through, and out of the heart

Blood from systemic circuit Venae Cavae and coronary sinus Right atrium Right ventricle Pulmonary trunk Pulmonary arteries Pulmonary capillaries (lungs) Pulmonary veins Left atrium Left ventricle Aorta Blood to systemic circuit

What factors can influence heart rate and/or blood pressure

Blood pressure: cardiac output, blood volume, peripheral resistance, and blood viscosity. Heart rate:

Describe normal blood: number of each cell type, Ph.

Blood volume is about 8% of body weight. An average adult has about 5 liters of blood. RBC count is usually 4,600,000-6,200,000 in males and 4,200,000-5,400,000 in females. WBC are usually 5,000-10,000 per cubic mm of blood. Platelets are usually 130,000-360,000 per cubic mm of blood. Ph is normally 7.4.

Why might blood volume differ from one person to the next

Blood volume varies with body size

How are pheromones different than hormones?

Both are produced inside the body, but pheromones function outside the body, while hormones function inside the body.

Describe the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats

Carbohydrates: digestion begins in the mouth with the activity of salivary amylase and is competed in the small intestine by enzymes from the intestinal mucosa and pancreas. The resulting monosaccharides are absorbed by facilitated diffusion. Protein: digestion begins in the stomach as a result of pepsin activity and is completed in the small intestine by enzymes from intestinal mucosa and the pancreas. Protein molecules are ultimately broken into amino acids, which are then absorbed into the villi by active transport and enter circulation. Fats: digested almost entirely by enzymes from the pancreas and internal mucosa.

Give examples of proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids within the body

Carbohydrates: glucose and sucrose Proteins: enzymes, hemoglobin, actin Lipids: steroids, triglycerides, phospholipids

Describe the three major macronutrients: carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins

Carbohydrates: organic compounds, including sugars and starches. The energy held in their chemical bonds is used to power cellular processes. Lipids: organic compounds that include fats, oils, and fat-like substances such as phospholipids and cholesterol. Proteins: composed of amino acids

How does aging affect the cardiovascular system

Cholesterol deposition happens in the blood vessels, the heart enlarges, cardiac muscle cells die, there is an increase in fibrous connective tissue, adipose tissue and blood pressure and a decrease in resting heart rate.

How is diabetes insipitus different than diabetes millitus?

Diabetes insipidus: Extremely copius urine produced due to a deficiency of antidiuretic hormone or lack of ADH response. Diabetes mellitus: Elevated glucose in urine and blood due to a deficiency of insulin or a poor response to it.

Differentiate between mechanical and chemical digestion within the different organs of the GI tract

Digestion in the mouth is mechanical and also chemical in that it both breaks up food mechanically with the teeth and chemically with enzymes in the saliva. Digestion in the stomach is chemical as it mixes the food with gastric juice, including pepsin and HCl. The small intestine mixes food with bile and pancreatic juice, breaking food down chemically with enzymes. The liver produces bile, which emulsifies fat--chemical digestion. The gallbladder stores bile and introduces it into the small intestine--chemical digestion. The pancreas produces and secretes pancreatic juice, containing digestive enzymes and bicarbonate ions, into small intestine--chemical breakdown. And the salivary glands secrete saliva, which contains enzymes that initiate breakdown of carbs (also chemical).

Describe and EKG. What is occuring within the heart during each part of the EKG?

EKG is a recording of the electrical changes in the myocardium during a cardiac cycle. Between cycles, the muscle cells remain polarized, with no detectable electrical changes. When the SA node triggers a cardiac impulse, the atrial cells depolarize, producing an electrical change.

How is an essential amino acid different than a non-essential amino acid?

Essential amino acids cannot be made by the body. As a result, they must come from food. Non-essential amino acids are those which can be produced from other amino acids and substances in the diet and metabolism.

What are the differences between fat and water soluble vitamins?

Fat-soluble vitamins dissolve in fats and are influenced by lipids. Water-soluble vitamins include vitamins B and C. Too many water-soluble vitamins results in excess being excreted in the urine. Too many fat-soluble vitamins results in extra fat stores in the body.

Describe a lymphatic vessel

Fine, thin-walled, transparent valved channels distributed through most tissues. They have 3 walls: intima, media, and adventitia.

Describe the different types of motility and mixing within the digestive system

Food is first mixed with saliva in the mouth and then is pushed down the esophagus by peristalsis. Then it is mixed with gastric juice and pushed into the small and large intestine where it is moved along toward the rectum by segmentation.

