Adolescent Psych Final

Categories of attachment

4 categories of adolescent attachment styles that emerge: Secure (+/+) Preoccupied (-/+) Fearful (-/-) Dismissing (+/-) Individuals who have secure attachments during adolescence are more socially competent, more successful in school, less likely to engage in substance abuse, and better adjusted than their insecure peers While early attachment security is not an "inoculation" that protects individuals from psychological problems forever, increases the probability of developing in healthy ways

reference group

A group against which an individual compares him or herself Often membership in a crowd is the basis for an adolescents' own identity—what do you think? Was this true in your experience? Because an adolescent's peer group plays such an important role as a reference group and source of identity, the crowd an adolescent affiliates with is likely to influence his or her behavior, activities, and self-conceptions

Intimacy in Psychosocial Relations

Adolescents who have intimate friendships typically have better mental health than their peers who do not Close peer relationships are an essential part of healthy social development during adolescence Being popular is less important than genuinely having friends; having friends is less important than having good friends

special family forms

Adolescents with lesbian or gay parents: No evidence what-so-ever that children of lesbian/gay parents are psychologically different than those with straight parents Adolescents in foster care: Enter foster care because of two reasons: 1) parental maltreatment, 2) when parents are unable to provide the necessary supervision (child delinquency) Adolescents who have spent time in foster care are at a greater risk for emotional and behavioral problems

changes in clique/crowd structure

Although early adolescents' activities revolve around same-sex cliques, as adolescence progresses, male and female cliques come together High school peer structure is more differentiated and more permeable as opposed to middle school (often only two groups—popular and unpopular) The salience of peer crowds peaks during mid-adolescence, and then decreases towards later adolescence Parallels development and cognitive changes, particularly to peer pressure As adolescents become more secure in their identity, the need for affiliation with a crowd diminishes.

dynamics of popularity

An ethnography of the "dirty dozen" at a school—a group of girls that were popular, cool, affluent, talented, yet mean and conceited revealed that meanness was one way that the clique ensured no one member became stuck-up as a result of her popularity OR, if any one member became too popular, the clique would turn on her, undermining her standing with other girls by gossiping, starting rumors, and deliberately attempting to disrupt her friendships: http://youtu.be/3szlAYwhLK8 (mean girls) Although popularity has some costs, advantages of being popular outweigh the disadvantages—more likely to have close and intimate friendships, participate in social activities with peers, take part in extracurricular activities, and receive more social recognition.

Changes in sexual activity

Attitudes towards premarital sex became more liberal in the mid 60's The greatest increase in the prevalence of intercourse, and the greatest decline in the age at first intercourse, has been among females For most adolescents, sexual involvement is accompanied by affection, emotional involvement, and commitment to a relationship (promiscuity is not the norm) Only about 1/3 of sexually active adolescents have had intercourse with someone they are not in a romantic relationship with How does this challenge the "hook-up" culture or portrayal?

genetic and environment

Behavioral genetics: The scientific study of genetic influences on behavior Studies show that genetic factors strongly influence many qualities previously linked to environment—aggression, emotional and behavioral issues (risk of depression and suicide), self-image, self-conception, and competence Intelligence and personality also linked to genetics While genes may shape tendencies, whether these tendencies actualized depends on the environment Shared environmental influences: Non-genetic influences that make individual living in the same family similar to each other Nonshared environmental influences: The non-genetic influences in individuals' lives that make them different from the people they live with

Peer Groups

Groups of individuals of approximately the same age

autonomy and attachment

Individuals who can assert their own opinions within a family context that is secure and loving develop higher self-esteem and more mature coping abilities Adolescents who's autonomy is squelched are at a risk for developing depression and low self-esteem Adolescents do best when they grow up in a family atmosphere that permits development of individuality against a backdrop of close family ties

Transgender

Individuals whose gender identity does not match the sex they were assigned at birth Often grouped with lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth The majority of lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth engage in heterosexual activity during adolescence Adolescents' sexual orientation usually shaped by complex interaction of: Biological influences—genetic component leads to predisposition Social influences—e.g. potentially challenging parent-child relationship

Crowds

Large, loosely organized groups of young people, composed of several cliques and typically organized around a common shared activity Membership based on reputation and stereotype, rather than actual friendship Examples: "jocks," "brains," "nerds," and "populars" etc... In contrast to cliques, crowds are not settings for adolescents' intimate interactions of friendships Crowds help to locate adolescents (to themselves and to others) within the social structure of the school

Burgess

Pioneer of American family sociology What do we know about Burgess and his work on "the 'modern' nuclear family form" from this article? Be specific What contexts must we consider? How do you study/understand families? What's a limitation to Burgess' research?

parent styles and effects

Socialization is a two-way street—just as parents affect their adolescents' behavior, adolescents affect their parents' behavior The reciprocal interplay between parenting and adolescence is so strong it contributes to the transmission of parenting style across generations Two aspects of the parents' behavior towards their adolescents are critical: Parental responsiveness: Degree to which the parent responds to their child's needs in an accepting, supportive manner Parental demandingness: Refers to the extent to which the parent expects and demands mature, responsible behavior from the child

victimization and harassment

Unpopular withdrawn children are excessively anxious and uncertain around other children, hovering around the group without knowing how to break into a conversation or activity The more these children are teased, rejected, and victimized, the more anxious and hesitant they feel, and the more they blame themselves for this victimization Typically leads to further peer rejection and victimization Adolescents who come from less affluent families are more likely to be bullied The prevalence of bullying is higher in schools characterized by income inequality Bullying occurs both inside and outside of school (more frequently outside of school!)

what should schools teach

What things do you think adolescents should learn in order to function as competent and responsible adults? Is this taught in high schools? Past two decades dominated by standards based reform—policies holding schools and students to a predetermined set of standards measured by achievement tests Ran into some similar problems with NCLB Because of parental and societal disappointment in the current state of public education, saw rise of charter schools and school vouchers—what are these?

Cultural Differences in intimacy

With the exception of recent immigrants to the US, relationships between adolescents and their parents are similar across racial/ethnic groups Adolescents interact more with, are closer to, and argue more with their mother than father (same for both genders) Do you remember which parent-child relationship is the strongest? Does this seem accurate to you? As adolescents begin the process of individuation, begin to seek intimacy outside of the family as a means of establishing an identity beyond their family

long term effects of divorce

"Sleeper effects:" Effects of divorce may not be apparent until much later in child's development Ways in which adjustment difficulties may be expressed may not surface until adolescence (drug use, delinquency, early pregnancy...) Due to the developmental challenges of adolescence, such as experimenting with intimate relationships and conceptions of relationships, may be impacted by having divorced parents or being exposed to marital conflict

David Popenoe

(1993), most articulate proponent of this position Argues that since the 1960's, decline in family structure and and functions in American society Focus on consequences of changing family structure due to divorce—impacts well being of children Escalation of divorce rate to over half of first marriages in 1980's Increase in single-parent families and poverty for children living in mother headed families Nothing in Popenoe's hypothesis to reflect multigenerational influence on children

classes of intergenerational relationships

5 classes of intergenerational family relationship exist: 1) Tight-knit, 2) Sociable, 3) Intimate but distant, 4) Obligatory, 5) Detached (p.9) Can you describe these different types of family relationships? No one intergenerational family type is dominant—diversity in American family forms and styles (although Tight-knit and Sociable slightly higher—25% vs. 16%) Relationships with mother more likely to be Tight-Knit than relationships with fathers; fathers 4 times as likely to be Detached than mothers No difference in type based on income, age/gender of children; however important racial and ethnic variations

puberty and family

: Puberty appears to increase conflict and emotional distance between parents and children (particularly between adolescent and their mother) Even though negative interchanges may diminish after the adolescent growth spurt or puberty, adolescents and parents do not become immediately close as before puberty Some theorists suggest this distancing has an evolutionary basis—ensures adolescents will will leave home to find their mate Do you think there are other influences (either biological or contextual) at work during puberty that influences the relationship between adolescents and their parents? Examples from earlier in the semester?

social map of adolescence

A model that maps adolescents' crowds along two dimensions: How involved they are in institutions controlled by adults How involved they are in the informal peer culture

structured leisure activities

About 2/3 of American high school students participate in more than one extracurricular activity Structured activities have the most positive impact on psychological development for adolescents Most popular structured activity is athletics, followed my music related activities, and then academic or occupational clubs Participation in structure activities improves students' performance in schools, reduces chance of dropping out, and deters delinquency and risk-taking There is one exception to this uniformly positive picture—do you remember what it is? Extracurricular participation in HS is linked to participation in college and community involvement in adulthood

changes in target of intimacy

According to Sullivan, during early adolescence intimacy with peers replaces intimacy with parents Current research demonstrates that new targets of intimacy do not replace old ones, rather, they are added to old ones Two main conclusions regarding intimacy with parents and peers: From early adolescence, teenagers describe their relationships with best friends and romantic partners as more intimate than with their parents Although there may be a slight drop in intimacy in adolescence, the decline reverses towards adulthood Although peers become more important during adolescence as confidants and sources of emotional support, parents do not become unimportant A consistent finding is that qualities of relationships between adolescents and their family, and adolescents and their peers, are closely linked Lessons people learn in close relationships at home provide a template for close relationships with others—do you agree? Although the likelihood an adolescent turning to a peer for emotional support (in time of trouble) increases, the likelihood of turning to a parent/caregiver remains constant Adolescents do not cease to need or use their parents for support even though friends become increasingly important sources of emotional support

