AES 150 Midterm (UW)
1492
"Christopher Columbus sailed the ocean blue in 1492". It's the year he reaches the new world.
Mammy
A black woman stereotype. Political , social, and economic interest of mainstream white america. Mammy had a hearty laughter and loyal servitude were offered as evidence of the supposed humanity of the institution of slavery depicted as obese, coarse, protective, etc. Characteristics of Mammy are desexualized (making them not a threat to white women), inverts social norms, antithesis to white women, happy singing, and doting.
The Condition, Elevation, Emigration, and Destiny of the Colored People of the US
A book written by Martin Delany; early black nationalist declaration; promoted education, black independence, self-determination, and self-sufficiency; supported AA emigration so that blacks could attain freedom and equality.
Mulattoes
A derogatory term referring to a person of mixed white and black ancestry.
Louisiana Purchase
1803 The purchase of the Louisiana territory from France. Made by Jefferson, this doubled the size of the US. Notes: against the constitution, very cheap price $15 mil., against Jefferson's ideals. He established federal banks and income taxes to pay for the land.
The Great Awakening 2
1830s, a movement where Americans believed people were perfectible if they followed the Bible; white people's destiny to make America a land of freedom and justice under the republican virtues and values; leads to Manifest Destiny
Wilmot Proviso
1846: the representative David Wilmot, proposed that the defeat of Mexico would make them a free no-slave state because no slavery was allowed in indigenous Mexico. This was voted down, but brought up issues of slavery's legitimacy in the free states
Martin Delany
An African-American abolitionist, journalist, physician, and writer, and arguably the first proponent of black nationalism. "Africa for Africans"
Ulysses S. Grant
An American general and the 18th President of the United States (1869-1877). He achieved international fame as the leading Union general in the American Civil War. 'The Butcher' b/c of deaths of own troops.
James Hubbard
Born a slave, who became a successful nail worker made two unsuccessful attempts to escape - associated with Thomas Jefferson.
J.F. Schermerhorn
Commissioner in charge of negotiating the Treaty of New Echota. Negotiator between the US and Cherokee nation during the signing of the treaty.
Commital Ground
Common ground between French and Native Americans based on kinship in the form of patriarchy (father and child). Note: French do not have power to command so created a middle ground. There was a lot of cultural misunderstanding buy middle ground eventually found.
Plymouth Rock
Pilgrims arrived in 1620 and met Wampanoags. Pilgrims were part of the Puritan group. Criticized the Native Americans and call them savages and the devil because of their appearance/ways/not Christian. The pilgrims were saved by Wampanoags (Squanto, Samoset Abenaki Sagamore, Hobomah). It became the first thanksgiving.
Southern Defense of Slavery
Religious; genetic inferiority; patriarchy.
Squanto
Remembered because of the first thanksgiving. Taught pilgrims how to survive in New England for the winter. He was kidnapped by a British seaman and sold into slavery. Freed with the help of Englishmen. He saw the pilgrims as helpless children and wanted peace.
Cherokee Rose
Rosa Laevigata, native to china, found growing up "wild" in the south America by the first European Explorers. Note: proves discovery issue
Puritans
A group of Calvinists in colonies towns like Jamestown. They are a radical group of Christianity. The pilgrims were puritans. The puritans thought of the Indians as savages and abused them.
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo — general provisions
(1848) Treaty that ended the Mexican American war but as a consequence the Mexicans had to accept South of Rio Grande river as Texas territory and cede Southwest territories to the US for $15 million.
Fugitive Slave Act
(1850) Gave concession to the South by passing the Fugitive Slave Act. The act said escaped slaves in the North must be returned to the South. It caused outrage in the North
Kansas-Nebraska Act
(1854) A law that was suggested by senator Stephen Douglas that proposed that people should vote on whether or not Kansas and Nebraska should be free or slave states. This turned into a violent civil war where 200 people died.
Santa Fe Ring
(1860s) The New Mexico government created the Santa-Fe Ring (group of powerful attorneys and land speculators) to supposedly identify land claims and give them to the right people. It was notoriously corrupt and amassed a fortune through political corruption and fraudulent land deals against Mexicans
Mutualista movement
(1900s) Benevolent associations that supported strikes for Mexican workers. Reflected Mexican-American ethnic pride and dispelled myth of quiet, siesta-loving, sombrero'd people and resisting labor exploitation and racism
Utopian Capitalism
The idea that capitalism offers the best remedy for everything; Lincoln was a defender of the northern way of life; Lincoln saw "wage-slave" as a contradiction
Manifest Destiny
The idea that the US has the divine mission to spread power and civilization. It was driven by: nationalism, population increase, rapid economic development, technological advances, and reform ideals. John O'Sullivan coined the term. It was a reflection of time period vs actual events.
King Philip's/Metacom's War
1675-1676. Metacom was one of the Massasoit son's and a Wampanoag chief. Pocahontas' brother. In order for the colonists to convince him to give up his land, they bribed him and made him King Phillip of Pokanoket. After his older brother, Wamsutta was murdered by colonists, Metacom attacked 52 settlements and destroyed 12. He was killed and his head was publicly displayed for over 20 years.
Bacon's Revolt
1676, Nathaniel Bacon, a Virginia planter led a group of 300 settlers in a war against the local native Americans. When Virginia's royal governor question Bacon's actions Bacon and his men looted and burned Jamestown. Bacon's rebellion manifested the increased the hostility between the poor and the wealthy in Chesapeake region.
Fredrick Douglass (1817-1895)
American abolitionist and writer, he escaped slavery and became a leading African American spokesman and writer.
Denmark Vesey
Born in 1767 in South Carolina as a slave to Capt. Vesey. Sailed for 20 years with master to the Virgin Islands + Haiti. Won a $1,500 lottery + purchased freedom for $600. Became a minister and used church to plan slave revolt in Charleston in July 1822. White authorities alerted by slave aware of the plan. Captured + hanged.
Margaret Garner
Enslaved African-American woman in pre-Civil War America who was notorious for killing her own daughter rather than allowing the child to be returned to slavery. Convicted for theft + returned to slavery.
Leif Eiriksson
Eriksson and other vikings went the the new world first, but it wasn't confirmed until 1960 when artifacts traced back at that time. Others encountered the US before Columbus and the Europeans yet we still only focus on the European expeditions and other histories are dismissed.