Compare and contrast glucagon and insulin

Glucagon stimulates the liver to break down glycogen and convert noncarbohydrates into glucose and it stimulates the breakdown of fats. Insulin promotes the formation of glycogen from glucose, inhibits conversion of noncarbohydrates into glucose, and enhances movement of glucose through adipose and muscle cell membranes, decreasing blood glucose concentration and promotes transport of amino acids into cells, as well as enhances synthesis of proteins and fats. Both work to keep blood glucose concentration constant, but glucagon breaks down glycogen into glucose and insulin forms glycogen from glucose.

Describe the steps in clot formation

Hemostasis - the stoppage of bleeding. 1. Blood vessel spasm - smooth muscle in blood vessel contracts 2. Platelet plug formation: a. break in vessel wall b. blood escapes through break c. platelets adhere to each other, to end of broken vessel, and to exposed collagen d. platelet plug helps control blood loss 3. Blood coagulation - clot forms (occurs extrinsically or intrinsically).

What is a hormone and how does it act?

Hormones are chemical messengers that are responsible for regulation. They are secreted into body fluids, mainly blood. It has specific actions on target tissues, which are any tissue that has specific receptors for that particular hormone.

Describe tropic hormones.

Hormones that stimulate another endocrine gland to release a hormone

Describe the roles of IgG, IgD, IgE, IgA, and IgM.

IgG- is in plasma and tissue fluids and is effective against bacteria, virsuses, and toxins and it activates complement proteins. IgA- is in breast milk, tears, nasal fluid, gastric juice, intestinal juice, and urine and it is an exocrine gland secretion. IgM- is a type of antibody produced in plasma in response to contact with certain antigens in foods or bacteria. IgD- is on the surfaces of most B cells and acts as an antigen receptor and is important in activating B cells. IgE- appears in exocrine secretions with IgA. It is associated with allergic reactions.

Where is the heart found

In the mediastinum of the thorax, resting on the diaphram

Compare and contrast innate barriers versus adaptive immunity

Innate barriers are nonspecific in that they cause pain, swelling, fever, and phagocytosis; they are general body reactions to pathogens. Adaptive immunity is specific and includes antigens and antibodies. In adaptive immunity, the body has to be able to distinguish between self and non-self in order to function properly.

How is interleukin-1 used?

It helps activate T cells.

What is cholesterol? What is its role within the body?

It is a waxy lipid (sterol) whose chemical structure contains mulitple hydrocarbon rings. major structural component in cell membranes. The liver uses it to produce bile salts which emulsify fats.

What is metabolic acidosis? How is it caused? How can it be corrected?

It occurs when the body produces too much acid or when the kidneys are not removing enough acid from the body. If unchecked, metabolic acidosis leads to acidemia, i.e., blood pH is low (less than 7.35) due to increased production of hydrogen ions by the body or the inability of the body to form bicarbonate (HCO3-) in the kidney.

What types of cells provide immunity? How does each function

Leukocytes (white blood cells) Granulocytes or agranulocytes Neutrophils Eosinophils Basophils Monocytes Lymphocytes

Describe the pathway of lymph

Lymph flows through the body into lymphatic capillaries which carry them to lymphatic vessels. From there, lymph flows into lymph nodes via the afferent lymphatic vessel and is cleaned before returning to circulation via the efferent lymphatic vessel. Lymph then flows into the lymphatic trunk and then the collecting duct before returning to normal body circulation.

Identify the major arteries/veins of the body

Major arteries: Ascending aorta->right and left coronary a. Brachiocephalic a., Left common carotid a., and the Left subclavian a. Descending aorta Thoracic aorta->Bronchial artery, Pericardial a., Esophageal a., Mediastinal a., Posterior intercostal a. Abdominal aorta-> Celiac a., Phrenic a., Superior mesenteric a., Suprarenal a., Renal a., Gonadal a., Inferior mesenteric a., Lumbar a., Middle sacral a., Common iliac a. Major veins: Superior and Inferior vena cava, right and left external and internal jugular and subclavian v., right and left brachiocephalic v., hepatic v., splenic v., right and left common iliac v., external and internal iliac v., femoral v., great saphenous v., small saphenous v.

Compare and contrast passive versus active immunity

Naturally acquired active immunity occurs when the person is exposed to a live pathogen, develops the disease, and becomes immune as a result of the primary immune response. Artificially acquired active immunity can be induced by a vaccine, a substance that contains the antigen. A vaccine stimulates a primary response against the antigen without causing symptoms of the disease (see vaccination). Artificially acquired passive immunity is a short-term immunization by the injection of antibodies, such as gamma globulin, that are not produced by the recipient's cells. Naturally acquired passive immunity occurs during pregnancy, in which certain antibodies are passed from the maternal into the fetal bloodstream.

