A&P Final

Cite the function of cerebrospinal fluid and describe where and how this fluid is formed

The function of CSF is to support the nervous tissue and cushion shocks. Forms in the 4 ventricles in the brain.

Describe how the hypothalamus controls the posterior and anterior pituitary

The hypothalamus is divided into two parts: the anterior lobe and the posterior lobe. The anterior lobe is the true endocrine glands, composed of epithelial tissue. The posterior lobe however, is not a true gland. It consists of axons and axon terminals of neurons that originate in the hypothalamus.

Describe how neuron fibers are built into a nerve

The individual fibers are organized into groups called fascicles and are bound together by connective tissue. +Endoneurium- surrounds each individual fiber. +Perineurium- surrounds each fascicle +Epineurium- surrounds the whole nerve.

Define blood type and explain the relation between blood types and transfusions

+ A blood type is a classification of blood, based on the presence and absence of antibodies and inherited antigenic substances on the surface of red blood cells. + If only the A antigen is present, the person has type A blood; if only the B antigen is present they have B type. Type AB cells have both antigens, and O type has neither.

Discuss the components of a negative feedback loop

+ A sensor gathers information about a specific variable + A control center compares the sensor inputs with the set point. + Any effector increases or decreases its activity, as necessary, in response to signals form the control center

List seven tissues other than the endocrine glands that produce hormones

+ Adipose tissue produces leptin, a hormone that controls appetite. + Small intestine produces hormones for appetite and regulation of digestion. + Kidneys produce a hormone called erythropoietin, which stimulates red blood cell production in the bone marrow. + Osteocalcin, produced in bone. + Atria( upper chambers) of the heart produce a substance called atrial natriuretic peptide in response to their increased filling with blood. + Placenta produces several hormones' during pregnancy.

Identify the main components of plasma

+ Albumin- most abundant proteins in plasma + Clotting factors- Necessary for preventing blood loss from damaged vessels + Antibodies- Combat infections and are made by certain WBC involved in immunity

Discuss the chemical composition of hormones

+ Amino acid compound. These hormones are proteins are related compounds also made of amino acids. All hormones except those of the adrenal cortex and the sex glans fall into this category. + Steroids. These hormones are derived from the steroid cholesterol, a type of lipid. Produced by the adrenal cortex and the sex glands.

Define antigen and antibody

+ Antigen- any substance that induces a immune response + Antibody- B cells function in immunity that produce Y shaped proteins called antibodies in response to a foreign antigen.

Differentiate among the five types of blood vessels regarding structure and function

+ Arteries- which carry blood away from the heart and toward the tissues. + Arterioles- are small subdivisions of the arteries that divide into capillaries. + Capillaries- tiny thin walled vessels that allow from exchanges in-between systems. + Venules- small vessels that receive blood from the capillaries and begin transport back to the heart. + Veins- vessels formed by the merger of venules and they continue bloods transport until it reaches the heart.

Name the four sections of the aorta and list the main branches of each section

+ Ascending aorta- upward and slightly right from the left ventricle. + Aortic arch- curves from right to left and extends posteriorly. + Thoracic aorta- descends just anterior to the vertebral Column posterior to the heart and the mediastinum + Abdominal aorta- longest section of the aorta beginning at the diaphragm and spanning the abdominal cavity.

Give the locations of the four main division of the brain

+ Cerebrum- conscious thought, memory, reasoning, perception + Diencephalon- contains thalamus: sorts and redirects sensory input. and hypothalamus- Maintains homeostasis and controls the ANS and pituitary gland + Brain stem- connects the cerebrum and diencephalon with the spinal cord + Cerebellum- coordinates voluntary muscles and maintains balance and muscle tone

Name three types of cells and three types of chemicals active in the second line of defense against disease

+ Cytotoxic T cell- destroy certain abnormal cells directly + Helper T cells- which control immune responses by interleukins + Regulatory T cells- which suppress the immune response in order to prevent over activity.