Roanoke
Established in 1587. Called the Lost Colony. It was financed by Sir Walter Raleigh who created a charter to the New World to establish a military base. 115 settlers were sent off of North Carolina led by John White. All the settlers disappeared, and historians still don't know what became of them. Note: probably went to live with natives since no food
Labor Unions (JMLA)
Japanese Mexican Labor Association created in 1903. In retaliation of labor exploitation, the Mexicans joined forces with Japanese
1808 Federal Law
Law that took effect stating: no new slaves were permitted to be imported into the US
Black Hawk/ Black Sparrow York
Sauk warrior, led a brief conflict called the Black Hawk war fought in 1832 between the US and the Sauk.
Andersonville Prison
Southern Confederacy prison which treated Union army soldier prisoners so harshly that an average of 100 died each day. The commander of this camp was the only Confederate tried and executed for war crimes after the South lost.
Cultivation of Tobacco
It contribution to the hostility and the need of laborers to work in the fields as well as the need for more land from the natives.
Cotton Gin
A machine for cleaning the seeds from cotton fibers, invented by Eli Whitney in 1793. Note: cotton production pushed Indians off the land
Fanny Coppin
An African-American educator and missionary and a lifelong advocate for female higher education.
Geronimo
Apache leader who fought U.S. soldiers to keep his land. Known for breakaway + recapture scenarios. Fought against daunting odds and held out for long time, making him the most famous Apache of all. Viewed as 'bloody handed murderer' by white pioneers + settlers.
Slave states that did not secede
Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri
Miscegnation
Demeaning historical term used to describe the interbreeding of people considered to be of different racial identities.
Symbolic
One of the four categories used in sociology to explain how prejudice develops. More of a psychological explanation with roots in Freudian's psychoanalytic thought. All behavior is psychically determined. Symbolic theories help see prejudice as: displacement of hostility, rationalization, sick personality, social change.
Ignorance
One of the four categories used in sociology to explain how prejudice develops. Prejudice that can result from simple lack of information & knowledge, present attitudes, false beliefs, stereotypes, & images projected through media.
Bert Williams
One of the most famous African-american performers int he 1900's. Black vaudeville performer who became rich by wearing blackface and being humiliated
"Forty Acres and a Mule"
Sherman's Special Field Order; slogan promising blacks (freedman) forty acres of land & a mule to plow with; failed reconstruction attempt.
13th, 14th, 15th Amendments
13. abolished slavery. 14. Declares that all persons born in the U.S. are citizens and are guaranteed equal protection of the laws. 15. citizens cannot be denied the right to vote because of race, color , or precious condition of servitude.
Pequot War
1636-1637. The colonists went on war to make more land vacant. The result was 700 Pequot killed. Pequot were part of the Algonquin tribe.
Abraham Lincoln
16th President of the United States saved the Union during the Civil War and emancipated the slaves; was assassinated by Booth (1809-1865). Initially, he did not believe in the equality of Black and Whites. Lincoln opposed abolitionists and felt slavery was wrong, and didn't believe in racial equality. But Lincoln was open minded and by 1850 he felt blacks should be integrated into society. Note: Agreed to integrate the army.
Indian Confederation
1785-1794. Organization of many Native American Tribes by Tecumseh & Prophet (his brother) to fight against American Settlers. Indian confederations consisted of Iroquois and other tribes around the Ohio River valley, or what remained of the New England tribes
Northwest Ordinance
1787: slavery would be illegal North of the Ohio River. South of Ohio, slave states would allow expansion, North of Ohio free stated allowed to expand. in other words; created a policy for administering the NW territories; it included a path to statehood and forbade the expansion of slavery into territories
War of Fallen Timbers
1794: the final battle of the Northwest Indian war, a struggle between American Indian tribes affiliated with the Miami confederacy and the US states for control of the NW territory. Battle was a decisive victory for the US ended major hostilities in the region until Tecumseh's war and the Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811
Tituba
17th century slave belonging to Samuel Parris of Salem, Massachusetts. First person accused of practicing witchcraft during the Salem witch trials in 1692 + first person to confess to witchcraft in Salem Village.
Chattel slavery
A chattel slave is an enslaved person who is owned forever and whose children and children's children are automatically enslaved. Chattel slaves are individuals treated as complete property, to be bought and sold. Note: the slavery system evolved was designed to extract maximum amount of profit from unwilling and dependent people
Crazy Horse
A chief of the Sioux who resisted the invasion of the Black Hills and joined Sitting Bull in the defeat of General Custer at Little Bighorn (1849-1877).
Santo Domingo
A country that could not pay its debts to European nations in 1904, causing the nations to threaten to intervene. Seeing this as a violation of the Monroe Doctrine, Roosevelt declared his Roosevelt Corollary, stating that the United States would intervene instead. This country is now known as the Dominican Republic.
Sitting Bull
American Indian medicine man, chief, and political leader of his tribe at the time of the Custer massacre during the Sioux War. He was killed by Indian agency police on the Standing Rock Indian Reservation during an attempt to arrest him, at a time when authorities feared that he would join the Ghost Dance movement. Catch the Bear shot at Indian policeman Lt. Bull Head --> Bull Head + Red Tomahawk shot and killed him.
Harriet Tubman
American abolitionist. Born a slave on a Maryland plantation, she escaped to the North in 1849 and became the most renowned conductor in a network of antislavery activists and safe houses known as the Underground Railroad, leading more than 300 slaves to freedom.
Ida B. Wells (1862-1931)
An African-American woman who achieved nationwide attention as leader of the anti-lynching crusade. A writer, she became part-owner of a newspaper, the Memphis Free Speech. Published The Red Record in 1895, the first documented statistical report on lynching. Founder of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP).
Hegemony
Antonio Gramsci's Hegemony is the explanation of how the dominant group controls others without the use of force (schools, media, gov't) and how the oppressed collaborate in their own oppression (self-hate).
Pickanninnies
Black children stereotype. Characteristics of this are erosure, victims, partially clad, beastlike, savage, and fuzzy little animals.
Uncle Tom
Black man stereotype. Characteristics of uncle tom are natural inclination to be subservant, always talking about "good times," carefree, happy, and proud to serve.
