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William T. Sherman
the Union general who led a 400 mile march of destruction through Georgia and South Carolina. Inflicted Total War. Wanted to cut of Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia from the rest of the Confederacy. Wanted to turn civilians away from the war.
Missouri Compromise
"Compromise of 1820" over the issue of slavery in Missouri. It was decided Missouri entered as a slave state and Maine entered as a free state and all states North of the 36th parallel were free states and all South were slave states. Northern states didn't want to admit another slave state because it would skew sectional balance in the Senate. South didn't think that Congress had the power to limit slavery expansion; thought it was an issue of property, and should go to state legislation. At first, Missouri would have gradually gotten rid of slavery. Henry Clay made it. Why: Showed continued avoidance of the slavery problem.
Outcome of the 7 Years War for Britain
1) Increased divisions with colonists -
Declaration of Sentiments
What: document modeled after the Declaration of Independence listed the injustices towards women and declared equality of sexes
Quartering Act
When: 1774 Who: What: Required legislatures of colonies to give supplies to and house troops, including in places where people already lived. Where: Why:
Declaratory Act
- that gave Parliament the full authority to make any laws over the colonies, showing how the conflict between the British and colonists had only been postponed after the Stamp Act was repealed. 1766.
Atomic number
# protons (Z)
Elizabeth Cady Stanton
(1815-1902) A suffragette, organized the Seneca Falls Convention. Issued the Declaration of Sentiments and demanded the right to vote for women. Co-founded the National Women's Suffrage Association with Susan B. Anthony in 1869. Fought for abolition
Isotopes and Isobars
*Isotopes*: Same Z, different A *Isobars*: Same A, different Z
Rutherford
- *Experiment*: Fired positively-charged alpha particles onto a sheet of gold foil surrounded by a detecting screen. Most went straight through the gold foil, some were deflected and some went off their path. - *Conclusions*: 1. the atom is mostly empty space (most went through gold foil 2. most of an atom's mass exists in a small, dense positively charged center 3. p+ and n0 exist in the nucleus
John Dalton
- Atoms are tiny particles that don't change / disappear in a chemical reaction - All atoms of an element are identical, but different elements have different sized and massed atoms - Compounds are formed when atoms of elements combine in simple whole number ratios
Significant Figures
- Only trailing zeros in the decimal portion of a number are significant - *Addition / Subtraction*: Count the number of places after the decimal point - *Multiplication / Division*: Count the lowest number of sig figs out of every number involved
Outcome of the 7 Years War for Native Americans
- The victory of the British opened up the frontier to British settlement since French were kicked out of North America, making Native Americans lose land despite the Royal Proclamation of 1763 - Pontiac's Rebellion happened - Forced to cede the Ohio Valley and Tennessee River
JJ Thomson
- Used the *cathode ray tube experiment* - shot a beam of particles into the tube, which deflected toward the positive pole, showing that they were negatively charged. - *Found that*: 1. The negatively charged particles came off of all atoms, since the mass-to-charge ratio was the same no matter what the cathode was made of. 2. The mass of the particles is less than that of the smallest atom (meaning they are sub-atomic particles) - Devised the *plum pudding model* 1. Atom = sphere with positive and negative charges present in equal amounts; electrons embedded in a sea of positive charges
John Peter Zenger / Zenger Trial
- paved the way for freedom of press - important for intercolonial communication o Early 18th century, press = tool of the government, those criticizing officials arrested o Zenger (NYC editor) printed antigovernment articles, but was freed after protesting and saying that only an evil government would try to restrict the opinions of the press After, many opinionated newspapers started to circulate among the colonies Why: helped open up freedom of the press so that colonial newspapers could become a prominent for of intercolonial communication. Ideas from groups such as the Whigs could spread.