Adolescence and sexuality

Adolescence may be the most important time in the life cycle for the development of sexuality Puberty and adolescent sexuality: Individuals become capable of reproduction Cognitive changes and adolescent sexuality: Sexuality during adolescence is often introspective and reflective, involving conjecture, decision making, hypothetical thinking, and self-conscious concerns Social roles and adolescent sexuality: New social meaning is given to sexuality and dating during this point in the life cycle

common interest among friends

Adolescent cliques are usually comprised of individuals who are the same age, in the same grade, from the same social class, and of the same race and/or ethnicity Factors that are important to determining clique membership and friendship patterns (beyond above) are: Orientation toward school: Adolescents and their friends tend to be similar in the attitudes toward school, in their school achievement, and in their educational plans Orientation toward the teen culture: Adolescents and their friends generally listen to the same music, dress alike, spend their leisure time in similar activities, and share patterns of drug/alcohol use Involvement in antisocial activity: Antisocial, aggressive adolescents often gravitate toward each other forming deviant peer groups Gangs: Organized peer groups of antisocial individuals Gangs are also groups of adolescents who are similar in background, share common interests/activities, and use the group to derive sense of identity Gang members tend to be more isolated from family, have more emotional/behavioral problems, and have poorer self-conceptions

patterns of time use

Adolescent leisure time is dominated by "passive" activities American adolescents spend more time on leisure and less on "productive activities" than other countries Group averages are deceptive because there is a wide variation among adolescents

parental influence on sexual activity

Adolescents from authoritative homes are less likely to become sexually active at an early age and less likely to engage in risky sexual activity Parent-adolescent conflict is associated with early sexual activity On the flip side, adolescents are more likely to be well educated about sex when their conversation with their parents/caregivers are genuinely interactive (authoritative households) Overall, most studies find that the impact of parent-adolescent communication on the likelihood an adolescent being sexually active is very small; but does lower the rate of risky sex However, the attitudes and values parents communicate to adolescents during discussions about sex are important, as is maintaining a close relationship once adolescent has become sexually active

remarriage

Adolescents growing up in stepfamilies (especially if remarriage occurred during adolescence rather than childhood) often have more problems than their peers In general girl have more difficulties in adjusting to remarriage than boys, and older children than younger children Studies indicate that children's adjustment declines each time they must cope with a change in their family's household composition The lack of biological connection between stepparent and stepchild (and stresses associated with divorce) make the relationship vulnerable to problems Adolescents fare better if stepparent can establish a consistent, supportive, authoritative style of discipline AND if there is consistency in discipline between custodial and noncustodial parent

adolescent crowds and behavior

Adolescents often imitate the behavior of high-status peers, the crowd leaders Crowds establish social norms (values and expectations) that members strive to follow When crowd members behave in ways that are consistent with these norms, they are reinforced for doing so; if they don't, they are made fun of or ignored When adolescents are reinforced for following a crowd's norms, they feel better about themselves and further incorporate their crowd membership into their identity

relationship with siblings

Adolescents rate their sibling relationships similarly to those with their parents (in terms of companionship and importance) However, these relationships are rated more like friendships in regards to power, assistance, and their satisfaction with the relationship As children mature from childhood to early adolescence, sibling conflict increases Over the course of adolescence, relationships with siblings become more egalitarian, but also more distant and less emotionally intense However there is some stability to the relationships—siblings closer as children are typically closer as adolescents The quality of parent-adolescent relationship also influences the quality of relations among siblings—how? Examples? Positive sibling relationships contribute to adolescent's academic competence, sociability, autonomy, and self-worth

Higher Education Act of 1965

Aimed at providing greater access to higher education for all American citizens, particularly those from low socioeconomic backgrounds First time in history the federal government provided need-based financial aid to the masses Led to the development of other programs such as: Pell Grant, Work Study, and Educational Opportunity Grants Expanded and diversified the higher education student body substantially The number of students attending college between 1960-1980 tripled in size Starting in the 1980's though, college access became more limited due to economic recessions and reductions in the availability of financial aid—this impacted who primarily?

adolescents and divorce

Although divorce can, and often does impact youngsters' well-being, the impact of divorce itself is small—what does this mean? The quality of the relationships the young person has with important adults in his/her life matters more than the number of parents at home Adolescents who live in father-absent homes have higher self-esteem than those adolescents who live in two-parent homes but feel that their father has little interest in them The process of going through a divorce, not the resulting family structure, matters most for adolescents' mental health Although adolescents whose parents have divorced have (on average) more problems than those whose parents remain married, the vast majority do not have significant problems Research has shown that adverse consequences of divorce are not due (specifically) to having a single parent, but due to a number of other factors: Exposure of children to marital conflict Disorganized or disrupted parenting Increased stress in household (eg: due to loss of income) Individual differences in the effects of divorce: Immediate problems are more common with boys, younger children, children with difficult temperaments, and youngsters whose parents divorce during time of transition (eg: entering adolescence) Support from kin appears to increase single parents effectiveness (support for Bengtson!)

popularity and rejection

Although more socially skilled than unpopular teens, there are two forms of popularity that do not always go hand in hand: Sociometric popularity: How well liked an individual is Determined by social skills, friendliness, sense of humor, etc... Perceived popularity: How much status or prestige an individual has Determinants are highly variable, can differ between schools, between groups at the same school—need to understand the social context What are some examples from your high school experience? Predicting peer popularity is complicated by the fact that peer norms change: http://youtu.be/QSa368X1Z2w (21 jump street) When popular adolescents engage in a particular behavior, it often becomes more admired

free time and development

Although parents (and society) may wish for the good old days before the advent of smart phones, Facebook, laptops, etc...the good old days are long gone The impact of the mass media on adolescent development has become increasingly controversial as the role of technology in adolescents' lives has expanded Adults often misinterpret the value of leisure time on the psychosocial development of adolescents Helps adolescents develop a sense of identity, explore relationships with others, and learn about society

students with ADHD

Although technically not considered to be a learning disability, students with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) often have academic difficulties linked to this problem ADHD is a biologically based disorder characterized by impulsivity, inattentiveness, hyperactivity, and restlessness Often ADHD declines with age as individuals develop better attention and impulse control ADHD frequently treated with medication (like Ritalin) and psychological therapies

lethal school violence

Although violence in schools is a significant problem, lethal school shootings are an extremely rare event Sad fact: more children and adolescents are killed at home or in their community than in or around school Schools are actually one of safest places for children to be Virtually impossible to predict which students will commit acts of lethal violence, however, we know that males with mental health issues and easy access to guns are more likely to be involved in school shootings

ethnic differences in parenting

Authoritative parenting is less prevalent among racially and ethnically minoritized groups Ethnically/racially minoritized groups are often more demanding than White parents However, most of the research on parenting and adolescent development has been done by White researchers May be biased, mislabeling parenting as "authoritarian," when it is really "protective"—what do you think this means? Explain "protective"

consequences of rejection

Being unpopular has negative consequences for adolescents' mental health and psychological development; peer rejection and friendlessness are associated with: Depression Behavioral problems Academic difficulties Individuals who are aggressive and withdrawn are at the greatest risk of all for developmental issues, and more likely to be affected by hostile attributional bias

micro sociology of intergenerational relationships

Bengtson examined the Longitudinal Study of Generations (LSOG) Cross-sectional survey of 2,044 three generation family members Data collected at three year intervals, starting in the early 1970's 6 dimensions of intergenerational solidarity: Affectual Associational Consensual Fuctional Normative Structural

racial and ethnic composition of schools

Brown vs. the Board of Education (1954): Landmark case that declared it was unconstitutional to have segregated schools However, desegregation has a had little impact on the achievement levels of racially/ethnically minoritized students and White students Effect of desegregation: Promoted "White flight" from urban areas—individuals moved out of urban areas, or started sending their children to private schools Further compounded disparity between low-income and high-income areas—and again, how are schools funded?

importance of multigenerational bonds

Builds on Popenoe and Stacey, but takes into account greater longevity (yes, families are changing!) Relations across more than two generations are becoming increasingly important to families in American society Due to longer years of "shared lives" increased opportunities and needs for interaction, support, and mutual influence across more than 2 generations Because of increase in marital instability and divorce, which has weakened nuclear family, kin across generations are called on to provide essential family functions

Cyber bullying

Bullying that occurs over the internet or via cell phones Individuals who engage in traditional bullying also frequently engage in cyber bullying Student who are harassed by their classmates, whether in person or electronically, report a range of adjustment problems, such as: Low self-esteem Depression Suicidal ideation Academic difficulties Problems in social skills

transformation in family relationships

Changes in the balance of power In early adolescence, young people try to play a more prominent role in the family, but parents may not yet acknowledge adolescents' input By middle adolescence, however, teenagers act and are treated more like adults The role of puberty: Researchers have noted that more arguing occurs and closeness diminishes with adolescents and parents However, this distancing becomes less conflicted and more intimate during late adolescence The first half of adolescence is a more strained and distant than late adolescence

stability of adolescent friendships

Cliques show moderate stability over the course of the school year—with some members staying, others leaving, and new members joining Cliques become more stable later in high school Even though some clique members leave and are replaced by others, the new members are likely to have the same attitudes and values as former members Which are more stable—same sex or opposite sex friendships? How about male friendships vs. female friendships? The most common causes of broken friendships are jealousy, incompatibility, violations of intimacy, and aggression