Zheng He/Cheng Ho
Commanded the Ming dynasty's fleet of immense trading vessels on at least 7 voyages to India, Hormuz, Aden, and east coast of Africa. Up to 62 ships and 28,000 men. The expeditions were designed to establish a Chinese presence and impose imperial control over the Indian Ocean trade, impress foreign peoples in the Indian Ocean basin, and extend the empire's tributary system. Original name was Zhen He but then was called Cheng Ho.
Creek tribe
Composed of a mix of Indian tribes found east of the Mississippi river in Georgia. Part of the precursor to the Indian Removal acts. When gold was found in Georgia Andrew Jackson ruthlessly pushed off the natives off the land. In the Battle at Horseshoe Bend (1914) Jackson killed 800 Creeks and made a bridle rein out of the scalps of them. He killed innocents and called them savage dogs and believed Indian termination as part of saving the US.
Republicanism
(stands for democracy, sovereign rights of people and the right of the gov't to control) the ideology of governing the nation as a republic where the head of the state is not appointed through hereditary means, but usually through an election.; philosophy of limited government with elected representatives serving at the will of the people. gov't based on consent of the governed.
Pontiac's Rebellion
During the French and Indian war, Chief Pontiac gathered up Native american groups and captured British posts, primitive use of biological warfare on blankets, weakened Indian alliance and British won. Goal: Bring back rebellion. Eventually, Indians came to a peace agreement and British took control of the land.
California Land Act of 1851
Senator William Gwin drew up the act in 1851. Made the rules for Mexicans retaining their land very difficult because he thought their claims were automatically fraudulent. The Mexican Way of land claims: people paid taxes on what is produced on their land. The American Way: People paid taxes on size of land. Note: this hurt Mexicans because they had so much land but so little time to produce crops, therefore letting the whites take their land
Cabeza de Vaca
Shipwrecked on what is believed today to be Galveston Island in 1528. After trading in the region for some six years, he later explored the Texas interior on his way to Mexico.
Sacagawea
Shoshone woman captured as a young girl; bought four years later and made a wife to a French trader. Gave birth to child, Jean-Baptiste. Not credited for navigating Lewis and Clark during their expeditions.
German Coast Uprising (1811)
Slave rebellion lead by Charles Deslandes. 500 slaves rose up from plantations around New Orleans + set out to conquer the city. March represented largest act of armed resistance against slavery in U.S. history. 100+ men slaughtered by federal troops + French planters.
Adams-Onis Treaty
Spain knew that the US wold never stop wanting Florida, so they signed the a treaty in 1819 where they cede an area larger than Belgium, Denmark, Netherlands, and Switzerland for a mere $5 million. They hoped that by selling, the could focus on the filibuster attempts in Texas.
1895 Atlanta Exposition
Speech made by Booker T Washington; philosophy that called for a gradual process through self-improvement towards equality. Focus on economic gains and proves self that blacks are worthy of equality.
Wounded Knee
Spotted Elk traveled to pine ridge to meet up with Samuel Whitside, who promised him and his people food. Lakota Indians ordered to disarm, but a deaf man named Black Coyote accidentally fired his gun, resulting in a domestic massacre of several hundred Lakota Indians by soldiers of the United States Army.
John Slocum (Shaker Movement)
Squaxin Indian man living in Southwestern Puget Sound. Prayed about the vices of his people, took ill, died and was revived. Told everyone of journey to heaven and began shaker ministry amongst Indians, much of which featured praying into a trance.
John Punch
Story of John Punch; in the 1640s there was a case of 3 runaway servants in Virginia, 2 whites, one black; all were punished with lashes. White men had their service extended to 4 year, John got servitude for life. first servants on record to be sentenced to slavery. Obama is believed to be 10th great grandchild from his white mother's side.
Metis
Term used for mixed children of French-Indian descent.
Indian-Frontier War
The American Indian Wars, or Indian Wars, were the multiple conflicts between American settlers or the United States government and the native peoples of North America from the time of earliest colonial settlement until 1924. They lasted for a long time.
Small Pox
The British gave small pox to the Native Americans and since they weren't exposed to the disease, many natives died from small pox.
Noble Savage
Embodies the concept of an idealized indigene, outsider, or "other" who has not been "corrupted" by civilization.
John Smith
English explorer who helped found the colony at Jamestown, Virginia. He told a story about being saved by a 10-11 year old Pocahontas.
Nat Turner
Enslaved African American preacher that lead a slave rebellion in 1831 in Virginia. Revolt led to the deaths of 60 whites and led to the "gag rule' outlawing any discussion of slavery in the House of Representatives.
Benjamin Banneker
First African American to publish a scientific book. The Almanac. He was a mathematician and author. Note: Important because he defied the stereotype that African Americans were unintelligent
Virginia Dare
First English child born in America
Phillis Wheatley
First slave poet. At age of 8 she was brought to Boston, and published a poetry book at 20, without any formal education. She was the first African American published poet.
Stereotypes
Fixed and overly simplified, but widely held beliefs about individuals based on perceived group membership. Not based on fact, and are always negative.
Chief Spotted Elk/ Big Foot (Minniconjou)
Follower of the Ghost Dance, man of peace, and a respected leader known for negotiation skills. Became ill as army came to disarm the Lakota people, and told his men to raise the white flag. Black Coyote accidentally set off gun and army began firing indiscriminately at unarmed Indians, killing Spotted Elk + 152 of his people (300+ in total) at the Battle of Wounded Knee.
Alexis de Tocqueville
French political writer noted for his analysis of American institutions (1805-1859). He traveled to the United States in 1831 to study its prisons and government and returned with a wealth of broader observations that he codified in "Democracy in America" (1835), one of the most influential books of the 19th century.
Giddy Multitude
From Takaki's book. The servants wanted to improve their social standing upon being freed, but couldn't. Discontented class of indentured servants slaves, and landless freeman (white and black).
William Pile
Governor of Mexico 1869-1871. Owed Maxwell land Company, which would end up giving away many acres of New Mexican land away. He took the land from the Mexicans by abusing the land grants for Mexicans by burning them so he could take their land. Also gave Mexicans loans but with interest so high the Mexicans couldn't pay it back therefore they were able to take the land "legally"
Sioux
Group of Native American tribes and First Nations peoples in North America; defeated Custer and put up the greatest resistance to U.S. domination.
Jean Baptiste DuSable
Haitian who established a French trading post on the Chicago River. He was the first person who was not a Native American to live in the area that became Chicago.
