abnormal pyschology exam 2 quizlet
neurobiological theories of panic disorder?
. Neurobiological theories of panic disorder suggest that a region of the brain called the locus coeruleus may play a role in this disorder. Located in the brainstem, the locus coeruleus is the brain's major source of norepinephrine, a neurotransmitter that triggers the body's fight-or-flight response. Activation of the locus coeruleus is associated with anxiety and fear, and research with nonhuman primates has shown that stimulating the locus coeruleus either electrically or through drugs produces panic-like symptoms (Charney et al., 1990). Such findings have led to the theory that panic disorder may be caused by abnormal norepinephrine activity in the locus coeruleus (Bremner, Krystal, Southwick, & Charney, 1996).
med treatment for panic disorder
. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are first-line medication treatments for panic disorder; they are preferred over benzodiazapines due to concerns about the latter regarding tolerance, dependence, and abuse.
______________% of those diagnosed with panic disorder do not have a close relative with the disorder—indicating the significance of environmental factors.
75
Prenatal and Perinatal factors of ASD
A number of prenatal and perinatal complications have been reported as possible risk factors for ASD. These risk factors include maternal gestational diabetes, maternal and paternal age over 30, bleeding after first trimester, use of prescription medication (such as valproate) during pregnancy, and meconium (the earliest stool of an infant) in the amniotic fluid. While research is not conclusive on the relation of these factors to ASD, each of these factors has been identified more frequently in children with ASD than in developing youth without ASD.
what is a panic attack?
A panic attack is defined as a period of extreme fear or discomfort that develops abruptly and reaches a peak within 10 minutes.
what is a specific or simple phobia
A person diagnosed with a specific phobia (formerly known as a "simple phobia") experiences excessive, distressing, and persistent fear or anxiety about a specific object or situation (such as animals, enclosed spaces, elevators, or flying) (APA, 2013). Even though people realize their level of fear and anxiety in relation to the phobic stimulus is irrational, some people with a specific phobia may go to great lengths to avoid the phobic stimulus (the object or situation that triggers the fear and anxiety). Typically, the fear and anxiety a phobic stimulus elicits is disruptive to the person's life.
Genetics of ASD
ASD affects information processing in the brain by altering how nerve cells and their synapses connect and organize; thus, it is categorized as a neuro-developmental disorder. The results of family and twin studies suggest that genetic factors play a role in the etiology of ASD and other pervasive developmental disorders. Studies have consistently found that the prevalence of ASD in siblings of children with ASD is approximately 15 to 30 times greater than the rate in the general population. In addition, research suggests that there is a much higher concordance rate among monozygotic (identical) twins compared to dizygotic (fraternal) twins. It appears that there is no single gene that can account for ASD; instead, there seem to be multiple genes involved, each of which is a risk factor for part of the autism syndrome through various groups. It is unclear whether ASD is explained more by rare mutations or by combinations of common genetic variants.
DSM Criteria for intellectual disability
According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (the DSM), three criteria must be met for a diagnosis of intellectual disability: deficits in general mental abilities, significant limitations in one or more areas of adaptive behavior (e.g., communication, self-help skills, interpersonal skills) across multiple environments, and evidence that the limitations became apparent in childhood or adolescence. In general, people with intellectual disability have an IQ below 70, but the diagnosis may also apply to individuals who have a somewhat higher IQ but severe impairment in adaptive functioning.
treatment of panic disorder
Although there is no known cure, panic disorder can be successfully treated in many cases using psychotherapy, medication, or a combination of both.
Etiology of Intellectual Disability
Among children, 30% to 50% of intellectual disabilities are of unknown cause. Sometimes intellectual disability is caused by genetics—for example, an abnormal gene may have been inherited from the parents, or an error may have occurred during gene combination. The most prevalent genetic conditions include Down syndrome, Klinefelter's syndrome, fragile X syndrome (common among boys), neurofibromatosis, congenital hypothyroidism, Williams syndrome, phenylketonuria (PKU), and Prader-Willi syndrome. Intellectual disability can also result if the fetus does not develop properly during pregnancy. For example, a pregnant woman who drinks alcohol or who gets an infection such as rubella may have a baby with an intellectual disability. If the mother has a difficult labor or birth and the baby does not get enough oxygen, brain damage may lead to the development of an intellectual disability. Environmental factors, such as exposure to certain diseases (e.g., whooping cough, measles, or meningitis) or toxins (e.g., lead or mercury), can cause intellectual disability if medical care is delayed or inadequate. Iodine deficiency is the leading preventable cause of intellectual disability in areas of the developing world—it affects approximately 2 billion people worldwide.
What is intellectual disability?
An intellectual disability is a generalized neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by significantly impaired intellectual and adaptive functioning. It is defined by an intelligence quotient (IQ) score below 70 in addition to deficits in two or more adaptive behaviors that affect an individual's everyday life. Intellectual disability was known as "mental retardation" until the end of the 20th century. However, this term is now widely seen as disparaging, so "intellectual disability" is preferred by advocates and researchers in most English-speaking countries. In addition, while the definition of intellectual disability once focused almost entirely on cognitive ability, it now also addresses both mental functioning and functional skills. As a result, a person with an unusually low IQ may not necessarily be considered intellectually disabled. Intellectual disability can be either syndromic (in which intellectual deficits are present along with other medical and behavioral signs and symptoms), or non-syndromic (in which intellectual deficits appear without other abnormalities). Down syndrome and fragile X syndrome are examples of syndromic intellectual disabilities.
discuss symptoms of anxiety disorders
Anxiety disorders are defined by excessive worry, apprehension, and fear about future events or situations, either real or imagined. Specifically, symptoms may include: feelings of panic, fear, or uneasiness uncontrollable and obsessive thoughts flashbacks to traumatic events problems sleeping nightmares shortness of breath nausea muscle tension dizziness heart palpitations dry mouth cold or sweaty hands
what percentage of adults have anxiety disorders
Anxiety disorders are diagnosed in between 4% and 10% of older adults; however, this figure is likely an underestimate of the true incidence due to the tendency of adults to minimize psychiatric problems and to focus on physical symptoms.
What is an anxiety disorder? how does it differ from normal anxiety?
Anxiety disorders are dysfunctional responses to anxiety-inducing situations. An anxiety disorder differs from normal anxiety in that it causes extreme distress and interferes with a person's ability to lead a normal life.
how can anxiety disorders develop?
Anxiety disorders can develop in response to life stresses such as financial worries or chronic physical illness.
How do anxiety disorders develop?
Anxiety disorders develop as the result of the interaction of genetic (inherited) and environmental factors.
etiology of anxiety disorders
Anxiety disorders develop as the result of the interaction of genetic (inherited) and environmental factors. Neurologically speaking, increased amygdala reactivity is correlated with increased fear and anxiety responses. Low levels of GABA (a neurotransmitter in the brain that reduces central nervous system activity) can contribute to anxiety, and serotonin, glutamate, and the 5-Ht2A receptor have also all been implicated in the development of anxiety disorders. Severe anxiety and depression can also be induced by sustained alcohol abuse; with prolonged sobriety these symptoms usually decrease. Even moderate sustained alcohol use may increase anxiety and depression levels in some individuals. Caffeine, alcohol, and benzodiazepine dependence can worsen or cause anxiety and panic attacks.
trichotillomania etiology
Anxiety, depression, and other forms of OCD are frequently encountered in people with trichotillomania; the disorder also has a high overlap with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and some cases of trichotillomania may be triggered by stress. Another school of thought emphasizes hair pulling as addictive or negatively reinforcing as it is associated with rising tension beforehand and relief afterward. A neurocognitive model sees trichotillomania as a kind of habit disorder. In several MRI studies that have been conducted, it has been found that people with trichotillomania have more gray matter (the regions of the brain involved in muscle control and sensory perception) in their brains than those who do not suffer from the disorder. It is likely that multiple genes confer vulnerability to trichotillomania; however, more research is needed.