Differentiate between the different leukocytes

Neutrophil - Nucleus with two to five lobes; cytoplasmic granules stain light purple in combined acid and base stains . 54%-62% of white blood cells present Eosinophil - Nucleus bilobed; cytoplasmic granules stain red in acid stain. 1%-3% of white blood cells present Basophil - Nucleus lobed; cytoplasmic granules stain blue in basic stain. Less than 1% of white blood cells present Monocyte - Two to three times larger than a red blood cell; nucleus shape varies from spherical to lobed. 3%-9% of white blood cells present Lymphocyte - only slightly larger than a red blood cell; its nucleus nearly fills the cell. 25%-33% of white blood cells present.

What blood types can give/receive to/from other blood types?

O is the universal donor. AB can receive AB or O. A can receive A or O. B can receive B or O. O can only receive O.

Differentiate between the functions of the different organs of the GI tract and its accessory organs/glands.

Organs: -mouth (mechanical breakdown of food; begins chemical breakdown of carbs) -pharynx (connects mouth with esophagus) -esophagus (peristalsis pushes food to stomach) -stomach (secretes acid and enzymes; mixes food with secretions to begin enzymatic digestion of proteins) -small intestine (mixes food with bile and pancreatic juice; final enzymatic breakdown of food molecules; main site of nutrient absorption) -large intestine (absorbs water and electrolytes to form feces) -rectum (regulates elimination of feces) -anus Accessory organs: -liver (produces bile, which emulsifies fat) -gallbladder (stores bile and introduces it into the small intestine) -pancreas (produces and secretes pancreatic juice, containing digestive enzymes and bicarbonate ions, into small intestine) -salivary glands (secrete saliva, which contains enzymes that initiate breakdown of carbs)

Differentiate between paracrine, autocrine, endocrine, and exocrine glands

Paracrine: secretions only affect nearby cells Autocrine: secretions only affect cell secreting substance Endocrine: Internal secretion Exocrine: External secretion

Describe the nervous system's role for digestion

Parasympathetic impulses increase activities of digestive system. Sympathetic impulses inhibit certain digestive actions.

Describe peristalsis and segmentation

Peristalsis is muscle contractions in the esophagus, segmentation is muscle contractions in the large and small intestine.

Where can the different endocrine glands be found in the body?

Pineal gland Pituitary gland Pancreas Ovaries Testes Thyroid Parathyroid Hypothalamus Adrenal glands

Compare and contrast pulmonary, coronary, and systemic circulation

Pulmonary circulation: sends oxygen-poor blood to the lungs to pick up oxygen and unload carbon dioxide. Coronary circulation: the circulation of blood in the blood vessels that supply the heart muscle. Systemic circulation: send oxygen-rich blood and nutrients to all body cells and removes wastes.

What are the functions of the cardiovascular system

Pumping blood throughout the heart

Describe different formed elements and their origins

RBCs originate in red bone marrow from hemocytoblasts (stem cells) which then differentiate in a process called hemotopoiesis. WBCs are called leukocytes and are split into granulocytes and agranulocytes. Platelets are cell fragments of megakaryocytes, they lack a nucleus and are half the size of a RBC.

Compare the formed elements of the blood

RBCs, WBCs, and platelets all act together to maintain life. RBCs transport oxygen to the body's tissues, WBCs fight infections in the body, and platelets clot wounds that occur

How does the Rh factor affect a developing fetus and its mother

Rh positive - presence of antigen D or other Rh antigens on the RBC membranes. Rh negative - lack of these antigens If a mother is Rh negative and her baby is Rh positive, her antibodies form to fight Rh-positive blood cells. If a mother is Rh positive and her baby is Rh positive, her antibodies attack the baby's RBC. Complications can lead the baby to develop erythroblastosis fetalis or hemolytic disease.

Describe the pathway of the cardiac conduction system

SA node Atrial syncytium Junctional fibers AV node AV bundle Bundle branches Purkinje fibers Ventricular syncytium

How does secretin affect the digestive system

Secretin stimulates the pancreas to release bicarbonate ions in pancreatic juice.

Compare serum vs plasma

Serum: Fluid portion of coagulated blood. Plasma: Fluid portion of the blood.

Describe steroid hormones

Sex hormones and adrenal cortex hormones. Steroid hormones diffuse through cell membranes and enter cytoplasm or nucleus. Then they combine with a receptor molecule, which together bind to DNA and promote transcription of messenger RNA. mRNA enters the cytoplasm and directs protein synthesis. Newly synthesized proteins produce hormone's specific effects.

How is cardiac output figured

Stroke volume multiplied by the heart rate, expressed in bpm. (For example, if the stroke volume is 70 mL, and the heart rate is 72 bpm, the cardiac output is 5,040 mL per minute.

How does aging affect the digestive system

Teeth may become sensitive, gums may recede, teeth may loosen or break and fall out, heartburn & constipation may become more frequent, and nutrient absorption decreases.

How is the shape of a red blood cell important to its function

The biconcave shape of a red blood cell makes possible its function of transporting oxygen.

