A&P II LAB FINAL

Explain how the atrioventricular and semilunar valves operate.

Atrioventricular valves: are located between the atrium and the ventricle on the left and right side of the heart. Semilunar valves: are located between a ventricle and a great vessel.

This type of gland has circular islets, the endocrine portions of the pancreas. The islets are scattered amid the more numerous acinar cells, which produce the exocrine secretion of digestive enzymes. In the islets, alpha cells produce glucagon, and beta cells produce insulin.

Pancreas/Pancreatic islet

This type of gland has two major cell types, the parathyroid cells and the oxyphil cells. The parathyroid cells make parathyroid hormone PTH. The larger oxyphil cells have unknown function.

Parathyroid glands

___ ride "horseback" on the thyroid gland.

Parathyroid glands

Define hormone

Steroidal or amino-acid based molecules released to the blood that act as chemical messengers to regulate body functions.

Lining of the heart chambers is the ___.

endocardium

Chemically, hormones belong chiefly to two molecular groups, the ___ and the ___.

steroids; amino acid-based molecules

Define hormone.

substance secreted by endocrine tissues into the blood that acts on a target tissue to produce a specific response

This hormone drives development of secondary sex characteristics in males.

testosterone

Norepinephrine is stimulated by ___.

the nervous system

This gland is rather large in an infant, begins to atrophy at puberty, and is relatively inconspicuous by old age. It produces hormones that direct the maturation of T cells. It is the ___ gland.

thymus

The ___ gland is composed of two lobes and located in the throat, just inferior to the larynx.

thyroid

The right atrioventricular valve, or ___, prevents backflow into the right atrium when the right ventricle is contracting.

tricuspid

These two hormones are released in response to stressors.

Epinephrine, norepinephrine

___ is found in the pelvic cavity of the female, concerned with ova and female hormone production.

Ovaries

___ is a mixed gland, located behind the stomach and close to the small intestine.

Pancreas

Inadequate ___ results in tetany.

Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

Describe the location of the heart

The heart is located within the mediastinum of the thorax. It is flanked laterally by the lungs, posteriorly by the vertebral column, and anteriorly by the sternum.

Describe the structural and functional relationship between the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland

The ventral hypothalamic hormones control production and secretion of the anterior pituitary hormones via the hypophyseal portal system; an arrangement of two capillary beds connected by hypophyseal portal veins. As for the posterior pituitary aka storage area, two types of neurohormones are transported to it via the axons of neurons in the nuclei of the hypothalamus.

___ is found in the upper thorax overlying the heart; large during youth.

Thymus

___ is located in the throat; bilobed gland connected by an isthmus.

Thyroid

Receiving chambers of the heart are ___.

atria

This hormone regulates blood calcium levels.

calcitonin

___ is produced by parafollicular cells of the thyroid.

calcitonin

The blood vessels that supply blood to the heart itself are the ___.

coronary arteries

___ provide nutrient blood to the heart muscle.

coronary arteries

___ drains blood into the right atrium.

coronary sinus

___ are produced by zona fasciculata cells.

glucocorticoids

___ form the endocrine portion of the pancreas.

pancreatic islets

Discuss some mechanisms that stimulate release of hormones from endocrine glands

1. Another hormone 2. The nervous system 3. Humoral factors

Describe the pathology of hypersecretion and hyposecretion of several of the hormones studied

1. Anterior Pituitary a. hypersecretion of GH during childhood - gigantism b. hypersecretion of GH during adulthood - acromegaly c. hyposecretion - pituitary dwarfism 2. thyroid a. hyposecretion of thyroxine -- cretinism / results in dwarfism during childhood b. hypothyroidism in adults -- myxedema (physical and mental sluggishness) c. hyperthyroidism -- graves' disease (increased metabolism, heat intolerance, rapid heartbeat, weight loss, exophthalmos 3. Adrenal Glands a. hyposecretion of all adrenal cortex -- addisons dieses (bronze skin tone, muscles are weak, burnout, susceptibility to infection) b. hyperaldosteronism -- acth-releasing tumor (excess water and sodium retained leading to HBP and edema) c. hypersecretion of sex hormones -- masculinization d. hypo -- cushing's syndrome -- tumor in middle of cortical area

List the major hormones and discuss the target and general function of each

1. Oxytocin 2. ADH 3. TSH 4. Calcitonin 5. PTH 6. TSH 7. FSH 8. LH 9. ACTH 10. GH 11. PRL 12. Mineralcorticoids 13. Glucocorticoids 14. Gonadocorticoids 15. Catecholamines (E and NE) 16. Insulin 17. Glucagon 18. Estrogens 19. Progesterone 20. Testosterone

Identify the major endocrine glands of the body using an appropriate image

1. Pituitary gland 2. Pineal gland 3. Thyroid gland 4. Parathyroid gland 5. Thymus 6. Adrenal glands 7. Pancreas 8. Gonads

Inadequate ___ results in excessive urine output without high blood glucose levels.