Etiology of BDD
As with most psychiatric diagnoses, body dysmorphic disorder seems to have a causation that is biopsychosocial, or an interaction of inherited, genetic, developmental, psychological, and social factors. Although genetic factors appear to contribute, rates of childhood abuse and neglect are markedly elevated among persons experiencing body dysmorphic disorder, suggesting a trauma component. Neuroimaging also suggest weaker connection between the amygdala (the part of the brain involved in basic emotions ) and the orbitofrontal cortex (the part of the brain involved in regulation of emotional arousal ) in people with body dysmorphic disorder.
What is ADHD
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental psychiatric disorder characterized by a constant pattern of inattention and/or hyperactive and impulsive behavior that interferes with normal functioning. The first person to describe a version of ADHD was physician Heinrich Hoffmann, in the 1920s. The first official recognition of the disorder was "attention deficit disorder with and without hyperactivity," in the DSM-III (published in 1980). Revisions to the DSM eventually renamed the disorder as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Despite being the most commonly studied and diagnosed psychiatric disorder in children and adolescents, the cause in the majority of cases is unknown. The World Health Organization estimates that it affected about 39 million people as of 2013. It affects about 6%-7% of children when diagnosed using the earlier DSM-IV criteria; the incidence is about three times higher in boys than in girls. Approximately 30%-50% of children diagnosed with ADHD continue to experience symptoms as adolescents and adults. ADHD continues to be very controversial and has elicited the input of parents, clinicians, teachers, policymakers, and even the media. Many critics argue that it is highly over-diagnosed, leading to stigmatization of the diagnosis and creating significant barriers for individuals who "legitimately" have the disorder. Children with diagnoses of ADHD are often judged as lazy and unfocused by choice. This over-diagnosis has led to a colloquial use of the term "ADHD" among children, adolescents, and adults alike, to indicate a general tendency toward distractibility and inattention.
Autism Spectrum Disorder
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) describes a range of conditions classified as neuro-developmental disorders in the fifth revision of the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). The DSM-5, published in 2013, redefined the autism spectrum to encompass the previous (DSM-IV-TR) diagnoses of autism, Asperger syndrome, pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS), and childhood disintegrative disorder. These disorders are characterized by social deficits and communication difficulties, repetitive behaviors and interests, sensory issues, and in some cases, cognitive delays. Asperger syndrome was distinguished from autism in the earlier DSM-IV by the lack of delay or deviance in early language development. Additionally, individuals diagnosed with Asperger syndrome did not have significant cognitive delays. PDD-NOS was considered "subthreshold autism" and "atypical autism" because it was often characterized by milder symptoms of autism or symptoms in only one domain (such as social difficulties). In the DSM-5, both of these diagnoses have been subsumed into autism spectrum disorder. Autism spectrum disorders are considered to be on a spectrum because each individual with ASD expresses the disorder uniquely and has varying degrees of functionality. Many have above-average intellectual abilities and excel in visual skills, music, math, and the arts, while others have significant disabilities and are unable to live independently. About 25 percent of individuals with ASD are nonverbal; however, they may learn to communicate using other means.
OCD treatment
Behavioral therapy, cognitive behavioral therapy, and medications (such as SSRIs) are regarded as first-line treatments for OCD. A specific technique often used is exposure and ritual prevention, which involves gradually learning to tolerate the anxiety associated with not performing a compulsion or ritual. An example might be leaving the house and checking the lock only once (exposure) without going back and checking again (ritual prevention). The person habituates to the anxiety-producing situation and discovers that their anxiety level has dropped considerably; they can then progress to not checking the lock at all.
how many people suffer from specific/simple phobias?
Between 5% and 12% of the population worldwide suffer from phobic disorders, making it the single largest category of anxiety disorders.
Catatonia?
Broadly speaking, catatonia is any condition of abnormal motor activity thought to be caused by a psychiatric disorder. For example, individuals with schizophrenia can demonstrate manic patterns of repetitious movement with no purpose, compulsively mimic the sounds or movements of others, or maintain the same posture for a long period of time without moving. In the DSM, catatonia is not recognized as its own disorder but rather is listed as a symptom of other psychiatric conditions, such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, and depression.
treatment of specific phobias
CBT, systematic desensitization, virtual reality therapy, eye-movement desensitization and reprocessing, hypnotherapy, meds: antidepressants, MAOIs and SSRIs
heritability of panic disorder?
Children are at a higher risk of developing panic disorder if their parents have the disorder (Biederman et al., 2001), and family and twins studies indicate that the heritability of panic disorder is around 43% (Hettema, Neale, & Kendler, 2001). The exact genes and gene functions involved in this disorder, however, are not well understood (APA, 2013).
restricted and repetitive behaviors ASD
Children with ASD may exhibit repetitive or restricted behavior, including: Stereotypy—repetitive movement, such as hand flapping, head rolling, or body rocking. Compulsive behavior—exhibiting intention to follow rules, such as arranging objects in stacks or lines. Sameness—resistance to change; for example, insisting that the furniture not be moved or sticking to an unvarying pattern of daily activities. Restricted behavior—limits in focus, interest, or activity, such as preoccupation with a single television program, toy, or game. Self-injury—movements that injure or can injure the person, such as eye poking, skin picking, hand biting, and head banging. horizontal line
psychotherapy treatment for panic disorder
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is the psychotherapeutic treatment of choice for panic disorder; several studies show that 85 to 90 percent of panic-disorder patients treated with CBT recover completely from their panic attacks within 12 weeks. The goal of cognitive behavioral therapy is to help a patient reorganize thinking processes and anxious thoughts regarding an experience that provokes panic. Psychotherapy can improve the effectiveness of medication, reduce the likelihood of relapse for someone who has discontinued medication, and offer help for people with panic disorder who do not respond at all to medication.
cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia
Cognitive symptoms are the most harmful to the livelihood of the individual, as they prevent the individual from participating effectively in the workplace or in society. Cognitive symptoms are subtle differences in cognitive ability that are normally only discovered after neuropsychological tests are given. These include poor ability to absorb and act upon information (executive functioning), lack of attention, and an inability to utilize working memory.
compulsion?