Describe the three tissue layers of the heart wall

+ Endocardium- Thin epithelial inner most layer. + Myocardium- Heart muscle, thickest layer, pumps blood through vessels. + Epicardium- Outer most layer

Explain how the endocrine system responds to stress

+ Epinephrine- Fight or Flight (Adrenal medulla) + Cortisol from the adrenal gland helps deal with the stress, starvation, increasing nutrient availability in blood, and inhibiting inflammation + Adh ( Posterior pituitary) water conservation + GH ( Anterior pituitary) increases nutrient availability and helps repair damaged tissues.

Describe the formation of blood cells

+ Erythrocytes- are red blood cells which transport oxygen and to a a lesser extent CO2 + Leukocytes- Several types of white blood cells which help defend against infections and cancer. + Platelets- cell fragments that participate in blood clotting.

List the functions of the lymphatic system

+ Fluid balance + Protection + Absorption of fats

Name and locate the lobes of the cerebral hemispheres

+ Frontal lobe- front of skull + Parietal lob- Top back of skull + Temporal lobe- Around tempol and ears + Occipital lobe- lower back part of skull

Differentiate between innate and adaptive immunity and give examples of each

+ Innate- defenses are in-born inherited with other characteristics and they include barrier in certain internal cellar and metabolic responses that protect against foreign invaders. + Adaptive - is a selective process that develops during a persons lifetime as he or she encounters various harmful agents.

Describe the three functions of skeletal muscle

+ Movement of the skeleton. + Maintenance of posture. + Generation of heat.

List compounds stored in muscle cells that are used to generate energy

+ Myoglobin- which stores oxygen. + Glycogen- is the storage form of glucose + Fatty acids- are stored as triglycerides formed into fat droplets, the droplets can be broken down into fatty acids when need by muscle cells.

Briefly describe the inflammatory reaction

+ Pain + Redness + Heat + Swelling A non specific defense response to a tissue damaging irritant.

Name the valves at the entrance and exit of each ventricle and identify the function of each

+ Right Atrioventricular- 3 cusps or flaps that open nd close, when its closed blood cannot return to the right atrium but it must flow forward into the pulmonary trunk + Left atrioventricular- Bicuspid valve, two heavy cusp that allow blood to flow freely from the (LA) to the (LV) the cusps close when the left ventricle begins to contract closure prevents blood from returning to the left atrium and ensure the forward flow of blood into the aorta. + Pulmonary valve- semilunar valve located between the (RA) and pulmonary trunk that leads to the lungs + Aortic valve- semilunar located between the left ventricle and the aorta.

Name the two main lymphatic ducts and describe the area drained by each

+ Right lymphatic duct- short vessel, gets lymph from the body superior right quadrant + Thoracic duct- which is the larger of the two, forms a pouch called the cisterna chyli is a milky fluid that drains form the intestinal lacteals.

Describe the functions of the sensory system

+ Special sense- specific organ - Vision - Hearing - Equilibrium(Balance/ Inner ear) - Taste - Smell + General sense- Widely distributed throughout body. - Pressure, temperature, pain, and touch, from receptors in the skin and internal organs. - Sense of position from receptors in the muscles, tendons, and joints.

Trace the pathway of blood through the main arteries of the upper and lower limbs

+ Subclavian artery supply's blood to the arm and hand + Internal carotid arteries travels into the head and supply's the eye + External carotid artery branches into the thyroid gland, and other structure in the head and neck.

Compare superficial and deep veins and give examples of each type

+ Superficial veins- the veins on the back of the hand and the front of the elbow. + Deep veins- the femoral vein, external and internal iliac vessels. Can parallel arteries and normally have corresponding names.

List and define the main directional terms and planes of division of the body

+ Superior is a term meaning above or in a higher position, Inferior means below or lower +Anterior means toward the belly surface or front of the body, posterior and dorsal mean nearer the back +medial means through or towards the middle line of the body, Lateral its opposite means farther away from the midline of the body. +Proximal means near to the origin or attachment point of a structure Distal means further from + Frontal Plane- front and back portions of body + Sagittal plane- Right and left portions of body +Transverse Plane- Top and bottom portions of the body

Describe five factors that regulate blood flow

+ Systolic pressure - which is the maximum pressure that develops in the arties after heart muscle contraction. + Diastolic pressure- which is the lowest pressure measured in the arteries after relaxation of the heart muscle. + Mean arteriole pressure- average pressure in the arteries + Pulse pressure- difference between systolic and diastolic pressure.