Indentured Servants
Immigrants who received passage to America in exchange for a fixed term of labor. This included both blacks and whites. Note: white indentured servants treated better than blacks
General Antonio Lopez de Santa Ana
In 1833, General Antonio Lopez de Santa Ana took power in Texas; he was a cruel dictator. One of his first acts was to abolish exemption from taxes and antislavery laws that prior Mexican governments had granted to the Anglo Texans. This gave Anglo Texans the excuse they needed to break from Mexico's "tyranny" Note: By 1835, there were already more Anglos than Mexicans in Texas (20,000 v. 4,000)
Colfax Massacre
In 1837, armed whites assaulted the town of Colfax, Louisiana, with a small cannon, killing hundreds of former slaves and fifty black militia members after they surrendered. Democrats tried to remove Republican electees from the Grant Parish Courthouse.
Battle of Little Bighorn
In 1876, Indian leaders Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse defeated Custer's troops, who were avenging previous losses at Indian hands while trying to force them back on to the reservation. Custer and all his men died.
Captain William Tucker
In a treaty meeting in 1623, Capt. William Tucker persuaded the Indians to take a drink and served them poisoned wine. 200 died immediately and another 50 killed and scalped. They were able to justify this willful destruction of the Powhatans and other native Indians because they saw the Indians as savages.
Paddling
In order to not mark the backs of the slaves, and thus deteriorate their value, in Virginia they substituted the pliant strap and the scientific paddle; no one wanted to buy a scarred slave because they were seen as troublesome.
Republic of Texas
Independent nation of Texas, which lasted from 1836 until 1848, when Texas was annexed to the United States
Wahunsonacook
Indian chief and founder of confederacy of tribes in Eastern Virginia; father of Pocahontas, and helped the people of Jamestown.
Ghost Dancing
Indian religion began by Wovoka; began spreading gospel that preached that the earth would soon perish + come alive again in a pure, aboriginal state, to be inherited by Indians, including the dead, for an eternal existence free of suffering.
Nez Perce
Indian tribe in the PNW led by Chief Joseph; ordered onto a reservation in Idaho by American gold seekers in 1877, they fled instead; after giving up they were removed to a reservation in Oklahoma.
Seminoles
Indians from Florida who, joined by runaway black slaves, retreated to the everglades. For seven years they waged a guerilla war that killed 1500 soldiers. ¼ were moved to Oklahoma where several thousands still live.
Civilization v. Savagery
Indians were mostly often associated with the devil and considered to be savages because of their race. Civilization was associated with the whites and anglo customs. Note: Whites originally wanted Indians to become "civilized"
Land-allotment strategy
Instituted by president Thomas Jefferson, the land allotment program became the principle strategy for taking territory from the creeks, chickasaws, choctaws.
Iroquois Nation
The most powerful native American group in the Ohio Valley since the 1640's, that was able to remain aloof from both the British and the French. This group consisted of five Indian nations: the Mohawk, Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, and Oneida. These nations formed a defensive alliance in the fifteenth century. The Iroquois were able to maintain their autonomy by avoiding a close relationship with the English or the French. They traded successfully with both groups and played them against each other, as a direct result of this they maintained power in the Great Lakes region.
"Different Mirror"
The term Takaki borrowed from Barbara Tuchman's "Distant Mirror". Takaki agrees that the mirror guides us to see ourselves; i.e. studying our past can help us provide some collective self-knowledge. However, Takaki believes that people are occupying the same space, same time, but different perspectives. "History is biased, not inaccurate."
Cult of True Womanhood
This value system emphasized new ideas of femininity, the woman's role within the home and the dynamics of work and family. "True women" were supposed to possess four cardinal virtues: piety, purity, domesticity, and submissiveness.
1871 Indian Appropriation Act
To weaken the authority of tribal leaders, congress passed the Indian appropriation act, which ended and the practice of treating tribes as independent.
Treaty of Medicine Creek (1854)
Treaty between the United States, and the Nisqually, Puyallup and Squaxin Island tribes. The treaty granted 2.24 million acres of land to the United States in exchange for establishment of three reservations, cash payments over a period of twenty years, and recognition of traditional native fishing and hunting rights.
Wampanoags
Tribe of Indians that helped the pilgrims at plymouth rock (the first thanksgiving). Chief, Metacom, known to the colonies as King Phillip, was chief of the Wampanoags. Metacom created the Indian confederacy that united many tribes in southern New England against the English settlers.
Chickasaw tribe
Tribe separated from the Choctaw nation and re-formed its own government. During the French and English conflict over fur trade, they sided with the English and the Choctaw sided with French.
General William Sherman
Union general who captured Atlanta, Georgia, then marched through Georgia to the sea, burning and destroying everything on the way. Believed in 'scorched earth' --> destroy the Southern people and Southern armies.
Sojourner Truth
United States abolitionist and feminist who was freed from slavery and became a leading advocate of the abolition of slavery and for the rights of women (1797-1883) Born into slavery in New York, but escaped with her infant daughter to freedom in 1826. After going to court to recover her son, in 1828 she became the first black woman to win such a case against a white man.
Thomas Jefferson's feelings about Indians
Jefferson had ideals to not force the Indians to give up land, but to make them become civilized and farmers and then the hunting lands would be open to settlers. Then Jefferson approved of the Louisiana Purchase which was against his ideals and in the end forced the natives off their lands.
Kicking Bear
Lakota war chief; alongside Short Bull, gave another interpretation of Ghost Dance religion and emphasized possible elimination of whites. Created special Ghost Dance shirts to protect from white man's bullets.
Chief Joseph
Leader of Nez Perce. Fled with his tribe to Canada instead of reservations. However, US troops came and fought and brought them back down to reservations.
Chief Seattle
Leader of the Suquamish and Duwamish tribes. Was a leader and a warrior ambushing and defeating groups of enemy raiders coming up on Green River from the Cascade Foot.
Missouri Compromise
Missouri wished to enter the US as a slave state in 1820. In order for this to happen, another state must be admitted as a free state to keep the number of free and slave states equal. In 1821, Maine entered the union as a free state and Missouri entered as a slave state. Also, slavery was legal south of the 36'30 line AKA south of Missouri.
Chief Leschi
Nisqually chief attacked Seattle blockhouse and killed two WA Territorial Volunteers; hung after controversial trial, as supporters argued that he could not be charged with murder in the death of a combatant in a recognized war. Exonerated in 2004.