Compulsions are ritualistic behaviors that an individual performs in order to mitigate the anxiety that stems from obsessive thoughts. They often include such behaviors as repeated and extensive hand washing, cleaning, checking (e.g., making sure the oven is off), counting things, hoarding, or ordering (e.g., lining up all the pencils in a particular way). They may also include such mental acts as counting, praying, or reciting something to oneself, as well as nervous rituals like touching a doorknob or opening and closing a door a certain number of times before leaving a room. These compulsions can be alienating and time-consuming, often causing severe emotional, interpersonal, and even financial distress. The ability to relieve their stress is often temporary, and individuals may have a hard time switching from one task to another.
conditioning theory of panic disorder
Conditioning theories of panic disorder propose that panic attacks are classical-conditioning responses to subtle bodily sensations resembling those normally occurring when one is anxious or frightened
treatment of intellectual disability
Currently, there is no "cure" for an intellectual disability. However, with appropriate support and teaching, many individuals can learn to live fulfilling, productive lives. In addition, there are four broad areas of intervention that allow for active participation from caregivers, community members, clinicians, and of course, the individual(s) with an intellectual disability. These include psychosocial treatments, behavioral treatments, cognitive-behavioral treatments, and family-oriented strategies. Core components of behavioral treatments, for example, include working on language and social skills acquisition. There are also thousands of agencies around the world that provide assistance for people with intellectual disabilities, both state-run and privately run and both for-profit and non-profit. Such agencies include fully staffed residential homes, day rehabilitation programs that are similar to schools, programs and workshops that help people with disabilities obtain jobs, programs that support people with intellectual disabilities who have their own apartments, programs that assist parents who have intellectual disabilities with raising their children, and many more. Although there is no specific medication for intellectual disability, many people with such disabilities do have further medical complications and so may be prescribed several medications. For example, children with autism who also experience developmental delays may be prescribed antipsychotics or mood stabilizers to help with their behavior. However, use of psychotropic medications such as benzodiazepines in people with intellectual disability requires vigilant monitoring, as side effects are common and are often misdiagnosed as behavioral and psychiatric problems.
Delusional Disorder (7 subtypes?)
Delusional disorder is a psychiatric condition in which the person presents with delusions but no accompanying hallucinations, thought disorder, mood disorder, or significant flattening of affect. Apart from their delusions, people with delusional disorder may continue to socialize and function normally; their behavior does not stand out as odd or bizarre. However, their preoccupation with delusional ideas can disrupt their lives. There are 7 subtypes of delusional disorder: Erotomanic type (erotomania): Delusion that another person, often a prominent public figure, is in love with the individual. Grandiose type: Delusion of inflated worth, power, knowledge, or identity. Jealous type: Delusion that the individual's sexual partner is unfaithful when such is not the case. Persecutory type: Delusion that the person (or someone the person is close to) is being treated badly or malevolently. Somatic type: Delusion that the person has some physical defect or medical condition. Mixed type: Delusions with characteristics of more than one of the above types but with no single predominant theme. Unspecified type: Delusions that cannot be clearly classified into any of the subcategories. To be diagnosed with a delusional disorder, the individual's delusions must last for at least one month and cannot be due to the effects of a drug, medication, or general medical condition. Delusional disorder cannot be diagnosed in an individual previously correctly diagnosed with schizophrenia. Auditory and visual hallucinations cannot be prominent, though olfactory or tactile hallucinations related to the content of the delusion may be present.
behavioral disturbances of schizophrenia
Disorders of behavior may involve deterioration of social functioning, such as social withdrawal, self-neglect, or neglect of environment. Behavioral disorders may also involve behaviors that are considered socially inappropriate, such as talking to oneself in public, obscene language, or inappropriate exposure. Substance abuse is another disorder of behavior; patients may abuse cigarettes, alcohol, or other substances. Substance abuse is associated with poor treatment compliance, and may be a form of self-medication.
mood disturbances of schizophrenia
Disorders of mood and affect include flat affect, which is a reduced intensity of emotional expression and responsiveness that leaves patients indifferent and apathetic. Typically, one sees unchanging facial expression, decreased spontaneous movements, a lack of expressive gestures, poor eye contact, lack of vocal inflections, and slowed speech. Anhedonia, or the inability to experience pleasure, is also common, as is emotional emptiness. Patients may also exhibit inappropriate affect, such as laughing at a funeral.
other neurotransmitters involved with schizophrenia
Dopamine is not the only neurotransmitter associated with schizophrenia, although it can be argued that it is the most studied. Seratonin and glutamate have also been linked with schizophrenia. Increased levels of seratonin are associated with positive symptoms. Glutamate has been theorized to exacerbate hyperactivity and hypoactivity in dopamine pathways, affecting both positive and negative symptoms.
Dyscalculia?
Dyscalculia is a form of math-related disability that involves difficulties with learning math-related concepts (such as quantity, place value, and time), memorizing math-related facts, organizing numbers, and understanding how problems are organized on the page. Dyscalculics are often referred to as having poor "number sense."
Dyslexia?
Dyslexia, sometimes called reading disorder, is the most common learning disability; of all students with specific learning disabilities, 70%-80% have deficits in reading. The term "developmental dyslexia" is often used as a catch-all term, but researchers assert that dyslexia is just one of several types of reading disabilities. A reading disability can affect any part of the reading process, including word recognition, word decoding, reading speed, prosody (oral reading with expression), and reading comprehension.
five general categories of phobias
Environment phobias (e.g., fear of lightning, fear of tornadoes) Animal phobias (e.g., fear of snakes, fear of bears) Blood-injury phobias, (e.g., fear of getting a shot, fear of the sight of blood) Situational phobias (e.g., fear of heights, fear of public speaking) Other phobias not otherwise specified (e.g., fear of vomiting)
Environmental factors of ASD
Evidence for environmental causes is anecdotal and has not been confirmed by reliable studies. In the last few decades, controversy surrounded the idea that vaccinations may be the cause for many cases of autism; however, these theories lack scientific evidence and are biologically implausible. Even still, parental concern about a potential vaccine link with autism has led to lower rates of childhood immunizations, outbreaks of previously controlled childhood diseases in some countries, and the preventable deaths of several children.
Excoriation disorder
Excoriation disorder is an obsessive compulsive disorder characterized by the repeated urge to pick at one's own skin, often to the extent that damage is caused. Episodes of skin picking are often preceded or accompanied by tension, anxiety, or stress. During these moments, there is commonly a compulsive urge to pick, squeeze, or scratch at a surface or region of the body, often at the location of a perceived skin defect. The region most commonly picked is the face, but other frequent locations include the arms, legs, back, gums, lips, shoulders, scalp, stomach, chest, and extremities such as the fingernails, cuticles, and toenails. Most patients with excoriation disorder report having a primary area of the body that they focus their picking on, but they will often move to other areas of the body to allow their primary picking area to heal. Excoriation disorder can cause feeling of intense helplessness, guilt, shame, and embarrassment in individuals, and this greatly increases the risk of self-harm. Studies have shown that excoriation disorder presented suicidal ideation in 12% of individuals with this condition, suicide attempts in 11.5% of individuals with this condition, and psychiatric hospitalizations in 15% of individuals with this condition.
low levels of _______________ can contribute to anxiety.