What regulates pituitary gland secretion? `

The brain

Where can lymph nodes be found in the body

The cervical, axillary, supratrochlear, and inguinal regions and the pelvic, abdominal and thoracic cavities.

How are the heart sounds made

The first heart sound "lubb" occurs during ventricular systole as a result of the A-V valves closing. The second heart sound "dupp" occurs during ventricular diastole as a result of the pulmonary and aortic semilunar valves closing. (A murmur is an abnormal heart sound that happens when the cusps don't completely close.)

How does aging affect the endocrine system?

The glands of the endocrine system generally decrease in size and in the proportion of each gland that is fibrous in nature. Hormone levels change with advancing years. Thyroid gland shrinks with age.

Describe the pathway of bile

The liver produces bile. Leaves the left and right hepatic ducts into the common hepatic duct. It enters the common bile duct. If the duodenum does not need the bile, the hepatopancreatic sphincter will close and the bile will enter the gallbladder to be stored for later use.

Describe the layers of the heart and pericardium

The outer layer of the heart is the fibrous pericardium (also the epicardium). The inner layer of the pericardium is the visceral pericardium (it lies against the heart). And the outer layer of the pericardium is the parietal pericardium which lies against the wall of the pericardial cavity. The heart has three layers as well. The innermost layer is the endocardium, the middle layer is the myocardium, and the outermost layer is the epicardium (also the fibrous pericardium).

What is hematocrit

The percentage by volume of red blood cells in a sample of whole blood; packed cell volume

Where can pulse be found in the body

The temple (temporal a.), neck (carotid a.), chin (facial a.), inner elbow (brachial a.), wrist (radial a.), groin (femoral a.), back of the knee (popliteal a.), front of the foot (dorsalis pedis a.), back of the ankle (posterior tibial a.)

Describe the thymus and its role in immunity

The thymus is a soft, bi-lobed gland enclosed in a connective tissue capsule. It is the place where T cells mature.

At any given moment, where can blood be found in the body?

The veins

Differentiate between primary teeth and permanent teeth

There are 20 primary (baby) teeth. There are 32 secondary (permanent) teeth.

What is arteriosclerosis? How does it occur

Thickening and hardening of vessel walls. Lipid and collagen fibers migrate into the vessel walls. Chronic disease of arterial system.

Describe the different glands associated with the lymphatic system. What are their functions?

Thymus gland - where T cells mature. Bone marrow - where B and T cells are created. Lymph nodes - clean and filter lymph and act as immune surveillance. Spleen - consists of white pulp (packed with lymphocytes) and red pulp (blood, lymphocytes, and macrophages that fill venous sinuses). Tonsils & adenoids - trap pathogens humans breathe in.

What is an "adequate diet" What are some examples of an in-adequate diet?

Upgrade to remove ads Only $1/month What is a trace element? Trace elements (microminerals) are essential minerals found in minute amounts, each makes up less than 0.005% of body weight. What is an "adequate diet"? What are some examples of an in-adequate diet? An adequate diet is that which provides sufficient energy (calories), essential fatty acids, essential amino acids, vitamins, and minerals to support optimal growth and to maintain and repair body tissues. An in-adequate diet could arise from malnutrition (deficiency of essential nutrients), or overnutrition (excess of nutrient intake) or starvation.

Describe the different roles of vitamins/minerals in the body. What happens if you have a deficiency or an excess of a specific vitamin/mineral?

Vitamins are organic compounds that are required for normal metabolism. Minerals are inorganic elements essential in human metabolism. Too much vitamin C or zinc could cause nausea, diarrhea, and stomach cramps. Too much selenium could lead to hair loss, gastrointestinal upset, fatigue, and mild nerve damage.

How is water involved in metabolism?

Water is the medium for various enzymatic & chemical reactions in the body. It moves nutrients, hormones, antibodies and oxygen through the blood stream and lymphatic system.

What can be found in normal feces

Water, electrolytes, mucus, bacteria, and bile pigments.

How can hormones affect weight loss/weight gain?

When we our stressed out, our adrenal glands secrete hormones to alleviate our stress by storing fat and calories. We crave foods, lost energy, and gain weight.

How does stress affect immunity?

With chronic stress, the immune system stays in low gear, leaving the body vulnerable to infection and disease. Basically, it suppresses it.

What is edema

abnormal accumulation of fluid in the interstitial spaces, causing swelling

What is pus?

dead neutrophils

What is the function of lymph?

filters the blood by removing toxins

What are the functions of the digestive system

ingestion, mechanical processing, digestion, secretion, absorption, excretion

What is produced during nucleic acid metabolism?

protein/polypeptide chain

What is heartburn?

when the gastric jucies backflow into the esophagus