deci-
10^-1
pico
10^-12
centi
10^-2
milli-
10^-3
micro-
10^-6
nano
10^-9
kilo-
10^3
Stamp Act
1765; law that taxed printed goods, including: playing cards, documents, newspapers, etc. Led to the nonimportation movement, argument of virtual vs actual representation, the Virginia Stamp Act Resolutions, increased sense of community among the colonies; opposition demonstrates the danger of alienating the literate elite. Mainly upper and middle class pushe dagainst it. Led to stamp Act Congress, Sons of Liberty, mob violence. - Nonimportation movement made British scared à repealed the Stamp Act in 1766 à disbanded nonimportation associations, happy - Didn't notice the passing of the Declaratory Act that gave Parliament the full authority to make any laws over the colonies, showing how the conflict between the British and colonists had only been postponed
Underground Railroad, Harriet Tubman
1840s-1860s (Railroad); 1820-1913 (Harriet Tubman) *Method used to move slaves to free territory north in the United States and Canada *Harriet Tubman was a slave smuggler and "conductor" of the Underground Railroad *A freed slave herself, Tubman led over 300 to freedom *The Underground Railroad led to tension between states
New York City Draft Riots
1863, working-class looting, fighting, and lynching. many killed were African American. The US Army stopped it. Showed not only racism, anger at draft, but also tensions from rising urban problems and tensions between classes.
Sherman's March to the Sea
1864-1865. Union General William Tecumseh Sherman's destructive march through Georgia. An early instance of "total war", purposely targeting infrastructure and civilian property to diminish morale and undercut the Confederate War effort.
Avogadro's Number
6.022 x 10^23 The number of atoms of an element in a sample whose mass in grams is numerically equal to the atomic mass of the element eg 6.022 x 10^23 H atoms in 1.008 g H; atomic mass of H is 1.008 amu
Law of Constant Composition
A compound always contains the same elements in the same proportions by mass.
Solution
A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances
Nonelectrolyte
A molecular compound that doesn't dissolve into ions in water
Metalloids
All along staircase except Al, Po and At
Twelfth Amendment
An amendment to the Constitution, adopted in 1804, that specifies the separate election of the president and vice president by the electoral college. Formerly, the person with the most number of votes became president, while runner up became vice president, but Burr and Jefferson tied, which was bad.
Ulysses S. Grant
Appointed Union general-in-chief after victory at Vicksburg. Some didn't like it because he was a Westerner, may have had a drinking problem. Used new kind of warfare (total war), to directly affect civilians. Used fleeing slaves as soldiers, help on the battlefield. Aided efforts in educating former slaves, other aid programs. Pressed on with war despite heavy casualties, ultimately how he won.
Appomattox
Confederate army starving, not enough ammunition, losing men in battle or to desertion. Lee was pushed back to Appomattox Court House and forced to surrender. Ended the war.
"Cotton Diplomacy"
Confederate efforts to use the importance of southern cotton to Britain's textile industry to persuade the British to support the Confederacy in the Civil War. However, Britain just got their cotton from Egypt and India. Withheld cotton, then flooded the market, causing inflation.
Robert E. Lee
Confederate general who had opposed secession but did not believe the Union should be held together by force. Helped make Confederate leadership stronger, closing gap caused by the N having more troops. Master of defensive warfare, inflicted heavy casualties on North.
New Netherlands (DE/WIC, Beaver Wars)
DEIC / DWIC = monopolies over Asian and Atlantic maritime trade that helped Holland maintain its naval and commercial superiority. Built trading posts all over the world with armed ships, helping boost Holland to the greatest commercial power in the world. Beaver Wars: To compete w/ Fr, allied commercially w Iroquois for furs, supplied the with weapons -> Wars. 1640s-80s, Iroquois fought Fr for control of the fur trade E of the Great Lakes, and overwhelmed the Hurons who supplied the Fr with Great Lakes furs.
Contrabands of war
Decided that the Fugitive Slave Law no longer applied in war, and that fleeing slaves were now contraband of war. Did work in northern camps like building fortifications, flocked to places like Washington DC. Received aid from the Contraband Relief Association.