Exploitation
One of the four categories used in sociology to explain how prejudice develops. Emphasizes the issues of capitalism and imperialism which creates a "class conflict", looking at "non-whites" as "other" and lower-class through prejudice.
Racism-Ethnocentrism
One of the four categories used in sociology to explain how prejudice develops. It's the "belief that one's own group is unique and right." Their own way of life is right and everyone else is wrong. Ethnocentricism is ineveitable because the very standards one uses to judge others are part from the culture they've absorbed. It benefits the one group in power.
Melting Pot
One of the most popular American intergroup contact theories. (a+b+c=Z) All people come together and create one new entity. Everyone leaves old prejudices and become an American. Criticism: becomes assimilation, unequal-some melt more than others
Mythic Norm
"Created by Audra Lorde, the term "mythical norm" describes the idealized characteristics of society that hold power and bring about oppression. Lorde explains that America's "mythical norm" includes those in society who are "white, thin, male, young, heterosexual, Christian, and financially secure" (116). Those who find themselves outside of this norm contribute to their own oppression"
Black Codes
'Jim Crow'; restrictive laws designed to limit the freedom of African Americans and ensure their availability as a cheap labor force after slavery was abolished during the Civil War.
"The wolf by the ears"
"The Wolf by the Ears" A phrase often used by Thomas Jefferson; it was in reference to slaves; he was saying that slavery had become a part of American society and that to let it go would lead to absolute disaster; he wasn't endorsing slavery but he couldn't just end it.
Jefferson's feelings about African-Americans
"The Wolf by the Ears" A phrase often used by Thomas Jefferson; it was in reference to slaves; he was saying that slavery had become a part of American society and that to let it go would lead to absolute disaster; he wasn't endorsing slavery but he couldn't just end it. Jefferson felt bad about slavery, but he didn't think blacks and whites could coexist. Although, ironically is that he was involved in a relationship wiht Sally Hemmings, the half-sister of his Mistress. He was a hypocrite.
Distribution of Southern land following Civil War
'40 acres and a mule' --> federal government's failure to redistribute land after the civil war to AAs; When Andrew Johnson became president he returned the lands to the old owners (he was a southerner who didn't believe in Lincoln's ideals).
Seven Years War
(1756-1763) Known also as the French and Indian war. It was the war between the French and their Indian allies and the English. The war was based on the Native American friends.
Stephen Austin
(1793-1836) Stephen F. Austin is credited as the "Father of Texas". He decided to fulfill his father's dream of a colony in Spanish Texas, and wanted to "redeem" Texas from the wilderness. In 1822, established the colony in Texas, he hired a band of horsemen to range over the country to scout the movements of hostile Native Americans. By 1833 the band became known as the Texas Rangers.
American immigration into Mexico
(1820s) Caused by the market revolution where they entered mexico to gain more land to plant cotton and came by the millions, threatening the Mexicans
Battle for the Alamo
(1836) Among the most famous incidents of all American history whereby 187 people martyred for the US cause. White Mexican Americans fought for no taxes, more land, and for keeping slavery. Mexican Anglo American rebels barricaded themselves inside a fort called the Alamo and tried an insurrection against the Mexican gov't but they said that's illegal and sent the Mexican Army to kill the rebels. Note: Texas has slavery but Mexicans don't allow slavery. Redeem it from the 'wilderness'
Battle of San Jacinto
(1836) Final battle of the Texas Revolution; resulted in the defeat of the Mexican army and independence for Texas. Houston & his men stabbed Mexican soldiers that surrendered on their knee. 2 Americans and 630 Mexicans died. At San Jacinto, they made Santa Ana sign a treaty recognizing Texas independence for his freedom But the Mexican government refused to recognize the treaty signed under duress, so the borders remained in dispute. In 1845, the US annexed Texas despite Mexico not recognizing the treaty. Note: Manifest Destiny
"Greaser Act"
(1855) AKA Anti-Vagrancy Act: An anti-Mexican law thinly disguised as an anti-vagrancy statue. Basically kicked Mexicans out of Mexico. Covered Mexicans who are armed, Spanish and Indian blood and non peaceful violent people of Mexican/Native blood.
John Brown
(1859) Captured Harper's Ferry and tried to lead a slave revolt. He was captured and sentenced to death. He became a rallying point for the North.
Gadsen Purchase
1853 - After the Treaty of Guadelupe Hidalgowas signed, the U.S. realized that it had accidentally left portions of the southwestern stagecoach routes to California as part of Mexico. James Gadsen, the U.S. Minister to Mexico, was instructed by President Pierce to draw up a treaty that would provide for the purchase of the territory through which the stage lines ran, along which the U.S. hoped to also eventually build a southern continental railroad. This territory makes up the southern parts of Arizona and New Mexico. Note: These lands were considered to be the most fertile lands in Mexico.
Plessy v. Ferguson
A 1896 Supreme Court decision which legalized state ordered segregation so long as the facilities for blacks and whites were equal.
Kennewick Man
A 9000 year old skeleton found along a highway in Kennewick, Washington. It caused controversy between Indians and scientists on ownership of whether the skeleton was anglo or native. In the end it was considered native and then was buried.
Fusang
A Liang dynasty monk Huishen and 4 Asian, Indian monks were trying to go to Japan, but ended up 7,000 miles East of Siberia (West coast of North America - Mexico) in 459 AD. Huishen recorded his journey, but his discovery was disregarded in favor of the anglos and Columbus.
Tecumseh
A Native American leader of the Shawnee and a large tribal confederacy (known as Tecumseh's Confederacy) which opposed the United States during Tecumseh's War and became an ally of Britain in the War of 1812.
Father Junipero Serra
A Roman Catholic Spanish priest and friar of the Franciscan Order who founded a mission in Baja California and the first nine of 21 Spanish missions in California. The first mission was in the late 1700s.
Ponce de Leon
A Spanish explorer who was trying to find the fountain of youth, instead he landed in Florida in 1513.
The Civil Rights Bill (1866)
A bill passed by Congress in March 1866 as a measure against the Black Codes to reinforce black rights to citizenship. It was vetoed by Johnson and was later passed as the 14th Amendment. Declared that all persons born in the United States were now citizens, without regard to race, color, or previous condition.
Sambo
A black man stereotype. Characteristics Sambos have are child-like, irresponsible, carefree, avoids work/responsibility. Sambos reflect the natural inferiority of blacks.