Explain how the lymphatic capillaries differ from blood capillaries

+ The barrier formed by the lymphatic capillary wall is more permeable than blood capillaries. Lymphatic capillary arise blindly

Characterize the five types of leukocytes

+ The granular leukocytes, or granulocytes, are so named because they show visible granules in the cytoplasm when stained. ( Neutrophils, Eosinophils, Basophils) + Agranulocytes, are so named because they lack easily visible granules.( Lymphocytes & Monocytes)

Define venous sinus and give four examples of venous sinuses

+ venous sinus- a large channel that drains blood low in oxygen but does not have a veins usual tubular structure. 1. Superior sagittal sinus 2. Inferior sagittal sinus 3. Straight sinus 4. Lateral sinus

Compare acids, bases, and salts

+Acid is a chemical substance capable of releasing a hydrogen ion when dissolved in water. +Base is a chemical substance that can accept a hydrogen ion +Salts a reaction between an acid and a base produces a salt and also water.

List four types of neuroglia in the CNS and cite the functions of each

+Astrocytes- Nourish and physically support and anchor neurons they regulate the composition of the extracellular fluid, by absorbing and degrading neurotransmitters and excess ions. They act as stim cells to make new neurons they contribute new neurons to damaged areas. + Oligodendrocytes- Forms the myelin sheath of CNS neurons. +Microglia- act as Phagocytes to remove pathogens, impurities, and dead neurons. + Ependymal- lines ventriculus in the brain, fluid filled cavities they form a barrier between the nervous tissue of the CNS and the fluid filling the ventricles, cerebral spinal fluid.

Classify the different types of connective tissue

+Circulating connective tissue- has a fluid consistency; its cells are suspended in a liquid matrix. Which circulates in blood vessels, and lymph, a fluid derived from blood that circulates in lymphatic vessels. +Loose connective tissue- has a soft consistency, similar to jelly. +Dense connective tissue- contains many fibers and is quite strong, similar to a rope or canvas fabric. +Cartilage- has a very firm consistency. the gristle at the end of a chicken bone is a example of this tissue type. +Bone tissue- the hardest type of connective tissue, is solidified by minerals in the matrix.

Differentiate between compact bone and spongy bone

+Compact bone- is harc and dense. this tissue makes up the main shaft of a long bone and the outer layer of other bones. +Spongy bone- it is made of a meshwork of small,bony plates filled with red marrow. it is found at the epiphyses(ends) of long bones and center of other bones.

Name the four main groups of tissues and give their location and general characteristics of each

+Epithelial- tissue covers surfaces, lines cavities, and forms glands. +Connective tissue- supports and forms the framework of all parts of the body. +Muscle tissue- contacts and produces movement. +Nervous tissue- conducts nerve impulses.

List 11 body systems, and give the general function of each

+Integumentary- "skin" protects from infection and injury +Skeletal- Body's basic Framework, +Muscular-Produce movement of the skeleton +Nervous-where body is controlled and coordinated +Cardiovascular- pumps blood to all the body +Lymphatic- returning fluids from tissues to the blood +Endocrine-Secretes hormones, +Respiratory- takes in air and oxygenates body +Digestive-organs that are involved in taking in nutrients, +Urinary-excretion, removal and elimination of unwanted substances from the blood +Reproductive- production of offspring

Explain how muscles are named

+Location +Size +Shape +Direction of fibers +Number of heads +Action

Name the three different types of cells in bone and describe the function of each

+Osteoblasts- build bone tissue, (blasts build) +Osteocytes- mature osteoblasts that become trapped in the bone matrix, and they maintain bone tissue. +Osteoclasts- are large multinucleated cells responsible for the process of reabsorption which is the breakdown of bone tissue( clasts cleave).

Explain how muscles work together to produce movement

+Prime mover- the main muscle that performs the given movement + Agonist- any muscles that performs a given action + Antagonist- any muscles that produces and opposite action. For any given movement the antagonist must relax when the agonist contracts. +Synergist- which assist muscles.