ADH

These two hormones maintain salt and water balance in the extracellular fluid.

ADH, Aldosterone

This type of gland has three cortical areas, and the cortex and medulla. The zona glomerulosa produces mineralocorticoids, the zona fasciculata produces glucocorticoids, and the zona reticularis produces sex cells.

Adrenal gland

___ is found atop the kidney.

Adrenal glands

This type of gland contains acidophil cells; which produce GH and PRL, basophil cells; which produce the four tropic hormones TSH, ACTH, FSH, and LH, and chromophobe cells; which are not directly involved in hormone production.

Anterior pituitary

Describe the histology of cardiac muscle, and state the importance of its intercalated discs and the spiral arrangement of its cells.

Cardiac cells, crisscrossed by connective tissue fibers for strength, are arranged in spiral bundles. When the heart contracts, its internal chambers become smaller, forcing the blood into the large arteries leaving the heart. The intercalated discs are the areas where the cells interlock.

Explain how hormones contribute to body homeostasis using appropriate examples

Examples: 1. If there are low blood glucose levels in the body, glucagon hormone will accelerate the breakdown of glycogen to glucose, stimulate the conversion of lactic acid into glucose, and release glucose into the blood from the liver, back to homeostasis. 2. During pregnancy, oxytocin will stimulate powerful uterine contractions due to uterine stretch. 3. When there is increased blood solute concentration, ADH will stimulate the kidneys to reabsorb more water.

Excessive ___ results in large hands and feet in the adult, large facial bones.

GH

Inadequate ___ results in abnormally small stature, normal proportions.

GH

___ are produced by acidophil cells of the anterior pituitary.

GH, prolactin

Considering the primary target organs of growth hormone, explain why growth hormone is not a tropic hormone.

Growth hormone doesn't target other endocrine glands.

Explain why growth hormone is an anabolic hormone.

Growth hormone stimulates the synthesis of larger molecules including proteins

Inadequate ___ results in loss of glucose in the urine.

Insulin

Name and describe the covering and lining tissues of the heart

Layer outside the heart: Pericardium: double-walled sac that encloses heart. Fibrous pericardium: Loose-fitting superficial part of the sac. Parietal layer: Deep to the fibrous pericardium; above the epicardium. Walls of the heart: Epicardium: The outer layer, which is also the visceral pericardium. Myocardium: The middle layer and thickest layer, which is composed of cardiac muscle. Endocardium: The inner lining of the heart, which covers the heart valves and is continuous with the inner lining of the greater vessels.

What is the name of the two receiving chambers of the heart?

Left atrium and right atrium

___ is produced by parathyroid cells.

PTH

___ is found in the roof of the third ventricle of the brain.

Pineal gland

This type of gland has two hormones, oxytocin and ADH, synthesized by hypothalamic neurons. In the picture, we can spot the nerve fibers of hypothalamic neurons, and the pituicytes.

Posterior pituitary

These two hormones are directly involved in milk production and ejection.

Prolactin, oxytocin

Trace the pathway of blood through the heart.

Pulmonary circuit: Right atrium tricuspid valve right ventricle pulmonary semilunar valve pulmonary trunk pulmonary arteries lungs pulmonary veins left atrium Systemic circuit: Left atrium mitral valve Left ventricle aortic semilunar valve aorta body tissues

Distinguish blood vessels carrying oxygen-rich blood from those carrying carbon dioxide-rich blood, and describe the system used to color code them in images.

Pulmonary circuit: is the right side of the heart. It shunts carbon dioxide-rich blood entering its chambers to the lungs to unload carbon dioxide and pick up oxygen, and then back to the left side of the heart. Systemic circuit: is the left side of the heart. It carries oxygen-rich blood from the left heart through the body tissues and back to the right side of the heart.

Excessive ___ results in nervousness, irregular pulse rate, sweating.

T3/T4

Inadequate ___ results in low BMR, mental and physical sluggishness.

T3/T4

These two hormones control the rate of body metabolism and cellular oxidation.

T3/T4

___ is produced by follicular cells of the thyroid.

T3/T4

___ is produced by basophil cells of the anterior pituitary.

TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH

These 4 hormones are synthesized by the anterior pituitary gland and regulate the function of another endocrine gland.

TSH, FSH, LH, ACTH

___ are paired glands suspended in the scrotum.

Testes

Trace the functional blood supply of the heart, and name the associated blood vessels.