GABA (a neurotransmitter in the brain that reduces central nervous system activity)
ADHD DSM criteria
General symptoms of ADHD include inattention, hyperactivity (restlessness in adults), disruptive behavior, impulsivity, forgetfulness, inability to concentrate, impatience, thrill-seeking, excessive daydreaming, and unusual/disruptive sleep patterns. Academic difficulties and problems with relationships may be frequent. The symptoms can be difficult to define, as it is hard to draw a line between normal levels of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity and significant levels that require intervention. As a result of sometimes-unusual patterns in thought processing, children with ADHD may be very creative and/or able to grasp big-picture concepts more quickly. Many people with a diagnosis of ADHD are very successful; however, the disorder can make academic and work performance more challenging. ADHD and academic performance: Many children with ADHD are unable to pay attention at school, leading to poor academic performance and sometimes isolation from peers. The DSM indicates three subtypes of ADHD: ADHD, Predominantly Inattentive Type (ADHD-PI): Symptoms include being easily distracted, forgetful, or disorganized; excessive daydreaming; poor concentration; and difficulty completing tasks. Often people refer to ADHD-PI as "attention deficit disorder" (ADD); however, the latter has not been officially accepted since the 1994 revision of the DSM. Children with the inattention subtype are less likely to act out or have difficulties getting along with other children. ADHD, Predominantly Hyperactive-Impulsive Type (ADHD-PHI): Symptoms include excessive fidgetiness and restlessness, hyperactivity, difficulty waiting or remaining seated, immature behavior, and sometimes destructive behaviors. Hyperactivity symptoms tend to go away with age and turn into "inner restlessness" in teens and adults with ADHD. ADHD, Combined Type is a combination of the two other subtypes. Most children with ADHD have the combined type. To be diagnosed per DSM, at least six out of nine symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity-impulsivity, or both must be present for at least six months and to a degree that is much greater than others of the same age. To be considered, the symptoms must have appeared between the ages of 6 and 12 and must be observed in more than one environment (such as at home, at school, or at work). The signs must be inappropriate for a child of that age, and there must be evidence that it is causing social, academic, or work-related problems.
General Anxiety Disorder
Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) is characterized by chronic anxiety that is excessive, uncontrollable, often irrational, and disproportionate to the actual object of concern. People with GAD often characterize it as a feeling of "free-floating anxiety"—a term that Sigmund Freud used in his early work. Typically, the anxiety has no definite trigger or starting point, and as soon as the individual resolves one issue or source of worry another worry arises. People with GAD also tend to catastrophize, meaning they may assume the absolute worst in anxiety-inducing situations. Racing thoughts, inability to concentrate, and inability to focus are also characteristic of GAD. GAD is a particularly difficult disorder to live with; because the individual's anxiety is not tied to a specific situation or event, they experience little relief. This disorder can contribute to problems with sleep, work, and daily responsibilities and often impacts close relationships.
Hoarding disorder? prevalance rate?
Hoarding disorder is a pattern of behavior that is characterized by excessive acquisition and an inability or unwillingness to discard large quantities of objects that cover the living areas of the home and cause significant distress or impairment. Compulsive hoarding behavior has been associated with health risks, impaired functioning, economic burden, and adverse effects on friends and family members. When clinically significant enough to impair functioning, hoarding can prevent typical uses of space, enough so that it can limit activities such as cooking, cleaning, moving through the house, and sleeping. It could also potentially put the individual and others at risk of causing fires, falling, poor sanitation, and other health concerns. Compulsive hoarders may be conscious of their irrational behavior, but the emotional attachment to the hoarded objects far exceeds the motive to discard the items. Prevalence rates have been estimated at 2-5% in adults, though the condition typically manifests in childhood with symptoms worsening in advanced age. Hoarding appears to be more common in people with psychological disorders such as depression, anxiety, and attention -deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
when does anxiety become counterproductive? what was human's hormonal anxiety response there to help?
Humans' hormonal anxiety response evolved to help us react to danger. However, anxiety becomes counterproductive and thus is deemed "disordered" when it is experienced with such intensity that it impedes social functioning.
Brain Areas Associated with Schizophrenia
In addition to neurotransmitters, specific neural circuitry in various areas of the brain has been linked to schizophrenia. Disregulation of neurotransmitters in the association cortex may explain why people with schizophrenia are not able to properly sort or filter information. The medial temporal lobe and hippocampus are associated with symptoms such as lack of focus and emotional regulation. The thalamus can also affect symptoms in various ways: a decrease in the size of the thalamus may lead to hallucinations, and a breakdown in one of the neural pathways within the thalamus is associated with disjointed associations. Finally, the basal ganglia also affect schizophrenia. This area is involved with the integration of information from cortical areas and may also influence disjointed perceptions of environmental information.
etiology of GAD
In any given year, approximately 2.3% of American adults and 2% of European adults experience GAD. Although there have been few investigations into the disorder's heritability, a summary of available family and twin studies suggests that genetic factors play a moderate role in its development (Hettema et al., 2001). Specifically, about 30% of the variance for generalized anxiety disorder can been attributed to genes. Individuals with a genetic predisposition for GAD are more likely to develop the disorder, especially in response to a life stressor.
diagnosis of GAD
In order for GAD to be diagnosed, a person must experience excessive anxiety and worry—more days than not—for at least 6 months and about a number of events or activities (such as work or school performance). This excessive worry must interfere with some aspect of life, such as social, occupational, or daily functioning, and the person must have trouble controlling the anxiety. The disturbance must not be attributed to the physiological effects of a substance (e.g., a drug or medication) or another medical condition, and must not be better explained by another medical disorder. At least 3 of the following symptoms must be experienced: restlessness or feeling keyed up or on edge; being easily fatigued; difficulty concentrating or mind going blank; irritability; muscle tension; and/or sleep disturbance.
DSM diagnostic criteria for specific phobias
In order to be diagnosed with a specific phobia, a person must experience a marked and persistent fear that is excessive or unreasonable, cued by the presence or anticipation of a specific object or situation (e.g., flying, heights, animals, receiving an injection, seeing blood). These symptoms must last for at least six months. Exposure to the object of the phobia nearly always elicits extremely distressing symptoms of anxiety, either immediately ("situationally bound") or after some time delay ("situationally predisposed"). The person either avoids the phobic situation(s) or else endures it with extreme distress. The avoidance and/or distress associated with the phobia must interfere significantly with the person's academic or social functioning. Like all anxiety disorders, the symptoms must not be better accounted for by another mental disorder or by substance use.
BDD DSM diagnostic criteria
In order to be diagnosed with body dysmorphic disorder, a person must be preoccupied with at least one area of their physical appearance, focusing on a perceived defect. They must also engage in repetitive, often compulsive, behaviors (such as checking in the mirror) or mental acts (such as comparing themselves to others) in relation to their perceived defect(s). This preoccupation must interfere with some aspect of their social, occupation, or daily life, and the symptoms must not be better explained by an eating disorder.
DSM diagnostic criteria for social anxiety disorder
In order to be diagnosed with social anxiety disorder, a person must experience an intense fear in one or more social situations, marked specifically by the fear of embarrassment or humiliation. This anxiety—or efforts to avoid the anxiety-inducing situation—must cause considerable distress and an impaired ability to function in at least some parts of social, occupational, academic, or daily life. Symptoms must last at least six months in order for a diagnosis to occur, and the symptoms must not be better accounted for by the effects of substance use, a medical condition, or another mental illness.
trichotillomania diagnostic treatment
In order to be diagnosed with trichotillomania, a person must repeatedly engage in hair pulling behavior, resulting in the loss of hair. They must experience distress related to this behavior and repeatedly try to stop, and the symptoms must interfere with some aspect of social, occupational, or daily life functioning. Finally, the behavior cannot be due to another medical condition or mental disorder.
what medications are prescribed for anxiety disorder treatment?