Electoral Crisis of 1876
Democrat candidate = Tilden, popular for exposing the Tweed Ring, Canal Ring, corruption. Blamed Republicans for the corruption. Republican candidate Hayes promised efficient civil service system, prosecute officials who betrayed public trust, free universal education. Lots of vote fraud / violent intimidation. Tilden got more popular votes, but Republicans challenged electoral college votes since Tilden didn't manage to get the majority required to win. Congress made an Electoral Commission to settle the deadlock, w 8 Republicans, 7 Democrats -> Hayes elected. Compromised w/ Compromise of 1877 - Hayes = president, Republicans would give more money to Southern improvements, appoint a Southerner to Hayes's cabinet, have a policy of noninterference in the South. After, Hayes removed federal troops in Louisiana and SC. Democrats rose to power, nullification of 14th / 15th, Civil Rights Act, abandonment of freedmen. Negated the idea of the federal gov't protecting rights of citizens. Showed the failure of Reconstruction.
George McClellan
Democratic candidate in 1864 election. Northern general; led the Peninsular campaign to capture the Confederate capital, Richmond. Failed, driven back by Lee.
Market Revolution
Depended on transportation, commercialization, industrialization. When: early 19th What: The Transportation Revolution allowed for faster transportation of goods, allowed for more connection between markets that fueled commercialization and industrialization. Commercialization (barter to cash economy) involved an accumulation of capital allowing merchants to reinvest in things to further fuel growth, which made people want more wealth. Also grew due to the putting-out system. Commercial agriculture grew in the Old Northwest due to new machinery and transportation - tied farmers into the national market. Why: Broke down apprenticeship system. More separation of work and leisure. Barter system became cash economy. Created the new potential for social mobility, as well as a working class and middle class. Enriched the elite merchants / southern planters even more.
Nonimportation movement
First after Stamp Act (Stamp Act Congress). Second after Townshend Revenue Acts. - Nonimportation associations were revived in 1767 and adopted by port cities like New York and Boston - Coercion was a large factor in the movement; artisans forced merchants to stop importing British goods, those who didn't were publicly revealed. - Brought rural communities into the resistance by appealing to their values of self-sufficiency and independence - said they would restrict luxuries and help local industries - Women helped in the resistance, which colonial newspapers wrote about - Became really strong; the House of Burgesses made legislation banning the importation of Townshend Act enumerated goods, slave and luxury commodities, which almost all other colonies copied.
Continental Army
For defense, the Second Continental Congress couldn't raise and supply a army right away, so just used the militia attacking the British troops in Boston as the Continental Army, supplemented by New England rifleman and commanded by Southerner George Washington. Funded in $2 million of credit
William Lloyd Garrison, the Liberator
Headed the abolition movement. 1831, published his own paper, the Liberator. Used the same outrage and emotion as in evangelical religion, wanted people to face the immorality of slavery. demanded full social equality + radicalized northern antislavery groups. However, didn't want Douglass to take political action, didn't like the Liberty Party because he didn't like party politics. Supported women's rights, pacifism, etc which made him controversial among white abolitionists
Second Bank of the US
Held gov't money, sold gov't bonds, made commercial loans, made state banks repay loans in hard currency so they couldn't just print as much money as they wanted and therefore was a currency stabilizer. Liked by merchants, businessmen. Ordinary people feared the power of the bank; Western farmers and urban workers didn't like banks bc they had sorta caused the Panic of 1819 by cutting back on credit. Jackson also opposed the bank.