The functional blood supply of the heart is provided by the coronary arteries. These are the arteries that supply blood to the heart and the veins that drain the blood. Arteries: Right coronary artery Right marginal artery Posterior interventricular artery Left coronary artery Anterior interventricular artery Circumflex artery Veins Great cardiac vein Middle cardiac vein Small cardiac vein Coronary sinus Anterior cardiac veins

Explain why the heart is called a double pump, and compare the pulmonary and systemic circuits.

The heart is called a double pump because the two ventricles on either side shunt blood to two different areas. The pulmonary circuit pump shunts carbon-dioxide rich blood to the lungs to pick up oxygen and let go of carbon-dioxide. After its return, the blood goes the the second pump, the systemic circuit, where it carries oxygen-rich blood through body tissues before returning back to the first pump.

Both the endocrine and nervous systems are major regulating systems of the body; however, the nervous system has been compared to an airmail delivery system, and the endocrine system to the Pony Express. Briefly explain this comparison.

The nervous system uses rapidly propagated electrical "messages," whereas endocrine system "messages" (hormones) are liberated into the blood to travel much more slowly to the target organs.

If hormones travel in the bloodstream, why don't all tissues respond to all hormones?

The proper "hormone" receptors must be present on the plasma membrane or within the cells for the tissue cells to respond.

What is the role of the chordae tendineae?

They anchor the AV valve flaps during ventricular systole, thus preventing backflow of blood into the atria.

What is the function of the valves found in the heart?

They enforce a one-way flow of blood through the heart

Although the pituitary gland is sometimes referred to as the master gland of the body, the hypothalamus exerts control over the pituitary gland. How does the hypothalamus control both anterior and posterior pituitary functioning?

They hypothalamic hormones reach the anterior pituitary through the hypophyseal portal system. They reach the posterior pituitary through the axons of neurons in the hypothalamus.

This type of gland has follicles. Stored T3 and T4 are attached to the protein colloidal material stored in the follicles as thyroglobulin and are released gradually to the blood. Between the follicles are parafollicular, or C cells, that produce calcitonin.

Thyroid gland

What is the function of the fluid that fills the pericardial sac?

To reduce friction during heart activity.

What is the major function of the cardiovascular system?

Transportation. Using blood as the transport vehicle, the system carries oxygen, digested foods, cell wastes, electrolytes, and other substances to and from the body cells.

True or false. The anterior pituitary gland is sometimes referred to as the master endocrine gland because it controls the activity of many other endocrine glands.

True

True or false. The gonads are considered to be both endocrine and exocrine glands.

True

ACTH, estrogens, T4/T3, testosterone, and TSH and FSH are all stimulated by ___.

another hormone

The left ventricle discharges blood into the ___, from which all systemic arteries of the body diverge to supply the body tissues.

aorta

The superior heart chambers are ___.

atria

Define target cell.

cells within an organ that respond to a particular hormone

An ___ gland is a ductless gland that empties its hormone into the extracellular fluid

endocrine

Visceral pericardium is ___.

epicardium

These two hormones are directly responsible for regulation of the menstrual cycle.

estrogens, progesterone

The heart is divided into ___ chambers.

four

The pancreas produces two hormones that are responsible for regulating blood sugar levels. Name the hormone that increases blood glucose levels.

glucagon

___ is produced by alpha cells of the pancreatic islets.

glucagon

Calcitonin, insulin, and parathyroid hormone are all stimulated by ___.

humoral factors (the concentration of specific nonhormonal substances in the blood or extracellular fluid)

The pituitary gland, also known as the ___, is located in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone.

hypophysis

___ is produced by beta cells of the pancreatic islets.

insulin

These two hormones regulate blood glucose levels; produced by the same "mixed" gland.

insulin, glucagon

Two microscopic features of cardiac cells that help distinguish them from other types of muscle cells are branching of the cells and ___.

intercalated discs

In the heart, the ___ ventricle has thicker walls and a basically circular cavity shape.

left

The location of the heart in the thorax is the ___.

mediastinum

___ are produced by zona glomerulosa cells.

mineralocorticoids

Layer composed of cardiac muscle is ___.

myocardium

Excessive ___ results in demineralization of bones, spontaneous fractures.

parathyroid hormone (PTH)

The heart is enclosed in a double-walled sac called the: ___.

pericardium

The heart serves as a double pump. The ___ side serves as the pulmonary circuit pump, shunting carbon dioxide-rich blood to the lungs.

right

True or false. Blood flows through the heart in one direction- from the atria to the ventricles.

true

Actual "pumps" of the heart is ___.

ventricles

Inferior heart chambers are ___.

ventricles

The outer cortex of the adrenal gland is divided into three areas. Which one produces aldosterone?

zona glomerulosa