In terms of medication, SSRIs are most commonly recommended. Benzodiazepines are also sometimes indicated for short-term or "as-needed" use. MAOIs such as phenelzine and tranylcypromine are also considered effective and are especially useful in treatment-resistant cases, but dietary restrictions and medical interactions may limit their use.
treatment of specific learning disorders
Individuals with learning disorders face unique challenges that may persist throughout their lives. Depending on the type and severity of their disability, interventions and technology may be used to help the individual learn strategies that will foster future success. Some interventions can be quite simple, while others are intricate and complex. Teachers, parents, and schools can work together to create a tailored plan for intervention and accommodation to aid an individual in successfully becoming an independent learner. School psychologists and other qualified professionals often help design and manage such interventions. Social support may also improve learning for students with learning disabilities.
symptoms of a panic attack
Its symptoms include accelerated heart rate, sweating, trembling, choking sensations, hot flashes or chills, dizziness or lightheadedness, fears of losing control or going crazy, and fears of dying (APA, 2013). S
Treatment of BDD
Like many forms of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), people struggling with body dysmorphic disorder often respond well to behavioral therapy or cognitive -behavioral therapy (CBT). Psychodynamic psychotherapy may help in managing some aspects of the disorder; however, more research is needed. Some antidepressant medications may also be helpful, such as the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors ( SSRIs ).
hoarding disorder treatment
Like other obsessive-compulsive disorders, hoarding may be treated with various antidepressants from the Tricyclic antidepressant family clomipramine and from the SSRI families. With existing drug therapy, OCD symptoms can be controlled but not cured. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is also a commonly implemented therapeutic intervention for compulsive hoarding. This modality of treatment usually involves exposure and response prevention to situations that cause anxiety and cognitive restructuring of beliefs related to hoarding. Other approaches to treatment that show promise include motivational interviewing, harm reduction, and group therapy.
motor disturbances of schizophrenia
Motor disturbances include disorders of mobility, activity, and volition. People with schizophrenia can exhibit too little (negative) or too much (positive) movement. In addition to catatonic stupor and catatonic excitement, examples of motor disturbances include stereotypy (repeated, non-goal directed movement such as rocking), mannerisms (normal, goal-directed activities that appear to have social significance, but are either odd in appearance or out of context, such as repeatedly running one's hand through one's hair or grimacing), mitgehen (moving a limb in response to slight pressure, despite being told to resist the pressure), ecopraxia (the imitation of the movements of another person), and automatic obedience (carrying out simple commands in a robot-like fashion).
negative symptoms of schizophrenia
Negative symptoms are disorders of omission, meaning they are things that the individual does not do. Examples include alogia (lack of speech), flat affect (lack of emotional response), anhedonia (inability to experience pleasure), asociality (lack of interest in social contact), avolition (lack of motivation), and apathy (lack of interest). Some individuals will experience a catatonic stupor, or a state in which they are immobile and mute, yet conscious. They may exhibit waxy flexibility, where another person can move the patient's limbs into postures and the patient will retain these postures, like a wax doll. In some cases, negative symptoms can be misinterpreted as depression or laziness.
obsession?
Obsessions are characterized as persistent, unintentional, and unwanted thoughts and urges that are highly intrusive, unpleasant, and distressing (APA, 2013). Common obsessions include concerns about germs and contamination, doubts ("Did I turn the water off?"), order and symmetry ("I need all the spoons in the tray to be arranged a certain way"), and urges that are aggressive or lustful. Usually, the person knows that such thoughts and urges are irrational and thus tries to suppress or ignore them, but has an extremely difficult time doing so.
what is OCD
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a mental disorder characterized by intrusive thoughts (obsessions) that produce uneasiness, apprehension, fear, or worry, and by repetitive behaviors or rituals (compulsions) aimed at reducing the associated anxiety. People with OCD may have just the obsessions or a combination of obsessions and compulsions.
agoraphobia
One type of phobia, agoraphobia, is listed in the DSM-5 as a separate anxiety disorder. Agoraphobia, which literally means "fear of the marketplace," is characterized by intense fear, anxiety, and avoidance of situations in which it might be difficult to escape or receive help if one experiences symptoms of a panic attack (a state of extreme anxiety that we will discuss shortly). These situations include public transportation, open spaces (parking lots), enclosed spaces (stores), crowds, or being outside the home alone (APA, 2013). About 1.4% of Americans experience agoraphobia during their lifetime (Kessler et al., 2005).
what is panic disorder?
People with panic disorder experience recurrent (more than one) and unexpected panic attacks, along with at least one month of persistent concern about additional panic attacks, worry over the consequences of the attacks, or self-defeating changes in behavior related to the attacks (such as withdrawing from social activities out of fear of having an attack) (APA, 2013).
treatment of GAD
Pharmaceutical treatments for GAD include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), which are more commonly used as antidepressants. SSRIs block the reabsorption of serotonin in the brain so that it can keep activating serotonin receptors, improving the individual's mood. Two popular therapeutic programs used for treating GAD are applied relaxation, which focuses on muscle-relaxation techniques, and cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), which focuses on ways to recognize and reduce worried thoughts. In a study comparing the two, it was found that CBT produced better post-treatment results. Other forms of therapy found to be effective in treating GAD include metacognitive therapy (MCT), which treats the "worrying about worrying" (or "meta-worrying") often found in GAD, and intolerance-of-uncertainty (IUT), which focuses on resolving people's difficulty dealing with uncertain situations. A particular challenge in treating GAD is its high comorbidity with other disorders, such as depression and substance abuse; it can be difficult in therapy to make progress with multiple issues simultaneously.
physical symptoms of social anxiety disorder
Physical symptoms often accompanying social anxiety disorder include excessive blushing, excessive sweating, trembling, palpitations, and nausea. Stammering may be present, along with rapid speech. Panic attacks can also occur under intense fear and discomfort.
positive symptoms of schizophrenia
Positive symptoms are disorders of commission, meaning they are something that individuals do or think. Examples include hallucinations, delusions, and bizarre or disorganized behavior. Positive symptoms can also be described as behavior that indicates a loss of contact with the external reality experienced by non-psychotic individuals. An example of a positive motor disturbance would be catatonic excitement, which is uncontrolled and aimless motor activity. Positive symptoms tend to be the easiest to recognize. Hallucinations, one of the most noted symptoms, involve perceiving a sensory stimuli that no one else is able to perceive. Most frequently, people with schizophrenia hear voices that tell them what to do, warn of danger, or talk to each other about the individual. Delusions are also commonly experienced; they include false beliefs that are not of the culture of the individual and are unchanging even after being proven incorrect.
neurological factors of schizophrenia
Research has shown that neurotransmitter activity is significantly related to schizophrenia. The study of neurotransmitters and schizophrenia is particularly important because most of the pharmaceutical treatment options for the disease involve regulating these chemicals.
etiology of social anxiety disorder
Research into the causes of social anxiety and social phobia is wide-ranging, encompassing multiple perspectives from neuroscience to sociology. Scientists have yet to pinpoint the exact causes. Studies suggest that genetics can play a part in combination with environmental factors. It has been shown that there is a two- to threefold greater risk of having social phobia if a first-degree relative also has the disorder; this could be due to genetics and/or due to children acquiring social fears and avoidance through observational learning. Research into the causes of social anxiety and social phobia is wide-ranging, encompassing multiple perspectives including neuroscience, genetics, conditioning, and social factors such as bullying.
