Absolutism

Inflation

The so-called price revolution was a dramatic rise in prices that was a major economic problem in all of Europe in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries.

Divine Rights of Kings

By deposing one king and establishing another, Parliament had destroyed the divine-right theory of kingship. William was, after all, king by the grace of Parliament, not the grace of God. Parliament had asserted its right to be part of the government.The conflict that began during the reign of James came to a head during the reign of his son, Charles I. Charles also believed in the divine right of kings.

Armada

In 1588, Philip ordered preparations for an armada—a fleet of warships—to invade England.

Boyar

Ivan expanded the territories of Russia eastward. He also crushed the power of the Russian nobility, known as the boyars. He was known as Ivan the Ter- rible because of his ruthless deeds, among them stab- bing his own son to death in a heated argument.

Baroque

Mannerism was eventually replaced by a new movement—the baroque. This movement began in Italy in the last quarter of the sixteenth century and eventually spread to the rest of Europe and even Latin America. The Catholic reform movement most wholeheartedly adopted the baroque style. This can be seen in the buildings at Catholic courts, especially those of the Hapsburgs in Madrid, Prague, Vienna, and Brussels.Baroque artists tried to bring together the classical ideals of Renaissance art with the spiritual feelings of the sixteenth-century religious revival. The baroque painting style was known for its use of dramatic effects to arouse the emotions. In large part, though, baroque art and architecture reflected the search for power that was such a part of the seventeenth cen- tury. Baroque churches and palaces were magnificent and richly detailed. Kings and princes wanted other kings and princes as well as their subjects to be in awe of their power. Perhaps the greatest figure of the baroque period was the Italian architect and sculptor Gian Lorenzo Bernini, who completed Saint Peter's Basilica in Rome. Action, exuberance, and dramatic effects mark the work of Bernini in the interior of Saint Peter's.

Czar

The Romanov dynasty lasted until 1917. One of its most prominent members was Peter the Great. Peter the Great became czar in 1689. Like the other Romanov czars who preceded him, Peter was an absolutist monarch who claimed the divine right to rule. A few years after becoming czar, Peter made a trip to the West. When he returned to Russia, he was determined to westernize, or Europeanize, Russia.A new Russian state had emerged in the fifteenth century under the leadership of the principality of Muscovy and its grand dukes. In the sixteenth century, Ivan IV became the first ruler to take the title of czar, the Russian word for caesar.

Mannerism

The artistic movements of Mannerism and the baroque began in Italy and both reflected the spiritual perceptions of the time. Mannerism in art reflected this new environment by deliberately breaking down the High Renaissance principles of balance, harmony, and moderation. Mannerism spread from Italy to other parts of Europe and perhaps reached its high point in the work of El Greco ("the Greek"). El Greco was from the island of Crete. After studying in Venice and Rome, he moved to Spain.

Militant

The greatest supporter of militant Catholicism in the second half of the sixteenth century was King Philip II of Spain, the son and heir of Charles V. The reign of King Philip II, which extended from 1556 to 1598, ushered in an age of Spanish greatness, both politically and culturally.By 1560, Calvinism and Catholicism had become highly militant (combative) religions.

Absolutism

The reign of Louis XIV has long been regarded as the best example of the practice of absolutism in the seventeenth century. French culture, language, and manners reached into all levels of European society. French diplomacy and wars dominated the political affairs of western and central Europe. The court of Louis XIV was imitated throughout Europe.European monarchs sought economic and political stability through absolutism and the divine right of kings

Edict of Nantes

To solve the religious problem, the king issued the Edict of Nantes in 1598. The edict recognized Catholicism as the official religion of France, but it also gave the Huguenots the right to worship and to enjoy all political privileges, such as holding public offices.

Natural Rights

Unlike Hobbes, Locke believed that before society was organized, humans lived in a state of equality and freedom rather than a state of war. In this state of nature, humans had certain natural rights,rights with which they were born. These included rights to life, liberty, and property. Like Hobbes, however, Locke believed that problems existed in the state of nature. People found it difficult to protect their natural rights. For that reason, they agreed to establish a government to ensure the protection of their rights.

Witchcraft

magic, had been part of traditional village culture for centuries. The religious zeal that led to the Inquisition and the hunt for heretics was extended to concern about witchcraft.