Dating and romantic relationships

Dating today is very different than it was 50 years ago Before, dating used for courtship and mate selection Today, much more a recreational activity, particularly in adolescence As a result, average age of marriage is 27 for women and 29 for men However, romantic relationships are very common in adolescence ¼ of 12 year olds, ½ of 15 year olds, and 2/3 of of 18 year olds report having a relationship in the past 18 months (in the US) By 16 more than 90% of adolescents have had at least one date By 18 virtually all adolescents have dated once, and ¾ have had at least one steady relationship Do you think dating and relationships are more common in high school than college?

growth and diversification in college enrollment

During early 20th century, higher education enrollment comprised by a very small, privileged population—who was going to college? 2 Federal initiatives that changed the student landscape: The G.I. Bill of Rights (Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944) First time the federal government became involved in higher education through funding measures Opened the door for individuals from "working class" backgrounds to attend college Doubled college enrollments in its inaugural year However, exacerbated educational differences between Whites and minoritized individuals as most GI's were predominately White

age grouping and school transitions

During the early years of compulsory education, junior high schools or middle schools were established However, in recent years, more school districts moving towards two school model (K-8 & high school) because studies show that students have higher achievement and fewer behavioral problems with this model Important note: Less important what the grade configuration is—educational climate and quality of instruction is most important But research does suggest that school transitions do temporarily disrupt academic performance, behavior, and self-image Not sure if this is due to the transition itself, or the differences between the schools and perhaps failure to meet developmental needs of adolescents

early vs. late maturation females

Early maturing girls have more emotional difficulties than their peers, including lowered self-image and higher rates of depression, anxiety, eating disorders, and panic attacks Less to do with hormones; more to do with how standing apart from their peers affects their feelings about their appearance and their relationships with peers Impact of physical maturation also depends in the social context in which teenagers live Even though early maturers may have self-image difficulties, popularity with peers isn't jeopardized However, are often also the victims of rumors and gossip Early maturation appears to be harder on females, and are at a heightened risk for psychological problems than males. Reasons offered include: "Maturational Deviance:" Youngsters who stand far apart from their peers experience more psychological distress—because girls mature earlier than boys, early maturing girls mature earlier than both male and female peers "Developmental readiness:" Perhaps younger adolescents are less ready to cope with the challenge than older ones—tax psychological resources Females concerns regarding body image: Early maturation for females means leaving behind the culturally admired state of thinness (for males it is the opposite!) Early-maturing girls also more likely to become involved in problem behavior, use drugs/alcohol, and become sexually active earlier

Early Starters and Late Bloomers

Early starters: Considerable evidence that entering into a serious relationship before it is normative (around 15) is associated with a wide array of negative outcomes and poorer mental health Less socially mature, less achievement oriented, more depressed, more likely to engage in risky behavior, substance abuse, and have an eating disorder Early dating may be part of larger profile in involvement in adult-like activities, often because their dating partners are older Suggested that link between early dating & poor mental health may be due to the pressures to engage in sexual activity before ready Late bloomers: Not enough research on late bloomers to draw definitive conclusions (10% of late adolescents report having had no serious romantic relationships) In general, late bloomers show signs of stunted social development and feelings of insecurity

Early vs. late maturation males

Early-maturing males feel better about themselves and are more popular than late-maturing peers However, early-maturing males area also more likely to be involved in antisocial or deviant activities and/or use drugs and alcohol Late maturers show higher ratings on measures of intellectual curiosity, exploratory behaviors, and social initiative

economic stress and poverty

Economic loss tends to be associated with disruptions in parenting—which leads to increases in adolescent difficulties (increased emotional distress, academic and interpersonal problems, and delinquency) Financial strains also increase parents' feelings of depression, worsen marriages, and cause conflicts—this in turn can impact the quality of their parenting Impact of chronic poverty effect adolescents' adjustment, leads to: increased anxiety, depression, and conduct problems, and diminished school performance and prosocial behavior Also impacts adolescents' mental health: more exposed to violence, feel more alienated from school, and exposed to higher levels of stress Families fare better when they have adequate sources of social support and/or have strong ties to religious institutions

characteristics of good school

Emphasize intellectual activities: quality education is valued and shared by students, teachers, administrators, and parents Have teachers who are committed to their students and are given a good deal of freedom and autonomy in the classroom Are well integrated into the communities they serve—involve parents and establish links with local colleges Are composed of classrooms where students are active participants in the process of their education Are staffed by teachers who are well-qualified and who have received specific training in teaching adolescents **Regardless of shortcomings of school, staying in school is better than dropping out in terms of cognitive development and future earnings

Sullivans Theory of Interpersonal Development

Emphasizes social aspects of interpersonal growth Challenges of adolescence (and entire life cycle) revolve around satisfying changes in interpersonal needs Identity and self-esteem are gradually developed through interpersonal relationship Stages of interpersonal needs: Infancy- Need for contact with people/ tenderness Early Childhood- Need for Adult's participation in child's play Middle Childhood- Need for peer playmates and acceptance into peer society Preadolescence- need for intimacy and consensual validation with same-sex Early adolescence- need for sexual contact; need for intimacy with other-sex Late adolescence- need for integration into adult society

Roles of parents and peers

Even in close families, parent-adolescent relations are characterized by an imbalance of power Parents: nurturers, advice givers, etc... Interactions with friends are more mutual, more balanced, and more likely to promote an equal exchange of feelings Both types of relationships/intimacy are important, influence adolescents development in different ways Adolescents who have strong attachments to parents and peers are better adjustment than those who have strong attachment to one Optimal social development during adolescence may require healthy relationships with both parents and peers Both caregivers and peers can provide social support: emotional support to help protect again negative effects of stress

theories of media INFLUENCE

Extremely difficult to disentangle the cause and effect of media influence on adolescents—what does this mean? 3 basic schools of thought concerning the media's impact on adolescent development (examples of each?): Cultivation theory: Adolescents attitudes, values, behaviors, and knowledge about the world are influenced by the media content to which they are exposed Uses and gratifications approach: Emphasizes the active role adolescents play in selecting the media to which they are exposed Media practice model: Adolescents not only choose what they are exposed to, but interpret the media in ways that shape their impact (ways individuals experience and interpret media)

Family Systems Theory

Family relationships change most dramatically during times when individual family members of family's circumstances are changing—disrupts previously established equilibrium For example: adolescent children going through puberty or cognitive changes could cause a disruption In addition, when children enter adolescence, majority of parents are also changing in approaching midlife As children are experiencing sexual maturation, a period of heightened attractiveness, etc...parents are beginning to feel more concerned about own bodies, self-image, and attractiveness As adolescents begin to think about future possibilities, parents beginning to feel that their possibilities for change are limited It is a time during the family life cycle when adolescents can picture endless possibilities, while parents are coming to terms with the choice they made

the college bound

Prior to the 20th century, colleges were small, private, and focused on the liberal arts (with a religious focus) For elite, upper class, males The late 19th century into the 20th century saw the rise of many other types of institutions of higher education: Large private universities Land grant colleges/universities Publicly funded state universities Community colleges Technical colleges Professional schools

Gender difference in intimacy

Females are more likely to mention intimacy as a defining aspect of close friendship and place greater emphasis on emotional closeness (particularly in terms of romantic partners) More sensitive and empathetic than males Females' mental health is more positively affected when things are going well with friends, but suffer more when things going poorly More likely to engage in co-rumination: Spending excessive time talking about one another's problems with friends Co-rumination makes anxiety and depression "contagious" Males' friendships more oriented toward shared activities than toward the explicit satisfaction of emotional needs Males' conflicts are briefer (typically over issues of power and control), more likely to to escalate into physical aggression, and usually resolved without any explicit effort to do so Females' conflicts are longer, typically about some form of betrayal, and only are resolved when one friend apologizes When males are with their friends, just as likely as females to share each other's emotional state During early and middle adolescence, females more emotionally and socially mature than males, but by late adolescence, males have caught up

sex for females

First experience very different for females in comparison to males The development of sexuality involves the integration of sexual activity into an already existing capacity for intimacy and emotional involvement More likely than males to engage in sex in order to enhance an emotional connection Society also monitors the sexual activity of girls more carefully, because the consequences of sex (ie—pregnancy), more significant for females Although the majority of girls report more positive than negative feelings about their first sexual experience, girls are more likely report feeling afraid, guilty, and worried as well as happy or excited Important note: For many females, report that if they had sex voluntarily, they did not really want to have sex

transition from high school to college

For many students, going to college means entering a larger, even more impersonal environment What types of transition issues or difficulties did you face? Although many more American adolescents enroll in college today (more than 2/3 or high school graduates go right to college), a very large number do not graduate Rates of college graduation lag far behind rates of enrollment What types of individuals does this impact the most do you think? What do you think can be done to help more students persist to graduation?

school size

From the reading—what size school is the best? Is bigger or smaller better? Although large schools can offer a more diverse curriculum and provide more resources, student learning and engagement is weaker Large schools may have more clubs and organizations but participation is half has high as smaller schools More inequality in terms of educational experiences—students more likely to be sorted into tracks of different qualities Experts agree that the ideal size of a high school is between 600-900 students What size high school did you attend? How do you think your experience was shaped?