Compare the functions of the right and left chambers of the heart

+Right pumps deoxygenated blood into the heart. + Left pumps oxygenated retuned from lungs and pulmonary veins

Describe the three types of epithelial membranes

+Serous- membranes line the wall of the body cavity and are folded back onto the face of internal organs, forming the outer most layer. +Mucous membrane- line tubes and other spaces that open to the outside of the body. +Cutaneous- commonly known as the skin, has an outer layer of stratified squamous epithelium and an inner layer of dense irregular connective tissue

Compare the three types of muscle tissue

+Smooth muscle(Involuntary)- makes up most of the walls of the hollow body organs as well as those of the blood vessels and respiratory passageways. +Cardiac muscles(Involuntary)- makes up the hearts wall and creates muscle striated, like those of skeletal muscle. They differ(From skeletal) in having one nucleus per cell and branching interconnections. +Skeletal muscle- under the control of the nervous system division known as the voluntary, or somatic, nervous system.

Describe three categories of joints based on degree of movement and give examples of each

+Synarthrosis- bones in this typer of joint are held together so tightly that they cannot moveinrelation to one another. +Amphiarthrosis- is slighty moveable, use cartilage to join the bones. +Diarthrosis- are freely moveable joints, they have potential space in-between them called joint cavity.

List six types of connective tissue membranes

+Synovial- are thin layers of areolar tissue, that line the joint cavities. they secrete a lubricating fluid that reduces friction between the ends of bones, thus permitting free movement of the joints. +Meninges- are several membranous layers covering the brain and the spinal cord. +Superficial fascia- a continous sheet of tissue that underlies the skin. +Deep fascia- covers, seperates, and protects skeletal muscles, nerves, and blood vessels. +Fibrous pericardium- forms the cavity that incloses the heart, the pericardial cavity. +Periosteum- is a membrane covering a bone. +Perichondriun- membrane that covers cartilage.

List the functions of bones

+form a sturdy framework for the entire body + protect delicate structures, such as the brain and the spinal cord. +work as levers with attached muscles to produce movement +store calcium salts, which may be reabsorbed into the blood if calcium is needed. +produce blood cells(red bone marrow)

Discuss the factors that contribute to skin color

+melanin- is the skins main pigment. "darker people have a much larger quantity in their tissues because their melanocytes are most active." +Hemoglobin- is the pigment that carries oxygen in red blood cells, it gives blood its color and is visible in the skin through vessels in the dermis. +Carotene- skin pigment obtained by carrots and other orange and yellow vegetables.

Describe five general senses

- Vision(Eye receptors) - Hearing(Inner ear) - Equilibrium(Balance/ Inner ear) - Taste(Tongue Receptors) - Smell(Upper nasal cavities)

Describe the composition and functions of the cell

-Cells are composed of water, inorganic ions, and carbon-containing (organic) molecules. -. They provide structure and support, facilitate growth through mitosis, allow passive and active transport, produce energy, create metabolic reactions and aid in reproduction.

Identify the glands of the endocrine system

-Pineal -Hypothalamus -Pituitary -Thyroid -Parathyroid -Adrenals -Pancreatic islets -Ovaries -Testes

Explain how the numbers on the pH scale relate to acidity and alkalinity

-The greater the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution, the greater the acidity of that solution - the greater the concentration of hydroxide ion, the greater the alkalinity ion the solution

List the functions of blood

-Transports nutrients, oxygen, wastes, and hormones -Helps maintain stability of interstitial fluid -Distributes heat

Briefly describe the steps in blood clotting

1. Contraction of the smooth muscles in the blood vessel wall. 2. Formation of a platelet plug. 3. Formation of blood clot.

Cite the steps in repair of skin wounds and the factors that affect healing

1. Inflammation 2. new vessels branch from damaged capillaries and grow into the imjured tissue. 3.Fibroblasts manufacture collagen and other substances to close the gap made by the wound. 4.Stem cells in the neighbor undamaged skin oriduce epidermal cells that migrate to cover the new connective tissue. +Nutrition- a complete and balaced dite will provide nutrients needed fro cell regeneration. +Blood supply- The bloobrings oxygen and nutrients to the tissues and also carries away waste material +Infection- contamination prolongs inflammation and interferes with the formation of materials needed for wound repair. +Age- healing is generally slower among the elderly reflecting their slower rate of cell replacement.