Acculturation
A intergroup contact theory. Notion that there is a minor change within someone because they are no longer in the other country, but do not change entirely. (a+b+c=a'+b'+c') Partial assimilation. Keep what's best of the old world and take what's best of the new world, basically a mix. Criticism: Not equal, attitude of assimilation, sounds good but hard to apply
Internal Colonialism
A intergroup contact theory. The way in which a country' dominant group exploits minority groups for it's economic advantage. The dominant group suppress minorities and denies them full access to society's benefits. They are exploited for their labor and resources. Model popularized by Robert Blauner.
Assimilation
A intergroup contact theory. Theory promoting anglo-conformity. (a+b+c=A) When the less dominant group imitates the dominant group to portray dominance and fit into society. In America everyone wants to be more anglo/white. Populized by Robert Park (1920) as the most natural thing to do. Relevance: apple, coconut, oreo, banana/twinkie, name-calling because they're white-washed/white on the inside.
Beringia
A land bridge connecting 2 continents across Bering Strait. Emerged between Siberia an Alaska during the last ice age. It is believed the earliest Americans are believed to have migrated from Asia into the Americas and probably went both ways.
Gabriel Prosser
A literate enslaved blacksmith who planned a large slave rebellion in the Richmond area in the summer of 1800. Information regarding the revolt was leaked prior to its execution, and he and followers were taken captive and hanged in punishment.
Davey Crockett
A member of the group of Texas "patriot" fighters during the Alamo, he was a renowned frontiersman and former Tennessee congressman, argued that he was America's first celebrity
Pocahontas
A native Indian of America, daughter of Chief Powahatan. She supposidly saved John Smith at the age of 10 or 11. Married Kocaum at age 17 and was kidnapped by settlers and abused until she became a "civilized" woman. She was then married to one of her captors, an Englishman John Rolfe, and return to England with him; about 1595-1617. She died at the age of 22 leaving her son and daughter.
Ku Klux Klan
A secret society created by white Southerners in 1866 that used terror and violence to keep African Americans from obtaining their civil rights.
Carpetbaggers
A term applied to Northerners who migrated south during the Reconstruction to take advantage of opportunities to advance their own fortunes by buying up land from desperate Southerners and by manipulating new black voters to obtain lucrative government contracts.
Narrangansetts
A tribe that cultivated corn. Erected long house to put the corn in. In 1676 band of Narrangansetts raided a small town and captured several settlers.
Marcus Garvey
African American leader during the 1920s who founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association and advocated mass migration of African Americans back to Africa. Staunch proponent of black nationalism. Was deported to Jamaica in 1927.
Booker T. Washington
African American progressive who supported segregation and demanded that African American better themselves individually to achieve equality. Viewed himself as bridge between white and black people.
Black participation in Union Army
African Americans, while only 1% of the Northern population, comprised of 10% of the total Northern army by the end of the war.
Harriet Jacobs
African-American writer who escaped from slavery and was later freed. She became an abolitionist speaker and reformer. Wrote an autobiography, "Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl", published under the pseudonym Linda Brent, describing the intersections of race based enslavement + gender, particularly sexual abuse + motherhood.
"New South"
After the Civil War, southerners promoted a new vision for a self-sufficient southern economy built on modern capitalist values, industrial growth, and improved transportation. Henry Grady played an important role.
Emancipation Proclamation (1863)
After the Union victory at Antietam, Sep. 23, 1862, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation which declared slaves free in territories still in rebellion. Did not apply to border slave states because Lincoln feared it would push them into CSA, also felt he could only free slaves as a war measure under his power as commander-in-chief. However, hearing of this many slaves fled to Union armies, and this turned federal forces into armies of liberation (also made European intervention for South much less likely since Europe was anti-slavery).
Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek
Agreement in which the Choctaw gave up more than 10 million acres of land in Mississippi and accepted removal to Indian Territory.
Texas Rangers
Austin established the colony in Texas, he hired a band of horsemen to range over the country to scout the movements of hostile Native Americans. By 1833 the band became known as the Texas Rangers. Note: They terrorized Mexicans and Natives to give up their land.
Jezebel
Based off of Ethnic Notions. A black woman stereotype that depicted black women as hypersexual. Characteristics of Jezebels are overspexualized, insatiable, and temptress. This justified their rape.
Treatment of California Mexicans- land rights, political rights, taxation
Basically a lot of different laws created against Mexicans. Mexican Land grants were burnt; lost their land for having Spanish last names. California land act- made retaining land difficult, cheated by lawyers (money and land stolen from them), loaned money by whites with lots of interest, foreign miner's tax - have to pay taxes for speaking, Greaser act Note: people were scammed, beaten, dying, lynched
Battle of Horseshoe Bend
Battle was revenge for "fort Mims Massacre" where 200 whites were killed. in 1814, jackson killed around 800 creeks because "attempts to civilize indians had failed"; made bridle rein out of those they massacred and carried scalps with them publicly; Jackson viewed indian termination as an inevitable part of progress.
Buffalo Bill Cody
Buffalo Bill & his Wild West Shows were highly influential in shaping the history of the West. Story he told was of a peaceful White Settlement of the West that was threatened by Native Americans' savage attacks. March of Destiny was a major theme: Hardy individuals march into either empty Western lands or lands occupied by Indian savages.
General Mariano Vallejo
Californio military commander, politician, and rancher. He was born a subject of Spain, performed his military duties as an officer of the Republic of Mexico, and shaped the transition of Alta California from a province of Mexico to the U. S. state of California. He served in the first session of the California State Senate. In 1846 supposedly the leader of Mexican authority in the region of California north of San Francisco. Some american rebels during the Mexican american war arrested him even though he was retired and had no patrol soldiers stationed. When he was released his ranch was stripped away from him by anglos
Race
Can either be a social construction, biologically, or geographically determined. There are three types of races: black, Asians, whites (negroid, mongoloid, caucasoid). If race were a social construction, that would mean that it's not real.