Siblings and intimacy

Generally, adolescents are less intimate with siblings than with parents or friends Over the course of adolescence, conflict between siblings decreases, but this may be due to the fact that siblings spend less time together than in childhood Although overt conflicts declines during adolescence, so do warmth and closeness Early adolescence appears to be the low point, but even college students report ambivalent feelings about their siblings What do you think? Has this been true for you?

Effects of changing family forms on intergenerational influence

Generation Xers more likely to grow up in a family: With less than 2 siblings, with a father and mother who are both college graduates, with a mother who was working full time, and in a divorced house hold Yet Gen Xers are similar to Baby-boomers: Despite changes, youth achievement orientation remains strong Maternal employment has not adversely affected aspirations, self esteem, or values Gen X women have higher educational and occupational aspirations than mother Challenges hypothesis that families are declining in function due to alternative family structures

Age Grading

Grouping individuals within social institutions on the basis of age Educators developed this idea in the middle of the 19th century However, high school did not become common until the 1930's Most important factor in the rise of adolescent peer groups was the rapid growth of the teenage population from 1955-1975 (nearly doubled in size)—baby boom generation In contemporary society, adolescents spend a great deal of time with their peers (twice as much than with their parents or caregivers)

sexual activity

Historically, a great deal of research focused on problematic aspects of sexuality (precocious sex, promiscuous sex, or unsafe sex) However, for adolescents engaged in sexual activity, promiscuity is not the norm Individuals do not begin sexual experiences with intercourse, but progress toward it through stages of gradually increasing intimacy Also know that adolescents do not always report their sexual activity honestly or accurately (males tend to overstate their level of activity, and females tend to understate it) Interesting fact: Adolescents more likely to lose virginity during certain peak times of the year—June and December, often when less supervised

Bengston: Beyond Nuclear Family

Hypotheses of American families in the 20th century: Emergence of the "modern" nuclear family (Burgess, 1916) Decline of the modern nuclear family (Popenoe, 1993) Increasing heterogeneity of family forms (Feminist scholars) The increasing importance of multigenerational bonds (Bengtson)

class size and overcrowding

In contrast to studies on school size, variations within the typical classroom size (20-40) do not affect students achievement once they reach adolescence Nearly 15% of secondary schools are overcrowded Achievement is lower in secondary schools because of stress on both students and teachers, the use of facilities for instruction that were not designed to serve as classrooms (like trailers), and inadequate resources

non college bound

In general college graduates earn substantially more in their lifetime than those who do not attend (or attend and do not graduate) from college Furthermore, most secondary school are geared almost exclusively toward college-bound adolescents Students not headed for college find that their high schools have not prepared them for the world of work or adult roles As a result, many individuals who do not go to college spend early adult years floundering between periods of part-time work, underemployment, and unemployment Today, non-college bound young adults often try to make ends meet on minimum-wage jobs, which offer little in the way of promotion of advancement The chapter focused primarily on the negative impact of not attending college. But how about for those that college simply isn't the right fit? What other options are available? Can they too be successful?

Positive sexual development

In recent years, increased interest in the factors that lead to positive sexual development: Adolescent must feel comfortable with his/her maturing body Adolescent should accept having feelings of sexual arousal as normal or appropriate Adolescent needs to feel comfortable about choosing to engage in, or not engage in, various sexual activity Adolescent (if sexually active) must understand and practice safe sex

tracking

In some school students with different academic abilities and interests are placed into separate levels of classes This process is known as tracking Who attended a school with tracking? What are your thoughts on the process? The pros and cons of tracking Allows teachers to design class lessons that are more finely tuned to students' abilities However, critics point out that students placed in remedial track generally receive a poorer-quality education When students are tracked, tend to socialize with peers from same academic group—can lead to polarization and subcultures Critics also note that tracking often discriminates against racially, ethnically, and economically minoritized students Early track placements make it difficult for students to change tracks, especially without intervention of parents Students in higher tracks often receive more challenging instruction, better teaching, and are more likely to engage in classroom activities that emphasize critical thinking Students who need the MOST help are assigned to tracks where the quality of instruction is often the poorest Tracking has positive effects on high-track students, negative effects on low-track students, and negligible effects on students in the middle

authoritative parenting

Individuals raised in authoritative households are more psychosocially mature than peer raised in authoritarian, indulgent, or indifferent homes Individuals are more responsible, self-assured, creative, intellectually curious, socially skilled, and academically successful Parenting that is indifferent, neglectful, or abusive produces harmful effect on adolescents' mental health and development, leading to depression and behavioral problems Authoritative parenting provides an appropriate balance between restrictiveness and autonomy—what does this mean? Authoritative parents are also more likely to engage in verbal give-and-take—promotes intellectual development important for the development of psychosocial maturity Authoritative parenting is based on a warm parent-child relationship, as a result, children more likely to admire and form strong attachments to parents, leaving them more open to parents' influence Child's own behavior also shapes parenting—so children who are responsible, self-directed, curious, and self-assured elicit warmth, flexible guidance, and verbal give and take with from parents The opposite is true of children who are irritable, aggressive, dependent, and less mature In summation, authoritative parenting style may be the result of a reciprocal cycle

general patterns of family interaction

Intergenerational Solidarity Theory (Bengston, 1982): Quality of any family relationship can be evaluated on six dimensions Associational solidarity: The frequency and patterns of interaction in various types of activities **Affectional solidarity: The type and degree of positive sentiment held about family members, and the degree of reciprocity of these sentiments **Consensual solidarity: The degree of agreement on values, attitudes, and beliefs among family members Functional solidarity: The degree to which family members exchange services or assistance Normative solidarity: The perception and enactment of norms of family solidarity Intergenerational family structure: The number, type, and geographic proximity of family members

sex differences in family

Males and females report: Similar degrees of closeness to their parents Similar amounts of conflict Similar types of rules (and disagreements of those rules) Similar patterns of activity Both males and females report feeling closer to, spending more time with, and confiding emotional matters/problems with their mothers However, adolescents also fight more often with mothers, and perceive mothers to be more controlling (but this does not jeopardize closeness of relationship with adolescents)

family immigrants

Many immigrant families place an especially high value on familism: orientation towards life in which the needs of one's family takes precedence over the needs of the individual Different expectations between immigrant parents and adolescents are a significant source of stress—especially when the adolescent is more Americanized Generational dissonance: Divergence of views between adolescents and parents that is common in families of immigrant parents and American-born adolescents

Violence in Dating

Many romantic relationships in adolescence are characterized by hostility, aggression, and abuse; high proportion of young adolescents believe physical violence in a relationship is ok 40% of American adolescents have been the victim of violence within the context of a romantic relationship at one time or another Males and females are equally likely to be the victims of violence Dating violence more common in rural areas (than suburban or urban), among racially/ethnically minoritized groups, from single parent household, and from lower SES homes Adolescents who have been the victims of dating violence more likely to be depressed, contemplate suicide, use drugs, drop out of school, and/or become pregnant Adolescents' ways of dealing with conflict in romantic relationship influenced by the models exposed to at home

school violence

Many students, unfortunately, attend schools in which serious disruptions, including violence, are a prevalent feature of school climate 1 out of 4 students have been a victim of violence in or around school Violence is more common in overcrowded schools located in low-economic urban neighborhoods In high risk (for violence) climates, students engage in strategies to avoid exposing themselves to harm: They steer clear of students who have reputation for violent behavior They go out of their way to act friendly if they cannot avoid these individuals They learn which parts of town to avoid Some befriend peers who can serve as protectors

origins of compulsory education

Most important historical and social trends that contributed to the rise of secondary education at the turn of the 20th century: Industrialization Urbanization Immigration Can someone describe each of these? By 1915 compulsory education for adolescents had gained widespread acceptance

change in structure of college

Most institutions of higher education began moving away from the small, liberal arts, religiously affiliated colleges by the late 19th century Adopted the German university model Unified research and teaching, still offered liberal arts curriculum By the end of the two World Wars (and due to the threat of the Cold War), federal and state governments began massively investing in university "research and scholarship" for the production of scientific knowledge However, institutions quickly became dependant on this funding provided by the government

physical health

Nearly 1 in 15 adolescents has at least one disabling chronic illness Main causes of disability include: 1) internalizing disorder (like depression), 2) respiratory illness (asthma), 3) muscular and skeletal disorders (like arthritis) Over the past 50 years, rates of death and disability for adolescents has decreased substantially—new medical technologies and better health care Unintentional injuries are the leading cause of death worldwide for adolescents 45% of adolescent death are result of car accident or other unintentional injury, and another 27% are from suicide or homicide Consensus among health care professional that the most significant threat to health of today's youth arise from psychosocial rather than from natural causes Reactions to this statement? Do you agree or disagree? Experts in adolescent health care argue that it is more important to focus on changing adolescents' behavior in order to encourage health promoting activities