Hoarding Disorder diagnostic criteria
Researchers have only recently begun to study hoarding, and it was first defined as a mental disorder in the 5th edition of the DSM in 2013. The current DSM lists hoarding disorder as both a mental disability and a possible symptom for OCD. The DSM diagnostic criteria for hoarding disorder include persistent difficulty discarding or parting with possessions, regardless of the value others may attribute to these possessions. This difficulty must be due to strong urges to save items and/or distress associated with discarding. The symptoms result in the accumulation of a large number of possessions that fill up and clutter active living areas of the home or workplace to the extent that their intended use is no longer possible. The symptoms must interfere with some aspect of the person's social, occupational, or daily life. Importantly, a diagnosis of hoarding disorder is made only if the hoarding is not caused by another medical condition and if the hoarding is not a symptom of another disorder (e.g., schizophrenia) (APA, 2013).
Etiology of Specific Phobias
Researchers in evolutionary medicine believe that phobias are adaptive, as they allow humans to recognize a potential threat and to act accordingly in order to ensure safety. Though the specific cause of phobias is unknown, they could be inherited; research has shown that if a person has a family member with a phobia, they are more likely to have one themselves. Phobias can also develop because of certain circumstances or occurrences,
Schizoaffective Disorder
Schizoaffective disorder is characterized by abnormal thought processes and dysregulated emotions. A person with this disorder has features of both schizophrenia and a mood disorder (either bipolar disorder or depression) but does not strictly meet the diagnostic criteria for either. The bipolar subtype is distinguished by symptoms of mania, hypomania, or mixed episodes; the depressive subtype is distinguished by symptoms of depression only. Common symptoms of schizoaffective disorder include hallucinations, paranoid delusions, and disorganized speech and thinking. The DSM distinguishes schizoaffective disorder from psychotic depression or psychotic bipolar disorder by additionally requiring that a psychotic condition must last for at least two continuous weeks without mood symptoms (although a person may be mildly depressed during this time). Two episodes of psychosis (an increase from one episode from prior DSM criteria) must be experienced in order for the person to qualify for this diagnosis.
Symptoms of Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia has a wide range of symptoms, and not all symptoms may be present in all forms of schizophrenia. The signs and symptoms of schizophrenia are usually divided into two categories: positive and negative. A third category of cognitive symptoms is also included in some descriptions of the disease. Both positive and negative symptoms are further characterized as motor, behavioral, and mood disturbances.
what is schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is a psychological disorder characterized by major disturbances in thought, perception, emotion, and behavior. About 1% of the population experiences schizophrenia in their lifetime, and usually the disorder is first diagnosed during early adulthood (early to mid-20s). Most people with schizophrenia experience significant difficulties in many day-to-day activities, such as holding a job, paying bills, caring for oneself (grooming and hygiene), and maintaining relationships with others. Schizophrenia is considered a disorder of psychosis, or one in which the person's thoughts, perceptions, and behaviors are impaired to the point where they are not able to function normally in life. In informal terms, one who suffers from a psychotic disorder (that is, has a psychosis) is disconnected from the world in which most of us live.
general etiology of schizophrenia?
Schizophrenia is a severe neuro-psychiatric disease that affects approximately 1% of the world's population. It is characterized by a wide variety of symptoms that include both positive symptoms (such as hallucinations and delusions) and negative symptoms (such as lack of emotion or motor control). While many factors have been associated with developing schizophrenia—including genetics, early environment, neurobiology, and psychological and social processes—the exact cause of the disease is unknown.
etiology of OCD?
Scholars generally agree that both psychological and biological factors play a role in causing the disorder. Evolutionary psychology indicates that some obsessions/compulsions may have at one point been advantageous, such as compulsive hygiene, checking the fire in the hearth, hoarding supplies, or monitoring the environment for enemies. The results of family and twin studies suggest that OCD has a moderate genetic component. The disorder is five times more frequent in the first-degree relatives of people with OCD than in people without the disorder (Nestadt et al., 2000). Additionally, the concordance rate of OCD among identical twins is around 57%; however, the concordance rate for fraternal twins is 22% (Bolton, Rijsdijk, O'Connor, Perrin, & Eley, 2007). Studies have implicated about two dozen potential genes that may be involved in OCD; these genes regulate the function of three neurotransmitters: serotonin, dopamine, and glutamate (Pauls, 2010). OCD has been linked to abnormalities with the neurotransmitter serotonin, although this could be either a cause or an effect of OCD. Serotonin is thought to have a role in regulating anxiety. The serotonin receptors of OCD sufferers may be under-stimulated, which is consistent with the observation that many OCD patients benefit from the use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), a class of medications that allows more serotonin to be readily available. Additionally, a brain region that is believed to play a critical role in OCD is the orbitofrontal cortex (Kopell & Greenberg, 2008), an area of the frontal lobe involved in learning and decision-making.
Excoriation DSM diagnostic criteria
Similar to trichotillomania, excoriation disorder is diagnosed when a person engages in repeated skin picking behavior that results in skin lesions. The person must experience distress about this behavior and repeatedly try to stop. The behavior must interfere with some aspect of the person's social, occupational, or daily life, and cannot be attributed to a medical condition or another mental disorder.
cognitive theories of panic disorder
Similarly, cognitive theories (Clark, 1996) argue that those with panic disorder are prone to interpret ordinary bodily sensations catastrophically, and these fearful interpretations set the stage for panic attacks.
social anxiety disorder, formerly called? what is it? how many americans experience it in their lifetimes?
Social anxiety disorder (formerly called social phobia) is characterized by extreme and persistent fear or anxiety and avoidance of social situations in which the person could potentially be evaluated negatively by others (APA, 2013). As with specific phobias, social anxiety disorder is common in the United States; a little over 12% of all Americans experience social anxiety disorder during their lifetime (Kessler et al., 2005).
Social communication symptoms (ASD)
Social impairments in children with autism can be characterized by a distinctive lack of intuition about others. Unusual social development becomes apparent early in childhood. Infants with ASD show less attention to social stimuli, smile and look at others less often, and respond less to their own name. Toddlers with ASD differ more strikingly from social norms; for example, they may show less eye contact and turn-taking and may not have the ability to use simple movements to express themselves. Individuals with severe forms of ASD do not develop enough natural speech to meet their daily communication needs.
are panic attacks expected or unexpected?
Sometimes panic attacks are expected, occurring in response to specific environmental triggers (such as being in a tunnel); other times, these episodes are unexpected and emerge randomly (such as when relaxing).
Specific learning disorder?
Specific learning disorder is a classification of disorders in which a person has difficulty learning in a typical manner within one of several domains. Often referred to as learning disabilities, learning disorders are characterized by inadequate development of specific academic, language, and speech skills. Types of learning disorders include difficulties in reading (dyslexia), mathematics (dyscalculia), and writing (dysgraphia).
DSM criteria for ASD
The DSM characterizes ASD by two primary symptoms: impairments in social communication and fixated or restricted behaviors or interests and associated features. These deficits are present in early childhood (often by age 3) and lead to clinically significant functional impairment. Previously, in the DSM, impairments in social interactions and impairments in communication were considered two separate symptoms; however, these have now been combined . The restriction of onset age has also been loosened from three years of age to the "early developmental period," with a note that symptoms may manifest later when demands exceed capabilities. horizontal line
Etiology of ADHD
The cause of ADHD is unknown and still being heavily researched. Most researchers agree that it is an interaction between genetic and environmental factors, as is the case with most psychiatric disorders. Some cases of ADHD are related to previous infections or neurological trauma. Genetics determine about 75% of all ADHD cases, as the disorder is highly inheritable. A number of genes seem to be involved, many of which affect dopamine transporters. Environmental factors are also thought to play a significant role in the development of ADHD. Ingestion of alcohol or tobacco during pregnancy can affect central-nervous-system development and can increase the risk of offspring developing the disorder. ADHD is more common in children of anxious or stressed parents, and so some argue that ADHD is an adaptation that helps children face a stressful or dangerous environment with, for example, increased impulsivity and exploratory behavior. ADHD has also been linked to excessive television watching at an early age.