Royal Proclamation of 1763
How the British had attempted to resolve tensions between NAs and the colonists o Any land west of the Appalachian Mountains was "Indian Country" and could only be bought with approval from the crown. o Resulted in the Paxton Boys killing Indians, since settlers were mad; they had expected to be able to move west after the French and Indian War, didn't like that Indians, who had killed settlers, now had land - The Royal Proclamation didn't work, and settlers kept pushing west. Investors and land speculators interested in the west because of population growth, economic development § Crown began pressuring Iroquois and Cherokee to cede lands for colonists § Cherokee and Iroquois gave up land in the Ohio Valley, Tennessee River; couldn't fight back because were weak from Pontiac's Rebellion o Individual colonies moved into Ohio and provoked frontier wars, which made Iroquois and Ohio Indians mad Demonstrated continued conflicts over the West
Bank War
Jackson believed the Bank of US had too much power and was too rich. Vetoed the 2nd Bank charter and withdrew gov't money from the US Banks and put it into "pet banks" (favored state banks). Opposed by Merchants, businessmen and southern planters Why: Put exec branch above the objection of Congress, laissez faire, two-party system, end of the American System.
Abraham Lincoln, Jefferson Davis
LINCOLN: staffed cabinet with other Republicans, so faced opposition from both radical abolitionists, moderat Free-Soilers, Whigs. Expanded military budget, blockaded S and called state militias without consulting Congress. Suspended habeas corpus, tried being moderate to not alienate the border states. First pres to act as commander-in-chief. DAVIS: hard to hold Confederacy together; states refused to collect taxes. First draft.
Gettysburg, Vicksburg
Lee wanted a confederate victory, to convince Britain and France to recognize them, intervene in war. Attacked Maryland, Pennsylvania. Defeated and retreated from Battle of Gettysburg, but the Union didn't pursue them. Ulysses S Grant took Vicksburg. dissuaded Britain and France from recognizing the Confederacy and checked the northern peace movement. It also tightened the North's grip on the South, for the Union now controlled the entire Mississippi River.
Election of 1864
Lincoln opposed by Radicals who thought he was being too conciliatory, conservatives who didn't like the Emancipation Proclamation. Democrats had McClellan as a nominee; sympathetic to south and war hero; capitalized on racist fears of the working class. However, Sherman's victory at Atlanta saved Lincoln and he was reelected.
Free-Soil Movement
Movement defined more by sectionalism than party loyalty due to slavery in the mid 19th century. See Liberty Party, Free Soil Party.
Expansion of Slavery Opinions N vs S
Northerners: afraid of slave power (S overtaking gov't), morally against slavery, Free-Soil Movement (N farmers moving W will be overtaken by cotton production). Southerners: want respected property rights (slaves), tribalism (African-Americans better off as slaves, whites also better off), feel attacked by abolitionists
border states
Northernmost southern states: Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, Delaware. Missouri = border Mississippi River, controlled western routes. Kentucky = Ohio River. Maryland = held main railroad link with the West, if were taken, Washington would be surrounded by the Confederacy. Delaware = access to Philadelphia. Maryland divided, but Lincoln stationed Union troops along its railroads, imposed martial law in Baltimore, arrested members of pro-Confederate mob that had caused violence. All were pretty divided - guerilla battles, illegal trade w Confederacy. By remaining in the Union, undermined Southern argument that they had seceded to protect slave rights, and deprived S of manufacturing / more whites
A rich man's war but a poor man's fight
Opposition to the draft law in the south; slave owners were exempt. In the north too, could hire substitutees.
Copperheads
Peace Democrats; denounced "King Abraham" and his imposition of martial law, expansion of federal power, the war, the draft. Threatened that Western Democrats would join with the South in order to keep the white race secure. Lincoln thought they were conspiring with the Confederacy, and issued an order that anyone who discouraged enlistment or were disloyal would be subject to martial law. Arrested and imprisoned many.
Jefferson Davis
President of the Confederacy, moderate
Indentured servants
Prominent in the Chesapeake, where they were needed due to lots of tobacco farming. most were contracted to labor for a master for a fixed time in exchange for transportation to the New World, or they were convicts sent by English courts. Many tried escaping since tobacco planting was hard work. Lots died from disease. After being freed, they got freedom dues (food, etc). Most went back to England. Many came under the headright grants.