Outline the steps in a skeletal muscle contraction

1. Muscle is relaxed and there is no contact between that actin and myosin filaments. 2. Cross bridges form and the actin filaments are moved closer together as the muscle fiber contracts. 3. The cross bridges break and the myosin heads attach to new sights to prepare for another pool on the actin filaments and further contraction.

List the names and functions of the 12 cranial nerves

1. Olfactory- Smell 2. Optic- Vision 3. Oculomotor- contraction of eye muscles 4. Trochlear- Supplies one eyeball muscle 5. Trigeminal- 3 branch's for pain, touch, and temperature for the eye, upper jaw, and lower jaw. 6. Abducens- Motor impulses to an eyeball muscle 7. Facial nerve- which controls the muscles of facial expression 8. Vestibular cochlear- Hearing and balance 9. Glossopharyngeal- gives you sensory fibers from the posterior tongue and the larynx, helps in taste and swallowing muscles. 10. Vagus- Carries motor impulses to the thoracic and abdominal cavities, also has motor fiber supporting the larynx 11. Accessory- controls muscles of the neck and larynx 12. Hypoglossal- controls the tongue muscle

List the components of a reflex arc

1. Receptor 2. Sensory neuron 3. CNS 4. Motor neuron 5. Effector

Diagram and describe the steps in an action potential

1. Resting- More Sodium(NA+) outside and more potassium inside( K+) 2. Rising phase- When sodium enters 3. Falling phase- When potassium leaves 4. Resting phase- When the membrane potential is restored

Name and locate the components of the heart's conduction system

1. Sinoatrial node initiates signal 2. Signal passes through atria stimulating contraction. 3. The AV node delays signal 4. The AV bundle ferries the signal to interventricular septum. 5. The bundle branches convey signal to apex 6. Purkinje fibers carries signal up through ventricles stimulating contraction form the bottom upwards.

Explain the basis of Rh incompatibility and its possible consequences

85% of the US population has a antigen group called the Rh factor, Rh incompatibility is a potential problem in certain pregnancies.

Explain the construction and functions of the myelin sheaths

A white fatty substance that insulates and protects the axon. Helps speed neural impulses

Differentiate between active and passive immunity

Active immunity- the kind you have once you have been exposed to a pathogen (either by getting an infection or a vaccine). It allows you to produce your own antibodies. • Passive immunity- the kind you have when you receive pre-made antibodies from somewhere else. No lasting memory and short lived.

Define anatomy and physiology

Anatomy: the study of the body's parts or the body's structure Physiology: the study of how the body parts work or how the body functions Structure determines function; function determines structure - they're inseparable.

Differentiate between natural and artificial adaptive immunity

Artificial immunity- antibodies were not self produced (Vaccination) Natural- antibodies were self produced form exposure to antigen in environment.

Describe the structure of an atom

Atoms consist of electrons surrounding a nucleus that contains protons and neutrons.

Briefly describe blood circulation through the myocardium

Blood vessels form the coronary circulation. The main arteries that supply blood to the heart muscle are the right and left coronary arteries.

Define and give examples of homeostasis

Body temperature, the volume and decomposition of body fluids, blood gas concentrations, and blood pressure.

Describe the structure and function of the hepatic portal system

Carries blood from abdominal organs to the liver to be processed before it returns to the heart.. They allow all products of one organ to pass directly to another organ.

Describe the functions of hormones

Chemical messengers that have specific regulatory effects on certain cells or organs.

Compare the locations and functions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system

Division of the ANS + Sympathetic- motor neurons originate in the thoracic and lumber regions of the spinal cord. the system is considered adrenergic which means activated by adrenaline( Fight or Flight) + Parasympathetic- the motor pathways begin in the craniosacral areas with fibers arising with cell bodies in the brain stem and the sacral part of the spinal cord. the neurons of the parasympathetic nervous system release the neurotransmitter (ACh) leading to the description of the system as cholinergic. Activated by Ach

Name and describe the layers of the skin

EPIDERMIS: (outer layer) is composed of several thin layers of cells undergoing different stages of maturation. It shields underlying tissue aginst water loss and injury and prevents entry of disease-producing microorganisms. DERMIS: thicker skin layer containing bundles of collagen and elastic fibers to support the epidermis. Nerve fibers, blood vessels, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, and hair follicles course through the dermal layers. SUBCUTANEOUS: contains blood vessels, nerves, lymph, and loose connective tissue filled with fat cells. The fatty tissue is a heat insulator for the body. Supports upper skin layers to withstand stresses and pressure without injury.