Etiology of specific learning disorders
The causes of learning disabilities are not well understood. However, some potential causes or contributing factors are: heredity. Learning disabilities often run in the family—children with learning disabilities are likely to have parents or other relatives with similar difficulties. problems during pregnancy and birth. Learning disabilities can result from anomalies in the developing brain, illness or injury, fetal exposure to alcohol or drugs, low birth weight, oxygen deprivation, or premature or prolonged labor. accidents after birth. Learning disabilities can also be caused by head injuries, malnutrition, or toxic exposure (such as to heavy metals or pesticides).
Specific learning disorder Diagnostic criteria
The diagnosis of specific learning disorder was added to the DSM in 2013. The DSM does not require that a single domain of difficulty (such as as reading, mathematics, or written expression) be identified—instead, it is a single diagnosis that describes a collection of potential difficulties with general academic skills, simply including detailed specifiers for the areas of reading, mathematics, and writing. Academic performance must be below average in at least one of these fields, and the symptoms may also interfere with daily life or work. In addition, the learning difficulties cannot be attributed to other sensory, motor, developmental, or neurological disorders.
dopamine theory of schizophrenia
The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia is a model used by scientists to explain many schizophrenic symptoms. The model claims that a high fluctuation of levels of dopamine can be responsible for schizophrenic symptoms. The simplest version of this theory suggests that schizophrenia is associated with an increase of dopamine in the central nervous system. Additional research has identified two dopamine pathways in particular that are associated with the positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia. The first is the mesolimbic system, which affects areas regulating reward pathways and emotional processes; the second is the mesocortical system, which affects the prefrontal cortex, areas that regulate cognitive processing, and areas involved with motor control. Excess activity in the mesolimbic pathway and lack of activity in the mesocortical pathway are thought to be responsible for positive and negative symptoms, respectively. The dopamine hypothesis has helped progress the development of antipsychotics, which are drugs that stabilize positive symptoms by blocking dopamine receptors. The fact that these medications have been shown to treat psychosis supports the dopamine theory.
treatment for social anxiety disorder
The first-line treatment for social anxiety disorder is cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), which has been shown to be effective in treating social phobias through both individual and group therapy. The cognitive and behavioral components seek to change thought patterns and physical reactions to anxiety-inducing situations. The attention given to social anxiety disorder has significantly increased since 1999, with the approval and marketing of several drugs for its treatment. Prescribed medications include several classes of antidepressants: selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs). Other commonly used medications include beta blockers and benzodiazepines.
difference between OCPD and OCD?
The main difference between OCD and OCPD is that OCD is egodystonic, meaning that the disorder goes against the patient's self-concept. Their idea of their "ideal self" would not include the symptoms of OCD, and therefore the disorder causes a lot of distress. OCPD, on the other hand, is egosyntonic, meaning the patient sees the behaviors as appropriate, reasonable, or compatible with their self-image.
schizophrenia treatment
The primary treatment of schizophrenia is antipsychotic medications, often in combination with psychological and social supports. Hospitalization may occur for severe psychotic episodes either voluntarily or (if mental health legislation allows it) involuntarily. Community support services—such as drop-in centers, visits by members of a community mental-health team, supported employment, and support groups—are common. Some evidence indicates that regular exercise has a positive effect on the physical and mental health of those with schizophrenia. A number of psychosocial interventions may be useful in the treatment of schizophrenia, including family therapy, skills training, and psychosocial interventions for substance abuse. Family therapy or education, which addresses the whole family system of an individual, may reduce relapses and hospitalizations.
Stress diathesis model with schizophrenia
The stress diathesis model maintains that Schizophrenia is due to a combination of factors that contribute to the development of the disorder. These factors include a genetic vulnerability, in addition to environmental and psychosocial stressors. This theory states that people who develop schizophrenia suffer from varying degrees of genetic vulnerability to the disorder, along with exposure to environmental stressors . These stressors may include : poverty, life transitions, family stress, interpersonal issues, and prenatal influences.
Dysgraphia?
The term "dysgraphia" is often used as an overarching term for all disorders of written expression. Individuals with dysgraphia typically show multiple writing-related deficiencies, such as grammatical and punctuation errors within sentences, poor paragraph organization, multiple spelling errors, and excessively poor penmanship.
Excoriation treatment
The two main strategies for treating this condition are pharmacological and behavioral intervention. Knowledge about effective treatments for excoriation disorder is sparse, despite the prevalence of the condition. Individuals with excoriation disorder often do not seek treatment for their condition largely due to feelings of embarrassment, alienation, lack of awareness, or the belief that the condition cannot be treated. There are several different classes of pharmacological treatment agents that have some support for treating excoriation disorder: (1) SSRIs; (2) opioid antagonists; and (3) glutamatergic agents. In addition to these classes of drugs, some other pharmacological products have been tested in small trials as well. Behavioral treatments include habit reversal training, cognitive-behavioral therapy, acceptance-enhanced behavior therapy, and acceptance and commitment therapy.
Excoriation Etiology
There have been many different theories regarding the causes of excoriation disorder, including biological and environmental factors. Skin picking often occurs as a result of some other triggering cause. Some common triggers are feeling or examining irregularities on the skin and feeling anxious or other negative feelings. A common hypothesis is that excoriation disorder is a coping mechanism to deal with elevated levels of turmoil, arousal, or stress within the individual, and that the individual has an impaired stress response. A review of behavioral studies found support in this hypothesis in that skin-picking appears to be maintained by automatic reinforcement within the individual. In contrast to neurological theories, there are some psychologists who believe that picking behavior can be a result of repressed emotions and/or history of trauma.
Treatment of ASD
There is no known cure for ASD, and treatment tends to focus on management of symptoms. The main goals when treating children with ASD are to lessen associated deficits and family distress and to increase quality of life and functional independence. No single treatment is best, and treatment is typically tailored to the individual person's needs. Intensive, sustained special-education programs and behavior therapy early in life can help children acquire self-care, social, and job skills. The most widely used therapy is applied behavior analysis (ABA); other available approaches include developmental models, structured teaching, speech and language therapy, social skills therapy, and occupational therapy. There has been increasing attention to the development of evidenced-based interventions for young children with ASD. Unresearched alternative therapies have also been implemented (for example, vitamin therapy and acupuncture). Although evidence-based interventions for children with ASD vary in their methods, many adopt a psychoeducational approach to enhancing cognitive, communication, and social skills while minimizing behaviors that are thought to be problematic.
OCD DSM Diagnostic Criteria
To be diagnosed with OCD, a person must experience obsessions, compulsions, or both. Such obsessions must be to a degree that lies outside the normal range of worries about conventional problems. A person will tend to recognize the obsessions as idiosyncratic or irrational, but still must perform them. Additionally, the degree of obsessions and compulsions must impair some aspect of the individual's social, occupational, or daily life functioning.
treatment options for anxiety disorders?
Treatment options for anxiety disorders include lifestyle changes, therapy, and medication. The most common intervention is cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). which aims to help the person identify and challenge their negative thoughts (cognitions) and change their reactions to anxiety-provoking situations (behaviors).
trichotillomania?