teen pregnancy

Nearly 1/3 of American women become pregnant at least once by age 20—does this figure surprise you? Nearly ½ of teenage pregnancy end in abortion or miscarriage, the other half result in the birth of an infant who will be raised by his/her mother (very few put baby up for adoption) Unplanned pregnancies more likely to be aborted by young women: Who are academically successful and ambitious Come from upper or middle class families Whose parents are well educated Who live in wealthier neighborhoods Whose significant other support the decision to terminate the pregnancy Who are more inclined to seek psychological counseling 85% of births to women ages 15-19 are unplanned Recent studies have indicated that teenagers are not harmed psychologically from the experience of aborting an unwanted pregnancy Instead are significantly better off psychologically and economically Why is this the case do you think? Male partners of pregnant adolescents are more likely to have problems with self-esteem, school, work, aggression, drugs and alcohol, and the law Also more likely to have been the child of an adolescent father Young men's educational development and mental health adversely affected by fathering a child early in life

importance of family in adolescent development

No factor seems to influence adolescent development and adjustment more than the quality of relationships at home Countess studies demonstrate that adolescents who believe their parents or guardians care from them, are involved, and are accepting are healthier, happier, and more competent than their peers This holds true regardless of adolescents' sex, ethnicity, social class, or age, and across all family types Adolescents continue to need the love, support, and guidance of adults who genuinely care about their development and well-being

rise of comprehensive high school

Prior to the 20th century, high schools were for the elite and emphasized a classical liberal arts curriculum By early 1900's curriculum needed reform due to the fact that secondary education had expanded to the masses The 1920's marked the birth in the US of the comprehensive high school—what does this mean? This model in the US is very unique—many other industrialized countries separate the college-bound from the non-college bound into different schools Do you think the comprehensive high school makes sense in today's society?

helping unpopular teens

Programs to help unpopular teens: Teach social skills: self-expression, leadership, and how to converse Have unpopular adolescents participate in group activities with popular adolescents under the supervision of a psychologist Some social competence programs focus on a combination of behavioral and cognitive abilities

"Hooking Up Articles"

mall- a little over the top/ exaggerated Bogle- more typical Hookup culture has trickled down to high school and even middle school students affect of internet on adolescent sexuality

change in definition of friendship

Not until early adolescence do people mention qualities like self-disclosure, common interests, similar attitudes and values, or loyalty As adolescents' needs for intimacy increases, so does the emphasis they place on intimacy as an important component of friendships Quick reflection: When did you notice your definition of friendship change? What elements do you look for in a friendship? Jealousy: Females show a pronounced increase in jealousy over their friends during early adolescence During middle adolescence, particularly for females, develop concerns about loyalty and anxieties over rejection As a result, friendships more easily disrupted by feelings of betrayal Knowing who their friends are: As individuals move into and through adolescence they gain knowledge about more intimate aspects of their friends' lives Adolescents report that the quality of their friendships increases over adolescence and their friendships become more personal Quick reflection: Do you remember your first intimate friendship? What made this relationship different? Caring and concern: Individuals become more responsive to close friends, more tolerant of friends' individuality, and more likely to understand and acknowledge friends' feelings Conflict resolution: In adolescence, become more likely to end disagreements by negotiation or disengagement

development of dating relationships

Not until late adolescence that dating relationships begin to be characterized by a level of emotional depth and maturity described as "intimate" Also not until late adolescents that genuinely deep attachment to individuals other than parents occurs Prior to middle or late adolescence, dating less important for the development of intimacy and more so for establishing emotional and behavioral autonomy and developing gender identity During middle adolescence males more likely to emphasize physical attractiveness, while females more likely to place more weight on interpersonal qualities By late adolescence, both males and females emphasize interpersonal qualities

Friendship with the other sex

Not until late adolescence that intimate friendships with other-sex peers begin to be important for a few reasons: Because of sex role socialization, early adolescent males and females have different interests, engage in different peer activities, and perceive themselves to be different What are some examples from your early adolescent experience? The transition period between same-sex non sexual relationships to either same-sex sexual or other-sex sexual ones can be a trying time for adolescents Manifests through teasing and joking due to the discomfort Known as "poke and push" courtship—behavior that is semi-sexual in nature Research supports Sullivan's claims that intimacy between adolescent boys and girls is relatively slow to develop, and is "tinged" with an air of sexuality Intimacy with same sex friends are not displaced by emergence of intimacy between males and females in adolescence Although young adolescents spend a lot of time thinking about the other sex, they actually spend relatively little time with them Emergence of close other-sex friendships in early adolescence sets the stage for later romantic experiences Adolescents who have more other-sex friends than their peers in early adolescence tend to enter into romantic relationships at earlier age Time spent with other-sex peers tends to occur earlier for females than males Males report that their friendships with girls are more rewarding than friendships with other males; not the same for females

obesity

Obesity is considered the single most serious public health problem afflicting American teenagers 1/6 of adolescents are obese, and another 15% are at a great risk for obesity (a little over 30% in total) Nearly 80% of obese adolescents will become obese adults Current research indicated that obesity is an interplay between genetics and environmental factors Especially prevalent among poor youth How does the mass media influence obesity? Preventing obesity requires multifaceted efforts involving parents, mass media, food and beverages manufacturers, restaurants, schools, and communities

Intimacy as an adolescent issue

Puberty and the development of intimacy: Changes at puberty provoke sexual impulses and interest in romantic relationships Cognitive changes and the development of intimacy: Advances in thinking, especially in social cognition, are related to development of intimacy Changes in social roles and the development of intimacy: Behavioral independence allow adolescents to spend more time alone with friends engaged in discussion

psychological/ social impact of puberty

Puberty can effect adolescents' behavior and psychological functioning in a number of ways The biological changes of puberty can have a direct effect on behavior Puberty can cause changes in adolescents' self-image, which may then affect how he/she behaves—examples? Biological changes of puberty transforms adolescents' appearances, which may change how others react to them—examples?

eating disorders

Only 25% of adolescents are highly satisfied with their body How does the mass media influence body image issues? Disordered eating: Unhealthy eating attitudes and behaviors Anorexia nervosa: Severe self-induced weight loss Bulimia: A pattern of binge eating and extreme weight loss measures (for example, self-induced vomiting) Adolescents with either anorexia or bulimia possess extremely disturbed body image—see themselves as overweight when often underweight Binge eating disorder: Binge eating and feeling distressed (but do not try to compensate for binges through extreme weight loss measures) Which gender is more likely to suffer from anorexia and bulimia? Although rates of anorexia (less than 1%) and bulimia (about 3%) for adolescents is small, the number of adolescents who are unhappy with their body shape or weight is not More than ½ of high school females have engaged in some form of unhealthy behavior to lose weight: fasting, smoking, vomiting after eating, using diet pills How about for males? Do they also experience body dissatisfaction? How may their behaviors be different than females? Experts now view eating disorders as part of a more general syndrome of psychological distress Often a link between eating disorder and other serious mental health issues (OCD, depression, substance abuse...) Adolescents' beliefs about ideal body types, eating, and dieting are shaped by the people they spend time with, the attitudes of their parents (particularly mothers) and friends Elements that enable eating disorders: Cultural conditions (mass media or societal messaging) Genetic vulnerabilities (eating disorders are partly heritable) Psychological traits (proneness to depression or low self-esteem) Physical characteristics (early maturation) Familial characteristics (strained relationships with parents) Social concerns (strong interest in dating)

media and the internet

Over the past two decades, explosion in adolescents' use of new media: digital media accessed via computers, smart phones, etc... Today's adolescents live in a "media-saturated" world By 2009, 85% of adolescents had internet in their homes The amount of time adolescents are exposed to media each day is close to 11 hours The average adolescent sends more than 100 text messages a day

adolescents and work

Part-time employment did not become widespread among adolescents until the 1980s—predominately middle class youth who worked because wanted not needed to School-year employment became less popular for adolescents at the beginning of the 21st century, and is at the lowest level currently What has caused this shift? There are three main reasons why... Common adolescent jobs: Formal jobs: Retail or restaurant work (often older adolescents) Informal jobs: Babysitting or yard work (often younger adolescents) Adolescent work environment: Although few jobs permit adolescents to behave and think independently, most view their jobs favorably—learned things and like co-workers What jobs have you held? What have been your favorite? Why?