Charter, Royal, Proprietary
Proprietary: mostly late 17th, favorites of the British crown given tracts of land to develop, given out by Charles II. People owned the land and could divide it up to make a profit, appointed own civil officers. Charter: given by the crown to joint-stock companies to settle in places Royal: Controlled by the king through a royal governor.
Rhode Island
See Roger Williams, Anne Hutchinson
Spain during the Rev War
Supplied Americans with ammunition, provisions, beef, which Spanish colonists contributed to. Never formally allied with the US because they didn't want New Spain to be taken over, so fought the British independently.
Tariff of Abominations
Tariff of 1828, Nullification Crisis, passed by a majority of northern and western representatives in Congress, who wanted to use it as a way to raise federal revenue and protect industry w/ Northern industrialization. Made especially high tariffs on textiles and iron, Southerners thought they targeted them and said it was unconstitutional since it violated the rights of some states. Also made them mad because Congress passed it despite their objections, since Jackson wanted Northern support for his campaign that year. South Carolina was super pissed off, since it was already declining economically due to Why: Led to increased interest in the doctrine of nullification, eventually leading to SC threatening to secede. Showed increasing sectional divisions
Law of Conservation of Mass
There is no detectable change in mass in an ordinary chemical reaction.
Total War
Union attempted to reach the war to civilians, ruin the Southern way of life. Grant. Destroyed civilian supplies,
Mass Spectrometer
Used to determine relative masses of atoms; A beam of gaseous ions is deflected by the magnetic field toward the detectory; heavier ones will crash into the outside (+ wall), lighter into the inside. The percent that make it to the detector is the relative abundance / isotopic abundance. Measuring voltages required to bring two ions of different mass to the same point on the detector, possible to determine relative masses.
Depression of 1873
What: Ended postwar economic boom. Brought on by commercial overexpansion of railroad builders (speculative investing in railroads) and businessmen. Investment houses failed, railroads defaulted on bonds, businesses + factories closed, high unemployment, prices / land values fell which affected farmers. People saw it as part of the natural business cycle that would weed out the unfit, didn't want government interference to create jobs / help the poor. Why: led to worker and farmer disillusionment with free-labor ideology. Garnered distrust of large corporations. More class interest consciousness among businessmen, merchants. Republican Party declined even more.
White Southerners (not planters)
What: Most weren't slave owners. Middle class - Commercial middle class of merchants, bankers, lawyers needed to sell products of agricultural economy to a world market lived in urban areas, the growing cities that were major shipping centers for agricultural goods. Had formal education, libraries, cultural activities, some of the commercial spirit in the North. Challenging for entrepreneurs, since resisted industrialization. Scorned by planters, since thought they lacked independence - needed to please customers. Poor white people: many landless, limited opportunities because of slavery since slaves were a permanent, stable workforce. Many lived in constant search for work, some were tenant farmers kept in debt to landowner, but could grow enough to sustain family - hoped for independence. Worked alongside slaves in the field, intimate with some, engaged in illegal trade of liquor. However, most thought they were superior to blacks - many slaves called them poor white trash. Threatened slave system b/c interacted w slaves.
Panic of 1837
When Jackson was president, many state banks received government money that had been withdrawn from the Bank of the U.S. These banks issued paper money and financed wild speculation, especially in federal lands. Jackson issued the Specie Circular to force the payment for federal lands with gold or silver. Many state banks collapsed as a result. A panic ensued (1837). Bank of the U.S. failed, cotton prices fell, businesses went bankrupt, and there was widespread unemployment and distress.
Halfway Covenant
When:
Quebec Act
When: Who: What: Gave Quebec a royally appointed government that was authoritarian and anti-republican; backed up the privileges of the Catholic Church, allowing it to collect tithes and making it the state religion. Where: Quebec Why: Made colonists even more sure that the British wanted to destroy American liberty, they were next.