Antonio/Anthony Johnson
Captured by slave traders in Angola in 1619. As indentured servant, Antonio Johnson's owner released him after 14 years, and gave him a lot of land; tobacco farmer. After 15 years passed he sold the land because of strict slavery laws and fear of loss of rights and property. He owned slaves; important because it showed that slavery was an economic thing, not racist. Note: Johnson was black
Chief John Ross
Cherokee chief who resisted the removal of his people from Georgia. He resisted accommodation offered the best hope for survival, and went to court in Georgia to protect the Cherokee's right to own their own land when the gov't gave the land to new settlers. Signed a petition in protest to "recognize" leaders
Trail of Tears
Cherokee tribe were forced off of their land with the famous Trail of Tears. The Treaty of Echota (1833) that was signed despite the majority of the Cherokee against the treaty and a petition against it. The government sent 7,000 troops to force the natives off their land. The Cherokees were forced out and had to march in the cold in which 4,000 out of 16,000 died.
Treaty of New Echota (1833)
Chief Justice John Marshall of the supreme court ruled that the land was sovereign and shouldn't go to the Cherokees. On the other hand the Cherokees would have to agree to move by signing a treaty with the United States. The Cherokees were tricked with an illegitimate treaty and was signed despite the majority of the Cherokee not agreeing and a petition against it. In 1833, a small faction of 6 agreed to sign a removal agreement. Chief John Ross, the chief of the Cherokee, signed a petition in protest. The result of this act was the trail of tears where native americans walked from Georgia to Oklahoma.
Miantonomo
Chief of the Narragansett tribe of New England Indians. He called for a unified Native American response to white intrusions. Part of the Prequot War and fought on the side of the English, but then switched sides.
Choctaw tribe
Choctaw Nation was the first American Indian tribe to be removed by the federal government from its ancestral home to land set aside for them in what is now Oklahoma. When the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek was signed, there were over 19,000 Choctaws in Mississippi.
Christianity v. Heathenism
Christianity: the the belief that Jesus, as the messiah, was anointed by god as savior of humanity and hold that Jesus' coming was the fulfillment of the prophecies of the old testament. Heathenism: Other religions that were considered inferior groups must be considered subhuman, and therefore deserving of unequal treatment
Sam Houston
Close friend of Andrew Jackson; elected governor of Tennessee. Slaveholder. Fought alongside Andrew Jackson during War of 1812, Horseshoe Bend. Commander of the Texas army at the battle of the Alamo and lost, but won the Battle of San Jacinto. Knew of Jackson's desire to take Texas retaliated against the battle of the alamo. "remember the alamo!" and organized the counter attack against the Mexican army Santa Ana led. Became president of New republic Texas after Mexico lost battle and ceded land to US. Note: Claimed the struggle was between Mexican Tyranny and American Democracy
Vaqueros
Cowboys. They were cattle ranchers. Skilled riders who herded cattle on ranches in Mexico, California, and the Southwest. Note: the first cowboys to have an industry in cattle before the whites forced them out
Samuel Morton
Craniometry; ranked intelligence by measuring skull capacity (size, volume). Implies connection between race and intelligence.
Thanksgiving
Happened at Plymouth Rock. Squanto, Samoset, and Hobomah shared with pilgrims, corn, showed them where/how to catch fish, got them through their first winter
The Great Awakening 1
Happened in the 1720s-40s; religious revivals; fervent expressions of religion; in Europe; puritan destiny
David Walker
He was a black abolitionist who called for the immediate emancipation of slaves. He wrote the "Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World." It called for a bloody end to white supremacy. He believed that the only way to end slavery was for slaves to physically revolt.
Samoset
He was a lesser chief and was the first Indian to meet the Pilgrims. Also helped Squanto teaching the pilgrims how to survive the winter. In 1625 the English asked Samoset for 12,000 acres of land and they agreed to give them land just so they could stop asking and since natives believed nobody owned the land. Eventually all their land was taken away.
Wovoka
He was a new prophet, who promised to restore the Sioux to their original dominance on the Plains if they performed the Ghost Dance.
Naturalization Act of 1790
It was the first act that provided the first rules to be followed by the US in the granting of national citizenship of "free white persons" of "good moral character". Note: This law limited naturalization to immigrants who were "free white persons" of good moral character. It left out indentured servants, slaves, free blacks, asians. While women were not included in the act, the right of citizenship did not descent to persons whose fathers have never been president in the US. Citizenship was inherited exclusively through the father. this was the only statue that ever granted the status of natural born citizen
NY Draft Riots of 1863
Lincoln instituted draft for civil war; Irish in America attacked and killed 105 people, mainly free blacks + shopkeepers. Draft is a failure.
Leonard Peltier
Member of AIM (American Indian Movement) who was convicted and sentenced in 1977 to two consecutive terms of life imprisonment for the murder of two FBI agents who were searching for Jimmy Eagle during a 1975 shootout on the Pine Ridge reservation.
Treatment and fate of Mexicans in newly American territory
Mexicans felt alienated in their own country. After the gold rush Mexicans were outnumbered. Mexicans living north of the border of Mexico and US could become US citizens and were "white" despite still being treated badly. Mexicans also suffered much discrimination; Land stolen from them; Cheated by the US, not allowed to speak their native language, and violent attacks against them.
Mexican treatment of slavery
Mexicans wanted to abolish slavery and also tax the anglos/gringos.
Mexico independence
Mexico won independence from Spain in 1821 and it called itself the United States of Mexico
Jobs available to Mexicans
Mostly manual labor jobs like miners, factory workers, farm laborers
Farm labor culture
Mostly poor whites. Wanted america to be a world of farmers. President Jefferson believed America should be like this and Jackson pushed this too. Never happened because they both caused capitalism
Cherokee tribe
Native American tribe prominent in North Carolina and Georgia; Assisted Andrew Jackson during the Battle of Horseshoe Bend (War of 1812); greatly suffered due to the Indian Removal Act. They were tribe forced off of their land with the famous Trail of Tears. The Treaty of Echota (1833) that was signed despite the majority of the Cherokee against the treaty and a petition against it. The government sent 7,000 troops to force the natives off their land. The Cherokees were forced out and had to march in the cold in which 4,000 out of 16,000 died.
Pawnee Tribe
Native American tribe that lived on the Plains. This tribe lived in lodges made of bark, earth, and grass. They farmed for half the year and hunted the other half. When hunting, they lived in teepees. They hunted the buffalo. They used the buffalo for clothing and food. They were also removed from their land due to the Indian Removal acts.
Powhatans
Native american people in Virginia. Originally the name of Chief Wahunsonacock's hometown. Part of the Algonquin tribe. Helped the people of Jamestown. Were eventually mostly killed off.