Adolescent Dating

Participating in mixed-sex activity in group situations (parties, dances, etc...) has a positive impact on the psychological well-being of adolescents The impact of more serious dating depends a great deal on the adolescents' age Early starters Late bloomers

out of school influences on student engagement

Peer culture also has a large impact on student engagement High schools vary in the extent to which the peer culture emphasizes academic success as a route towards status and popularity Adolescents' experiences outside of school also impact their achievement—extracurriculars, work, and home experiences Involvement in school based extracurricular activities strengthens students' attachments to school Work, however, particularly time consuming, can decrease attachment

peer group and psychosocial development

Peers play an extremely important role in the psychological development of adolescents, impact: Identity Autonomy Intimacy Sexuality Achievement Individuals who are unpopular or who have poor peer relationships during adolescence are more likely to be low achievers in school, show higher rates of delinquent behavior, drop out of school, and suffer from an array of mental health issues On a positive note, adolescents consider the time they spend with their peers to be among the most enjoyable parts of their day

Phases of Romance

Phase 1- (11-13)- Adolescents discover an interest in socializing with potential romantic and sexual partners, Relationships tend to be short-lived (only a few weeks) Phase 2- (14-16)- Adolescents slowly move towards meaningful relationships, Dating is very casual, often in a group context, The average romance only lasts about six months Phase 3- (17-18)- Adolescents begin to think about the long-term survival and growth of their romantic attachments, Concerns about commitment move to forefront, Relationships look more like those of young adults; couple spend more time by themselves, The average relationship lasts more than a year

immediate impact of puberty

Physical maturation, regardless of whether it occurs late, affect adolescents': Self image Mood Sleep patterns Family relationships Puberty and self-esteem: The impact of puberty on mental health varies by gender and across ethnic groups, with females more adversely affected than males The way adolescents feel about their physical appearance when they begin adolescence remains stable over time, regardless if attractiveness changes Puberty and moodiness: The rapid fluctuation of hormones during early adolescence may impact adolescents' moods; once hormones stabilize later in puberty, effects appear to wane The hormonal change on mood and behavior in adolescence is greatly influenced by environmental factors—what are some examples? Little evidence that adolescents' moodiness results exclusively from raging hormones

macro sociology of integration relations

Population shape—from pyramid to beanpole—what does this mean? And why has it occurred? Burgess did not address the importance of grandparents to family well-being (understandable due to historical period) Today, increased availability of extended intergenerational kin (grandparents, great-grandparents, uncles, aunts, etc...) Longer years of shared lives across generations: more parents/grandparents able to provide for family and are in better health Grandparents are role models, provide economic resources, contribute to solidarity, and in some cases, raise grandchildren Also increasingly important in the context of marital instability Elders as the "Family National Guard"—what does this mean?

Adolescent parenthood

Question: How do you think shows like "16 and Pregnant" and "Teen Mom" have impacted adolescent parenthood or the culture around teen pregnancy/parenthood? Although the birthrate among adolescent women is lower than in previous eras, the US still much higher then other industrialized countries Because teenage childbearing goes hand in hand with other problems (e.g. poverty) hard to know whether problems of teenage mothers result from their young age or from other correlated factors Many of the problems that plague children born to adolescent mothers result primarily from the environment of poverty and single parenthood in which these children are raised, rather than age of mother Children born to adolescent mothers are more likely to have: school problems, be involved in misbehavior and delinquent activity, be sexually active at an early age, and become an adolescent parent Because adolescent mothers are more likely to be unmarried and poor, children are at a greater risk for developing psychological and social problems Adolescent mothers who were relatively more intelligent and better adjusted before the birth of their infant have greater parenting skills later In addition, adolescent mothers who are better educated, married, and better off financially have children who do better in school

gifted or learning disabled

Questions regarding placement of gifted students or students with learning disabilities is also a pertinent issue in schools One in five school aged youth are at a risk for a learning disability (although more common in boys than girls) Question is, are gifted students and those with learning disabilities best served by instruction in separate classes or by mainstreaming: integration of adolescents with educational handicaps into regular classrooms? What are your thoughts? What are the pros and cons? Generally educators tend to favor mainstreaming over separate classrooms (and for those with disabilities, whenever possible, it is mandated by law)

sex ed program

Questions: As a school administrator, how would you structure sex education programs? Do you think they can be effective? What elements do you believe are integral to a program of this nature? What elements do not work? When should sex education programs begin—middle school or high school?

selection and socialization

Research demonstrates that it is a combination of the two, both selection (attracted to each other because of initial similarity) and socialization (as friends they become more similar because they influence each other) And adolescent's behavior can be predicted on the basis of his/her friendship group's profile

relational agression

Researchers are also interested in the use of relational aggression: Acts intended to harm another through the manipulation of his/her relationships with others Examples: malicious gossip, excluding individuals from social activities, damaging their reputation with others, withdrawing attention and friendship Adolescents who use relational aggression often have parents who are harsh or controlling Although both genders employ relational aggression, girls are more aware of it, more distressed by it, and more often the victim of it Whole point of using relational aggression is to maintain one's status and popularity

risky sex

Researchers estimate that the risk of teen pregnancy is ½ due to the absence of contraceptives and ½ due to failed contraceptive use (more common among adolescents than adults) The rate of teen pregnancy is substantially higher in the US than in other industrialized countries Few adolescents use contraceptives regularly and effectively because of three broad factors: Lack of planning: Sexual activity was unplanned (can have cognitive ties) Lack of access: Can't afford birth control or don't know where to obtain it Lack of knowledge: Insufficiently educated about sex, contraception, and pregnancy—leaves adolescents misinformed

role of context in dating

Romantic relationships are more common at a younger age in other industrialized countries than in North America, but late adolescent rates of dating are similar Although early maturers begin dating earlier than late maturers, age norms within adolescents' school and peer groups more important in determining age when dating begins Dating also begins earlier for adolescents who have older siblings, when parents do not monitor them well, and if they come from single mother households Casual socializing with other-sex peers and experiences in a mixed-sex social network occurs before the development of romantic relationships

Sexual orientation

Same sex attraction: Common for young adolescents to engage in sex play, to have sexual fantasies, or to have questions about the nature of their feelings for same-sex peers A great deal of confusion about homosexuality results from people confusing: Sexual orientation: Whether one is sexually attracted to members of the same or opposite sex Sex-role behavior: The extent to which an individual behaves in traditionally masculine or feminine ways Gender identity: The gender an individual believes he/she is psychologically (regardless of physical anatomy) There is no connection between an adolescents' sexual orientation and his/her sex-role behavior or gender identity

School reform

School policy and reform is an incredibly important topic within society because K-12 is compulsory In 2002 President Bush signed into law the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act Who can describe the basics of the NCLB act? Why was it enacted? Prior to NCLB, many individuals criticized the practice of social promotion: moving students to the next grade regardless of their academic performance NCLB met with criticism and resistance Schools complained they didn't have enough resources for assessments or to attend to failing students poor performance Pressure to "teach to the test" Provided incentives to push low achieving students out of school

secondary vs elementary education

Secondary schools are larger and less personal Teachers also differ in their beliefs on students Middle school teachers less likely to trust their students and more likely to emphasize discipline—mismatch with what students desire Cultural stereotypes may also influence junior high school teachers—may come into classroom with negative images of adolescence, which could impact their work Students who have more academic and psychosocial problems before making a transition cope less successfully Also vulnerable are adolescents with fewer sources of social support and adolescents moving to more impersonal schools In general, parental support and involvement are associated with better adolescent adjustment during school transitions

impact of controversial media exposure

Sex: The most common sexual messages concern men seeing women as sex objects, sex as a defining aspect of masculinity, and sex as fun and exciting The message that women are sex objects is one that adolescents are particularly susceptible to: http://youtu.be/HaB2b1w52yE Many studies demonstrate that repeated exposure to sexual media content affects adolescents' attitudes, beliefs, and intentions Violence: Adolescents are exposed to a great deal of violent imagery on TV, in movies, in some types of music genres, and in video games While studies on the effects of violent video games are inconclusive, repeated exposure to violent imagery on TV leads to aggressive behavior in children and youth (especially if history of aggression) Drugs: Alcohol, cigarettes, and illicit drugs are present in nearly ¾ of primetime network TV, virtually all top-grossing movies, and ½ of all music videos Ads for alcohol and tobacco (and anti-smoking, anti-drug ads) have a positive and negative impact on adolescents—some are encouraged to "just say no;" for others it may inadvertently stimulate interest in using drugs For all of these three categories (sex, violence, and drugs), it is important to remember that researchers question causality—are adolescents determining their media exposure on the basis of preexisting preferences and inclinations?

sexual activity and adolescent influence

Sexual activity and household composition: Research consistently finds that adolescents whose parents are in the process of divorcing, and girls of single-parent households, are more likely to be sexually active earlier than their peers Do you remember some of the reasons why single-parent households impact females more so than males? Influences other than parents: Adolescents more likely to be sexually active when their peers are, or if they believe their peers are (whether or not that is true), and if they have older siblings who are sexually active When adolescents' peers are sexually active, establish a normative standard that having sex is acceptable Sexual activity spreads within a community of adolescents

Sexually active adolescent

Sexual activity and psychological development: Viewpoint that sexual active teenagers were more troubled than their peers has been replaced as sexual activity has become more prevalent among adolescents Important though to distinguish between predictors of being sexual active and predictors of engaging in risky sex The latter is associated with other psychological and behavioral factors correlated with other forms of risky behavior and risk taking Early sexual activity (before 16) is associated with more permissive attitude toward sex, experimentation with drugs/alcohol, low levels or religious involvement, lower interest toward academic achievement, and stronger orientation toward independence Early sexual activity also associated with higher rates of depression Contextual influences on sexual activity: Research shows that social factors are far more important in influencing females' involvement in sexual intercourse than males Females whose social environment is less encouraging of sex, even with high hormonal levels, are unlikely to be sexually active While hormones seem to have a direct impact on males and sexual activity, the impact of hormones of the sexual behavior of females depends on the social context