Edwin Stanton, Tenure of Office Act
When: Who: Congress dominated by Radicals + moderates during Congressional Reconstruction. What: Any officeholder appointed by the president with the Senate's advice, consent couldn't be removed until Senate approved a successor. Meant Congress could protect Republicans carrying out Congressional Reconstruction. Edwin Stanton: Secretary of War suspended while Congress was adjourned by Johnson + replaced by Grant, in a violation of the Act. Why: Demonstrated tensions between pres + Congress during Congressional Reconstruction. Johnson's violation served as the foundation for impeachment.
Secession
When: Who: 1860: SC, Ala, Miss, Flor, Georg, Louis, Tex What: After Lincoln's election, S worried that they would become a permanent minority and lose white privilege. South Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi immediately called state conventions, volunteer militia companies, vigilance committees. Rapidly seceded so that cooperationists (yeoman farmers with no slaves) wouldn't be able to do anything. Some other slave states didn't secede. Lincoln refused to compromise on the extension of slavery, tried being moderate to stop more S states from seceding and give pro-Union S more organization time. Didn't want S secession because 1. would complicate W expansion 2. two countries bordering wouldn't work 3. industrialization dependent on cotton 4. would make other people want to leave gov't every time theres a problem Why: led to the Civil War
Atlantic Slave Trade
When: 15th-19th century Who: All W European nations What: The exchange of slaves between Africa and the New World. Half went to sugar colonies, smaller amounts to Brazil and Spanish America, even smaller amounts to Brit NA colonies. Dutch dominated during the 17th century with the boom of sugar, but the English rose to prominence in the 18th after opening it up to not just the royal monopoly but also to independent traders. Slavers lived in coastal outposts and built commercial relationships with local rulers, even marrying African women. After Africans enslaved slaves using small raids, marched to the coast and traded for manufactured European goods. Slaves brought to the New World across the Middle Passage. Where: Atlantic Why: Resulted in depopulation of Africa, new coastal states that were established existed solely to provide traders with slaves. Gun-slave cycle led to more war. Economy of Africa declined - there was less labor to farm, imported consumer goods took over locally manufactured goods, European traders always got more wealth out of the trade. Resulted in Europe being able to take over Africa in the 19th. Provided colonies with a source of labor that fueled their economies, led to the development of new culture. Britain benefitted a lot economically - allowed capital investment in the economy, supplied cotton for the IR, growth of demand for manufactured goods
Great Migration
When: 1629-1643 Who: Puritans What: Puritan emigration started because of persecution in England; Puritans thought they had to emigrate to protect themselves. 20,000 came to Massachusetts, but after the English Civil War, the Puritans won and so no longer had to go to New England, ending the Great Migration. Where: New England / Massachusetts Why: Led to the creation of a diverse economy in New England - decline of sales to newcomers -> emergence of cod fishery economy and crews sailing throughout the Atlantic -> diverse economy, long-term strength.
Middle Passage
When: 16th-18th centuries What: Slave ship voyages from Africa to the New World across the Atlantic; Slaves were packed into ships with no room; brought up on deck in the mornings and made to jump up and down as exercise. Below deck, extremely hot and suffocating; no sanitation, so had to lie in waste, blood, and mucus. As a result, there was a lot of epidemics and 1/6 died. Many jumped overboard, so ships had to put nets on their sides. Where: Across the Atlantic Why: Demonstrated the brutalization of slaves, how slavers attempted to break the morale of slaves. Showed how many slaves could be expended because they were so profitable.
Plantations
When: 16th-19th What: large scale sites for agricultural production, on which slaves were used as labor. Sugar plantations were prominent especially in the Caribbean, where a large amount of slaves went. Huge rice and indigo plantations were common in the Lower South, causing a majority of blacks in those colonies. In the Chesapeake / tobacco colonies, smaller plantations were common. Where: New World Why: Led to a cycle of plantation expansion and an increase in the slave trade; Bigger plantations allowed for a more concentrated population of slaves and the development of African American culture. Led to many colonies having a plantation economy and immense profits. Created a new planter elite / Southern aristocracy and a more stratified social structure in North America. Fueled the Industrial Revolution.