Trichotillomania (also known as trichotillosis or hair pulling disorder) is an obsessive compulsive disorder characterized by the compulsive urge to pull out one's hair, leading to hair loss and balding, distress, and social or functional impairment. Trichotillomania may be present in infants, but the peak age of onset is 9 to 13. Owing to social implications the disorder is often unreported and it is difficult to accurately predict its prevalence; the lifetime prevalence is estimated to be between 0.6% and 4.0% of the overall population. Common areas for hair to be pulled out are the scalp, eyelashes, eyebrows, legs, arms, hands, nose and the pubic areas.
trichotillomania treatment
Trichotillomania is often chronic and can be difficult to treat. Treatment is based on a person's age; most pre-school age children outgrow it if the condition is managed conservatively. In young adults, establishing the diagnosis and raising awareness of the condition is an important reassurance for the family and patient. Non- pharmacological interventions, including behavior modification programs, may be considered; referrals to psychologists or psychiatrists are considered when other interventions fail. When trichotillomania begins in adulthood, it is often associated with other psychiatric disorders, and referral to a psychologist or psychiatrist for evaluation and possible treatment with medication is considered best. The hair pulling may resolve when other conditions are treated.
physical symptoms of phobias
When confronted with the object of their phobia, a person will generally enter a state of panic and experience a wide variety of physical symptoms, such as nausea, increased heartbeat, dizziness, and sweaty palms.
what are safety behaviors
When people with social anxiety disorder are unable to avoid situations that provoke anxiety, they typically perform safety behaviors: mental or behavioral acts that reduce anxiety in social situations by reducing the chance of negative social outcomes. Safety behaviors can include avoiding eye contact, rehearsing sentences before speaking, talking only briefly, and not talking about oneself (Alden & Bieling, 1998). Although these behaviors are intended to prevent the person with social anxiety disorder from doing something awkward that might draw criticism, these actions often exacerbate the problem because they do not allow the individual to disconfirm their negative beliefs, often eliciting rejection and other negative reactions from others (Alden & Bieling, 1998).
Etiology of ASD
While specific causes of ASD have yet to be found, many risk factors have been identified in the research literature that may contribute to its development. These risk factors include genetics, prenatal and perinatal factors, neuroanatomical abnormalities, and environmental factors. It is possible to identify general risk factors, but much more difficult to pinpoint specific factors.
Environmental Factors of schizophrenia
While the exact environmental trigger(s) that influence the development of schizophrenia are unknown, scientists suspect that prenatal exposure to the flu or famine, obstetric complications, central-nervous-system infections in early childhood, and psychosocial stress in childhood and early adulthood may be linked to the disease. Psychosocial environmental stressors can range from parental divorce to suffering from childhood abuse. Individuals who later develop schizophrenia may also be more socially anxious and have emotional fluctuations. It is unclear if these factors exacerbate stressors, are the result of these stressors, or stem from a third variable. The pathenogenic theory of schizophrenia suggests that in-utero exposure to pathogens that affect the central nervous system may cause a predisposition for the development of schizophrenia. It has been noted that people with schizophrenia often come from families with a low socioeconomic status. Some theorists suggest environmental stress associated with lower-class living may affect brain development, triggering the disease in genetically susceptible individuals. However, the correlation between socioeconomic status and schizophrenia could also be explained by the "downward drift" theory. This theory posits that because people with schizophrenia cannot hold a job or function well in society untreated, they "drift down" to a lower status. While much research has been done regarding whether childhood experiences play a significant role in the development of schizophrenia, not much has been determined at this time.
Treatment of ADHD
While there is no known cure for ADHD, there are several treatment approaches that help to manage its symptoms. ADHD management usually involves some combination of therapy, medication, and deliberate lifestyle change. While treatment may improve long-term outcomes, it does not entirely eliminate negative outcomes. Medications are only recommended as a first-line treatment in children who have severe symptoms and may be considered for those with moderate symptoms who fail to improve with counseling. Common medications include psychostimulants and some antidepressants; however, medicating children is a controversial issue because of drugs' ability to interfere with normal development. Dietary modifications may also be of benefit, with evidence supporting the use of fatty acids and reduced exposure to food coloring. A low-carbohydrate diet can help keep blood sugar stable, which in turn helps with mood stability. Active exercise, similarly, can help keep mood stable; some balance-improving techniques may have an effect on the hypothalamus that can help with the ability to focus on tasks.
genetic factors of schizophrenia
With the advancement of scientific measures such as whole genome sequencing, researchers are able to better understand the genetic factors associated with schizophrenia. Scientists have discovered specific genes (such as VIPR2) and genetic mutations (including copy number variation, or CNV) that are directly related to the disease. If an individual has a family member with schizophrenia, they are more at risk for developing the disorder than an individual without a family history of the disease. Concordance rates, or the frequency of an individual developing schizophrenia if a relative suffers from it, are remarkably high. Identical twins show a 50% concordance rate; individuals with two parents with the disease show a 40% rate; fraternal twins show a 12%-15% rate; individuals with one schizophrenic parent show a 12% rate; and individuals with a schizophrenic non-twin sibling show an 8% rate of also having the disease. In contrast to this, the general population has a 1% chance of developing the disease. These rates indicate that the disorder is largely inherited, but they also suggest that additional factors influence the development of schizophrenia. It is generally thought that individuals can be predisposed to schizophrenia through genetic vulnerability, which is then triggered by environmental stimuli. Most researchers agree that both genetic vulnerability and environmental triggers must be present for the disease to develop. Read the study below on how Schizophrenia may share a genetic overlap to other mental health disorders.
People with untreated panic disorder are at an increased risk for specific phobias, such as
agoraphobia (a fear of leaving the house), and they often suffer from one or more additional mental-health conditions, such as depression or substance abuse.
what are anticipatory attacks?
anticipatory attacks—essentially panicking about potential panic attacks and entering a cycle of living in fear of fear.
Body dysmorphic disorder?
appearance that is either nonexistent or barely noticeable to other people (APA, 2013). These perceived physical defects cause the person to think they are unattractive, ugly, hideous, or deformed. These preoccupations can focus on any bodily area, but they typically involve the skin, face, or hair. The preoccupation with imagined physical flaws drives the person to engage in repetitive and ritualistic behavioral and mental acts, such as constantly looking in the mirror, trying to hide the offending body part, comparisons with others, and, in some extreme cases, cosmetic surgery (Phillips, 2005). Severely impairing quality of life, body dysmorphic disorder can lead to social isolation and involves especially high rates of suicidal ideation. An estimated 2.4% of the adults in the United States meet the criteria for body dysmorphic disorder, with slightly higher rates in women than in men (APA, 2013).
general causes of panic disorder?
environmental and genetic
Taphophobia
fear of being buried alive
hematophobia
fear of blood
Cynophobia
fear of dogs
claustrophobia
fear of enclosed or narrow spaces
aerophobia
fear of flying
xenophobia
fear of foreigners/strangers
acrophobia
fear of heights
Trypanophobia
fear of injections
ophidiophobia
fear of snakes
arachnophobia
fear of spiders
In the DSM, panic attacks themselves are not
mental disorders; instead, they are listed as specifiers for other mental disorders, such as anxiety disorders. Panic attacks are differentiated as being either expected or unexpected; the categories from the previous DSM-IV-TR (situationally bound/cued, situationally predisposed, or unexpected/uncued) have been removed.