Harassment, assault, and abuse

Sexual harassment: A large proportion of teenagers are sexually harassed The majority of individuals who have been sexually harassed, harass others Sexual harassment is widespread in American public schools—would you agree with this statement? Sexual assault/abuse: Date/acquaintance rape: Being forced to have sex against ones will by a date or someone the individual knows Both perpetrators and victims of sexual assault are reluctant to admit their experiences—inaccurate reporting Adolescents who have been sexually abused have lower self-esteem, more academic difficulties, higher rates of anxiety, fear, eating disorders, and depression, more likely to be sexually active, have multiple sexual partners, and become pregnant as teenagers

Sexual intercourse and adolescence

Sexual intercourse is now part of the normative adolescent experience National surveys indicate more adolescents are sexually active at an early age today than several decades ago High proportion of individual who have had sex early in adolescence—1/3 of adolescents will have had intercourse by the time they are in 9th grade By end of sophomore year in high school, more than 40% are sexually active; by the age of 18 this increases to 65% Among all ethnic groups, rates of sexual activity are higher among economically disadvantaged youth

STD

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs): Any group of infections passed on through sexual contact ¼ of all adolescent females between the ages of 14-19, and 40% of all sexually active females in this age group have had an STD Nearly half of the 19 million new STDs each year are among young people aged 15-24 years Adolescents' sexual behavior is often more influenced by their perceptions of the the benefits, than their perception of the costs (contracting an STD) Question: Although the rates of sexual activity are no higher in the US than in other industrialized countries, rates of STDs and teen pregnancy are higher. What factors do you think contribute to this phenomenon?

sibling differences

Siblings who grow up in the same family may have very different family experiences because they may be treated differently by parents, or perceive same experiences differently Better adjusted adolescents more likely than their siblings to report that they had Close relationships with their parents Relations with brothers/sisters were friendly Were involved in family decision making & given high level of responsibility Sibling deidentification: The process through which siblings deliberately try to be different from each other—any examples? Siblings may also have very different experiences outside of the family (nonshared environmental influence) which impact their development

Cliques

Small, tightly knit groups of between 2 and 12 friends, generally of the same sex and age Do you think the work "cliques" has a positive or negative connotation? How cliques structure social networks: Despite the popular image of adolescents as "cliquish," fewer than half of adolescents are members of cliques Females more likely than males to be members of cliques Adolescents' positions in their school's social network are relatively stable over time

separate youth culture

Some argue that age segregation has strengthened the power of the peer groups so much that American adolescents have become alienated from the values of adults Individuals state that teen suicide, drug and alcohol use, and premarital pregnancy attributed to rise of peer groups The pregnancy pact: http://youtu.be/ce0ES19thzY Adolescents exert both positive and negative influences on each other; incorrect to describe the peer group as a universally negative influence

impacts of marital conflict

Some of the differences between adolescents from divorced vs. non-divorced homes are present before divorce occurs Children in households of later divorce exposed to higher levels of marital unhappiness, conflict, and strained parent-child relationships Children's maladjustment in turn affect the quality of parents' marriage Children exposed to overt marital conflict tend to have a range of problems—depression, aggression, and delinquency

education in the inner cities

Some of the issues with low student achievement is concentrated in low-income inner cities Significant achievement gap as well between White and non-White adolescents, especially since low income areas often comprised of racially and/or ethnically minoritized individuals Schools funded by property tax—with less money, significantly less resources In addition, the concentration of poverty in inner cities has produced a population of students with personal and situational problems that few schools are equipped or able to address Many urban school buried by administrative bureaucracies that impede educational innovation Students in urban schools report less of a sense of "belonging" to school, which also leads to disengagement and poor achievement

student engagement

Student engagement contributes to higher academic achievement and greater sense of belonging for students Student engagement: Extent to which students are psychologically committed to learning material However, studies show that levels of engagement in American high school are very low—many students are simply "going through the motions" Factors that contribute to student engagement: Teachers providing opportunities for students to display their competencies Schools facilitating students' feelings of belonging—how can they do this? Teachers assigning work that is "authentic"—work that is fun, interesting, and relevant to students and/or the real world

family relationships in adolescence

Studies also indicate that the majority of parents indicate that adolescence is the most difficult stage or parenting In addition, this period in the family life cycle tends to be a low point for parents' marital and life satisfaction As a side note, the notion that parents mental health declines when they enter the "empty nest" is a myth Families also often experience heightened financial pressures when children reach adolescence—costs of clothing, saving for college, and such Also a time when family is no longer the center of adolescents' social world—peers become more important In essence, adolescents are in need of support more than nurture, guidance more than protection, and direction more than socialization

custody contact and conflict

Studies indicate that it is the nature of the relationships between adolescents' divorced parents (level of conflict), and not which one he/she lives with that makes a difference on how they fare Children who have regular post-divorce contact with their father have fewer problems Similarly, adolescents benefit when they have frequent contact with non-residential parent if they had a close relationship prior to divorce; but suffer from contact with one if they didn't get along prior to divorce Adolescents fare worse when drawn into divorced parents' conflict, or hear parent complain about their ex-spouse, or discuss financial concerns Report more psychological distress in the form of anxiety and tension

dating and development of intimacy

Sullivan espoused the idea that an individual's capacity for romantic relationships can only occur after intimacy with same-sex friends Research shows the quality of adolescents' friendships is predictive of the quality of their romantic relationships (and not vice versa) Females are more likely than males of being intimate (emotionally) upon entering a relationship Far more likely than boys to feel love, emotional involvement, and intimacy early in sexual relationships For males, romantic relationships provides a context for the further development of intimacy (rather than immediate expression) However, males are often more awkward and less confident that the females they are dating yet just as eager to be emotionally close

Intimacy precedes Sexual

Sullivan suggests the need for intimacy precedes the development of romantic or sexual relationships Capacity for same sex intimate relationships develop before romantic interests One of main challenges of adolescence is the transition from nonsexual, intimate, same-sex friendships to sexual, intimate, romantic relationships (current definition—during Sullivan's historical era, homosexuality was considered abnormal) Forming intimate friendships during preadolescence is a necessary precondition to forming close relationships as an adolescent or young adult Adolescence is a time of experimenting with different types of relationships—normal way of handling new feelings, fears, and needs

classroom climate

Teaching style of teachers (like parenting style) is extremely influential on the achievement and development of students, specifically: How they interact with student How classroom time is used The expectations/standards they hold for students If students feel their teachers respect them Students achieve more when they attend schools that are responsive and demanding (sounds like authoritative parenting!) For example, classroom with moderate degree of structure, high student involvement, and high teacher support promote student achievement

LGBTQ

The "phases of romance" described on the previous slide may be less applicable to LGBTQ youth LGBTQ: Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and questioning Also can be referred to as sexually-minoritized youth Stigmas and stereotypes for LGBTQ youth makes the development of intimate relationships much more complicated than for their straight peers Few LGBTQ youth feel that they can publically express their romantic and sexual interests "A sexual-minority adolescent may already be privately plagued by the sense that he or she is profoundly different from other youths. To have the differences acknowledged and perhaps ridiculed by peers may prove intolerable" (p. 341)

amendments to NCLB

The Obama administration made some changes to NCLB Some schools had been "gaming the system"—setting very low standards so that they could report that most of their students were making passing grades Other schools reported school-wide averages without revealing the huge achievement gaps between the low and high performing students President Obama's secretary of education stressed the need to have high standards for all students and a set of common standards across all 50 states

adolescent free time

The abundance of free time in the lives of contemporary adolescents is due primarily to compulsory schooling Prior to this, adolescents were expected to work full-time Since the 70's, significant decline in the proportion of time devoted to paid jobs and an increase in time devoted to leisure

employment and adolescent development

The development of responsibility: Most studies demonstrate that holding a job does not make adolescents more personally responsible...sometimes may even contribute to premature affluence—which is what? The impact on schooling: It's not whether an adolescent works, but how much they work. Working more than 20 hours a week may jeopardize school performance and engagement The promotion of problem behavior: Employment during adolescence does not deter delinquent activity Overall, does not appear as though working contributes significantly to adolescents' psychosocial development Youth unemployment: Unemployment a problem among high school dropouts and those who do not go to college—why is this?