Define enzyme and describe how enzymes work

Enzymes are proteins that participate in the hundreds of chemical reactions that take place within the cells. They act as catalysts, substances that increase the speed of chemical reactions to a rate sufficient to sustain life

Explain the origin and function of prostaglandins

Group of hormone-like substances derived from fatty acids. They can cause constriction of blood vessels, bronchial tubes, and the intestine whereas other cause dilation of these same structures.

Describe the distribution of gray and white matter in the spinal cord

Has a core of gray matter which is made up of unmyelinated axons and cell bodies, surrounds the white matter which is myelinated axons.

Explain the effects of the autonomic nervous system on the heart rate

Heart rate is controlled by the two branches of the autonomic (involuntary) nervous system. The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS). The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) releases the hormones (catecholamines - epinephrine and norepinephrine) to accelerate the heart rate.

Describe the structure of a skeletal muscle to the level of individual cells

In forming whole muscles, individual muscle fibers are arranged in bundles , or fascicles held together by dense connective tissue. + Endomysium- is the deepest layer of this connective tissue and surrounds the individual fibers within fascicles + Perimysium- is a connective tissue layer around each fascicle. + Epimysium- is a connective tissue sheath that encases the entire muscle. (I'm confused with this question so feel free to change it)

Describe the cerebellum and identify its functions

Made up of 3 parts has a middle portion and two lateral hemispheres and outer layer of gray matter and a inner portion of white matter. Helps coordinate voluntary muscle helps maintain balance and muscle tone

Explain how hormones are regulated

Negative feedback loop

Describe the structure of a neuron

Neurons have four regions: -cell body: containing the nucleus -dendrites: treelike features that extend from the cell body and contain receptors -axon: long slender extension of the cell body responsible for conducting the action potential to the axon terminals -axon terminals: bulbous structures at the end of the axon where neurotransmitters are stored in vesicles

Explain the role of neurotransmitters in impulse transmission at a synapse

Neurotransmitters carry impulses across a synaptic cleft. A. The end bulb of the presynaptic (transmitting) axon has vesicles containing neurotransmitter which is released into the synaptic cleft to the membrane of the post synaptic (receiving) cell.

Explain the role of cellular receptors in the action of neurotransmitters in the autonomic nervous system

Once the neurotransmitter binds the receptor initiates events that change the post synaptic cells activity, different receptors responses to the same neurotransmitter may vary and a cells response depends on the receptors it contains.

List four factors that affect blood pressure

Peripheral resistance, Vessel elasticity, Blood volume and cardiac output. Blood cells and plasma encounter resistance when they contact blood vessel walls.

List the hormones produces by each endocrine gland and describe the effects of each on the body

Pg 226 Memmlers

Name and describe the three meninges

Pia mater- innermost layer + Arachnoid- middle layer + Dura mater- outer most layer, thickest and toughest

List the main functions of the integumentary system

Protection against infection, Temp regulation, Sensory info, protection against dehydration.

Differentiate between the different types of sensory receptors and give examples of each

Provides us with and awareness of your external and internal environments.

Describe the location and structure of the pericardium, and cite its functions

Sack that encloses the heart on the heart. A serous membrane forms the inner layer.

Compare the effects of the nervous system and the endocrine system in controlling the body

The nervous system controls such rapid actions as muscle movement and intestinal activity by means of electrical and chemical signals. The endocrine system involves chemical signals only, and the chemical messengers have widespread effects on the body.

Explain why water is so important in metabolism

Water's ability to dissolve most biologically significant compounds—from inorganic salts to large organic molecules—makes it a vital solvent inside organisms and cells. Water is an essential part of most metabolic processes within organisms.

Explain the forces that affect exchange across the capillary wall

all living cells re emerged in a slightly salty liquid called interstitial fluid which serves as a middle man between the capillary membrane and the neighboring cells.

Describe an electrolyte

compounds that release ions when they dissolve in water are called electrolytes