Special Field Order 15
Order by General William T. Sherman in January 1865 to set aside abandoned land along the southern Atlantic coast for forty-acre grants to freedmen; rescinded by President Andrew Johnson later that year.
Maxwell Land Grant & Railroad Co.
Owed by William A Pile , which would end up giving away many acres of New Mexican land away. He took the land from the Mexicans by abusing the land grants for Mexicans by burning them so he could take their land. Also gave Mexicans loans but with interest so high the Mexicans couldn't pay it back therefore they were able to take the land "legally"
Common Sense
Pamphlet published by Thomas Paine; exhorting Americans to rise in opposition to the British government and establish a new government based on enlightenment ideals. historians may refer to this as the event that sparked the revolutionary war.
Little Big Man
Part of the Sioux tribe; became an Indian policeman and lured Crazy Horse. Held down Crazy Horse's hands as he was murdered by white people.
Jamestown
Permanent English settlement in North America, founded in 1607. 38 out of 120 settlers died since no provisions. Were helped by the Powhatans. Crowned king of Powhatan and eventually stole food by the natives and killed and destroyed their villages.
Dred Scott
Scott lived with his master for 5 years in Illinois and Wisconsin. With help of abolitionists he sued for his freedom. Court ruled against him --> because he was a slave, he was not allowed to sue. Scott was returned to the slavery. Est. that Blacks do not have rights or protections. Blacks are property, not people. Decision meant slave owners could bring 'property' anywhere.
Monroe Doctrine
Pres. Monroe refused to aid Latin America efforts for independence. He followed up with the Monroe Doctrine, where he declared that the Americas are off limit to any new European colonization. England wanted to stabilize trade with Latin America and spanish countries. They also wanted Monroe to renounce any attempt to colonize Texas or Cuba, but Monroe refused. 1821, Mexico won independence (official revolution began on September 16, 1810) from Spain 1820s. Anglo squatters continued going into Texas which Mexico allowed as long as they swore loyalty to Mexico and became Catholics
General Winfield Scott
Probably the longest servicing general in history. Over the course of his 53-year career, he commanded forces in the War of 1812, the Black Hawk War, the Mexican-American War, and the Second Seminole War. He was the army's senior officer at the start of the American Civil War, and conceived the Union strategy known as the Anaconda Plan, which was used to defeat the Confederacy. He served as Commanding General of the United States Army for twenty years, longer than any other holder of the office. The general also led the 70k army men to force the cherokees out of Georgia and onto the trail of tears. Ironicaly said there would be as little blood shed as possible.
Railroad tracks: mileage in 1830 vs. 1860
Railroads important because not many navigable roads. Northern Pacific railroad for 40 million acres of land from government that was stolen from the natives and Mexicans. Part of westward expansion.
Treatment of free blacks in the North
Rarely treated with the same respect that whites were; rarely accepted into white society; affected by slave codes.
Reasons leading to Mexican American War
Reasons leading to Mexican: American War Manifest Destiny; Texas Revolution- terrain conflict and Mexican rules; Desire to expand slavery; president james polk provoked the Mexicans into attacking US soldiers that were having a dispute on where the borders of Texas are (bw rio grande river and Neuces River); Polk really wanted to annex california into the US to help the market revolution cattle hide industrly. happened after the battle of alamo because of manifest destiny Note: Basically god, gold, glory
Shay's Rebellion
Rebellion led by Daniel Shays of farmers in western Massachusetts in 1786-1787, protesting mortgage foreclosures. It highlighted the need for a strong national government just as the call for the Constitutional Convention went out.
Sally Hemings
Sally Hemings was Thomas Jefferson's slave and mistress. Her family was the most favored slave family and she birthed four of Jefferson's children. Never freed. She was given to his child to be enslaved for the next generation. Half sister to Martha Jefferson. Note: Jefferson did not think Blacks could co-exist with whites even though he had Sally Hemings.
Pemaquids
Samoset, an Abenaki from Pemaquid Point Maine was the first to meet the Pilgrims, helped them and in 1625 Englishman asked for more Pemaquid land, which was given to them, and in the future Englishmen stopped asking.
Declaration of Independence
The declaration of independence was approved by congress on July 4, 1776, drafted by Thomas Jefferson, it formalized the colonies separation from Britain and laid out the enlightenment values of natural rights to "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness" up on which the American revolution was based on
Crispus Attucks
The first person killed in the Boston Massacre of 1770. He was a freed African american man who fought on the side of the colonists.
Market Revolution
The major change in the US economy produced by people's beginning to buy and sell goods rather than make them for themselves
Andrew Jackson
The seventh President of the United States (1829-1837), who as a general in the War of 1812 defeated the British at New Orleans (1815). As president he opposed the Bank of America, objected to the right of individual states to nullify disagreeable federal laws, and increased the presidential powers. Jackson was considered a "self-made man" a man of rage, anger, ruthless. Initially sounded like Jefferson: anit-gov. involvement, self-made man, individualism radicalized/genderized, owned over 150 slaves and was a brutal owner
Red Cloud
War leader + chief of the Oglala Lakota tribe who resisted the development of a trail through Wyoming and Montana by the United States government. One of the most capable Native American opponents the United States Army faced.
Drapetomania
Was a supposed mental illness described by American physician Samuel A. Cartwright in 1851 that caused black slaves to flee captivity.
Dysaethesia Aethiopica
Was a supposed mental illness described by American physician Samuel A. Cartwright in 1851 that caused blacks to be 'lazy' + caused rascality.
Tainos
Were the first indigenous people to greet the Spanish in 1492. The name was given by Columbus when the men greeted him were saying "taino, taino" meaning "we are good, we are nobel."
Joseph Cinque
West African captive of the Mende people who led the 1839 slave revolt on the Spanish slave ship, La Amistad.
Filibustering
When a group of people enter a town and proclaim that they were taking it over as their own republic while taking it by physical force. This happened in Mexico and Latin America.
"Discovery"
When people of one country go out and visit another country and return back reporting what they have found. Note: There were discoveries before the Europeans, yet they seemed to be dismissed due to not being anglo.
Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World (1829)
Written by abolitionist David Walker. 'Radical' document calling for the violent overthrow of white slave owners by black slaves.
Black Nationalism
a belief in the separate identity and racial unity of the African American community.