Sex for males

The development of sexuality during adolescence revolves around efforts to integrate the capacity to form close relationships into an already existing sense of sexual capability Often, early sexual experiences for males are not interpreted in terms of intimacy or emotional involvement, but in terms of recreation Most common immediate reaction among adolescent males for having intercourse for the first time are excitement, satisfaction, exhilaration, and happiness

Development of Sexual Identity

The following model is experienced by many sexual-minority adolescents, but is by no means universal Feeling different as a child Engaging in gender a-typical behavior Being attracted to members of the same sex and uninterested in those of the other sex Realizing one's sexual attraction to others of the same sex Consciously questioning one's sexual identity Evidence that females sexual orientation may be more fluid than males Because of society's ignorance of and prejudice towards homosexuality, significant psychological distress can occur for LGBTQ youth

Is conflict inevitable

The generation gap: Fact and fiction Studies consistently demonstrate that parents and teenagers usually have similar beliefs on their core values: education and occupational ambitions, work ethic, and other desirable attributes However a gap does exist regarding other matters—what are some examples? What do adolescents and parents fight about? Often argue about smaller issues: curfews, leisure time activities, clothing, cleanliness of their rooms Unlike the stereotypical image, adolescents rarely rebel against their parents just to rebel Less likely to agree with parents if they view the issue as personal, or a matter of personal choice—clash more over the definition of the issue, rather than over the specific details

Media and body image

The mass media sends clear messaging that attracting males means being physically beautiful and thin Adolescent females who frequently read fashion magazines are more dissatisfied with their body than females who do not Frequent reading of magazine articles about dieting or weight control loss leads to increases in unhealthy weight control behaviors Mass media also conveys to males that the ideal body type is one that is muscular and fit Paradoxically, although media encourages thinness in women and males to be muscular, many ads are also geared towards encouraging adolescents to eat—particularly unhealthy foods

adolescents and cliques

The most important influence on clique composition is similarity. Age segregation in adolescents' cliques appear to result mostly from the structure of school-unlikely an individual will have friends who are substantially older or younger During early and middle adolescent years, cliques tend to be same sex because initially formed on the basis of shared activities and interests Not until adolescents begin dating that cliques mix Race/ethnicity is not a strong determinant of clique composition during childhood, but like social class, becomes more powerful as adolescents get older By middle/late adolescence, adolescents' peer groups are typically racially and/or ethnically segregated—may be influenced by discrimination

ROle of Parent in peer groups

The process of antisocial peer group formation begins at home during childhood Stems from problematic parent-child relationships (coercive & hostile), leads to antisocial disposition in children, which leads to issues in school (academic and peer failure) When rejected by bulk of classmates, individual seeks out other antisocial peers Side note: even if adolescent has more antisocial friends, better relationships at home and stronger attachment to school will make them less susceptible to peer influence In addition, the crowd an adolescent belongs to is influenced by upbringing—parents play a role in socializing children toward certain values (e.g. athletics or academics) Predispose adolescents towards choosing certain friends or crowds

sexual socialization

The process through which adolescents are exposed to and educated about sexuality Although the next couple of slides talk about generalizations, important to remember that not all adolescents follow the "male" or "female" script— "girls are more sexually oriented, and boys more romantically oriented than previous research might suggest" (p. 364).

Intimacy

The psychosocial domain concerning the formation, maintenance, and termination of close relationships In relation to the study of adolescence, does not have a sexual or physical connotation Not until adolescence that truly intimate relationships emerge Child friendships are more activity oriented, while adolescent relationships are based on openness, honestly, and trust

Attachment

The strong affectional bond that develops between an infant and a caregiver Types of infant attachment: **Secure: A healthy attachment characterized by trust Anxious-avoidant: An insecure attachment between infant and caregiver, characterized by indifference on the part of the infant toward the caregiver Anxious-resistant: An insecure attachment between infant and caregiver, characterized by distress at separation and anger at reunion

Puberty and sleep

There is a connection between hormones and adolescents' sleep patterns Delayed phase preference: A pattern of sleep characterized by later sleep and wake times; driven by the biological changes of puberty Melatonin, a hormone that contributes to sleepiness, increases much later at night for adolescents who have completed puberty (2 hours later than those who have not started puberty yet) If allowed to regulate own sleep, most teenagers would stay up till 1:00 AM and sleep until 10:00 AM—did you notice this happening to you? When does this pattern reverse and adjust to a more regular night time sleep schedule? However, researchers agree that most adolescents' are not getting enough sleep, and inadequate sleep is associated with: poorer mental health, more delinquency, more frequent injuries, and poorer school performance

teacher expectation and student performance

There is a strong correlation between teacher expectations and student performance Research suggests that teachers are likely to base their expectations in part on students' racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic background This may consciously or unconsciously shape their expectations, which can affect students' learning Many studies have demonstrated that racially and/or ethnically minoritized students perceive their teachers as holding stereotypes and having low expectations of them

rejected adolescents

Three types of "unpopular" adolescents: Teenagers who have trouble controlling their aggression Withdrawn adolescents—exceedingly shy, anxious and inhibited (are often bullied, especially if boys) Adolescents who are aggressive and withdrawn—problems controlling hostility, but nervous about initiating friendships

Broader context of secondary education

Today, 95% of 14-17 year olds are enrolled in school—drastic shift from early 20th century During most of the year, adolescents spend more than ½ of his/her waking hours in school or school related activities School year is longer, and adolescents remain in school for more years than in the past

Adolescent peer group: problem or necessity

Two different arguments: Age segregation has led to a separate youth culture, in which young people maintain attitudes and values that are different from and/or contrary to those of adults Industrialization/modernization have made peer groups more important; adults can no longer prepare young people for the future, and peer groups play a vital role in the socialization of adolescents for adulthood

changes in family

US divorce rate increased markedly from the 1960's—today about ½ of marriages end in divorce Many divorces occur early in marriage, so adolescents more likely than children to grow up in a divorced family than experience family's divorce However, more than ¾ of men and 2/3 of women will remarry—majority of youth who experience parents divorce may also experience living in a stepfamily Many adolescents also grow up in single parent households, either due to divorce, or because born outside of marriage (40% of all children are born outside of marriage) Which parent do adolescents typically live in for single-parent homes? Black youth also more likely to grow up in single family household 17% of all adolescents grow up in poverty, and 21% grow up in low-income families (38% in total) The gap between the very wealthy and the very poor has widened substantially in the past 30 years Poverty more likely to touch the lives of non-white adolescents To what extent has the changed nature of the American family changed the nature of adolescent development?? Let's look to Bengtson!

Timing and Tempo of Puberty

Variations in the timing and tempo of puberty: Can occur as early as 7 in females and 9 ½ for males, or as late as 13 in females and 13 1/3 for males Interval between first sign of puberty and complete maturation can range from 1.5 years to 6 years Individual differences in pubertal maturation: Timing and rate of puberty among individuals growing up in same environment results primarily from genetic factors Everyone has a predisposition to develop at certain rate However, there are also environmental influences that can impact pubertal maturation—particularly nutrition and health Puberty occurs earlier for individuals who are better nourished and grow more throughout prenatal, infant, and childhood years Group difference in pubertal maturation: Differences among countries in the average rate and timing of puberty are more due to differences in their environment than differences in the population's gene pool Puberty occurs earlier in countries where individuals less likely to be malnourished or suffer from chronic illnesses Secular trend: Over the past two centuries, individuals tend to reach puberty earlier primarily due to improvements in health and nutrition In recent decades, the changes in the average age are much less dramatic than in the early 20th century when the average age dropped by 4 months every decade

Nature of Adolescent Peer Group

Ways peer groups change during adolescence: Sharp increase in the amount of time individuals spend with their peers (versus adults) during adolescence Peer groups function much more frequently without adult supervision than they do during childhood—why is this? Contact with peers is increasingly with other-sex friends (during childhood peer groups are highly segregated) Collectives of peer groups, cliques or crowds emerge Changes in peer relations are related to biological, cognitive, and social transitions of adolescence

unstructured leisure activities

While participation in structured activities has a positive effect on adolescent development, time spent in unstructured activities does the reverse A combination of: lack of structure, socializing with peers, and absence of adult supervision encourages delinquency and other problem behavior (routine activity theory) Unstructured activity tends to occur most often after school, before parents home from work May cause problems if parents do not promote development of responsible behavior, provide clear instructions, check in with children after school, and/or teach children how to handle emergencies One way to deter problem behavior and unstructured leisure time is to promote positive youth development—what is this? Examples?

alternatives to public schools

While the vast majority of students attend a public secondary school, a minority do attend private schools, or specially created public schools (like charter or magnet school) Although some studies have found that students test scores are higher at private schools (especially Catholic schools), appears that this due to the characteristics of the students themselves that attend private schools Students who attend private schools also often have a great deal of parental support; family background is a very powerful influence on student achievement—more so than quality of school they attend Often students from "privileged" backgrounds exposed to greater social and cultural capital: Interpersonal and cultural resources available to individuals—can someone explain this??

consequences for teen mothers

Women who bear children early suffer disruptions in the educational and occupational careers—the consequences of which continue into midlife Poverty and low achievement are both causes and consequences of early childbearing Young mothers who remain in, or return to high school, and delay subsequent childbearing, fare better over the long run and so do their children Teenage mothers who move in with their own family are more likely to maintain educational and occupational success then counterparts who live on their own Adolescent mothers who receive social support fare better, are better parents, and have healthier children than adolescent mothers who lack support

underlying factors of hookup culture according to Bogle

location size ratio postponing adult roles proximity alcohol convenience no parents peer influence parties exploring familiarity/ safety expectations

Internal Working Model

the implicit model of beliefs and expectations that an individual employs throughout life towards interpersonal relationships What happens during infancy, affects what happens in early childhood, which affects what happens during middle childhood, etc... Insecure infants are more likely to develop psychological and social problems during childhood and adolescence, including poor peer relationships Infants with secure attachment are more likely to grow into psychologically healthy and socially skilled children and able to establish healthy intimate relationships during adolescence