Benjamin Franklin's Plan of Union
When: 1754 Who: Benjamin Franklin What: An attempt to make the colonies more cooperative and communicative, but was not passed by colonial legislatures who wanted to keep autonomy. One government, with a Crown-appointed president general, and the legislative Grand Council. The Grand Council made laws, raised money for defense, delegates chosen by colonial legislatures, seats determined by population and wealth. Scared the Crown, which didn't want the colonies unifying Where: Albany Conference of 1754 Why: Showed lack of colonial cooperation before the Seven Years' War; Foreshadowed future colonial unification ;
Albany Conference of 1754
When: 1754 Who: Convened by the British Board of Trade w/ reps from New England, New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland What: The British wanted the colonies to rally together against New France and their Native allies, who were taking away territory that the British wanted. Tried allying with the Iroquois Confederacy and failed; Adopted Benjamin Franklin's Plan of Union, which failed. Had trouble making the colonies cooperate to fight the Seven Years' War. Where: Albany Why: Demonstrated the lack of cooperation amongst the colonies before the Seven Years' War; First time British colonial leaders tried cooperating; foreshadowed future colonial unification
Iroquois Confederacy (role in the Seven Years' War)
When: 1756-1763 What: Approached by the Albany Conference for an alliance with the British, since they held strategic locations between the British colonies and New France, as well as alliances with other Native Americans through the Covenant Chain, so the British couldn't afford to alienate them. However, they refused to ally with the British, and instead the different tribes in the Confederacy aligned with both the French and the British in order to keep them at a stalemate, so no one empire would become too powerful / because they didn't like how colonists were expanding west. Dominated the fur trade between New France and New York, which the colonists wanted to control. Where: North America Why: Anger that the French ceded the west --> Pontiac's Rebellion; settlers didn't like their role in the war killing some colonists, and coupled with the Royal Proclamation of 1763, they attacked Native Americans; demonstrated how Native Americans were still integral to colonial life
Minutemen
When: 1774 Who: General Gage; Massachusetts House of Representatives; special units in the militia What: General Gage tried seizing ammunition stored by the Massachusetts militia, and in response, the House of Reps made a Committee of Safety that could rouse the militia, also creating minutemen that could be called any time. Mostly composed of freeholders and farmers in New England, who posed a real threat since they were convinced they were defending their communities. Where: Massachusetts, eventually elsewhere Why: Enabled Massachusetts to stay in a stalemate with Gage for a few months; integral to Lexington and Concord
The Seven Years' / French and Indian War
When: 1756-1763 Who: England, Prussia, France, Spain, Austria What:Albany Conference - attempt at cooperation failed --> weakness since war was fought in many different places. Fought over Native fur trade, West frontier, etc. First two years, British were losing since weren't coordinated / couldn't be controlled, but when William Pitt became PM, committed to conquering Canada, getting rid of French competition in North America § Used British currency, credit and his own resources to support the North American economy and gain men / colonial cooperation to fight vs Canada § Got Indian support by promising the IC, Ohio Indians clear borders between settlements and Indian land Resolved by the Treaty of Paris Where: North America Why; see "Outcome of the 7 Years War"
Pontiac's Rebellion
When: 1763 (After 7 Years' War) Who: Neolin, chief Pontiac What: Natives angry that Fr ceded W to Brit, since never theirs, and didn't like that they were banned from getting presents and couldn't get supplies to hunt, leading to starvation. This anger led to Neolin gaining a following from Ohio Indians by saying that Indians had been corrupted by Europeans and needed to purify themselves by fighting a holy war with the Europeans and returning to their traditions. A tribal confederacy formed under Neolin's ideas, led by chief Pontiac; planned an attack on British frontier posts. attacked all Western British forts at the same time; killed many settlers, but the British spread blankets infected with Smallpox, resulting in an epidemic that killed many. Came to a stalemate because Indians couldn't overtake important forts / didn't want their villages to be destroyed, and British couldn't overwhelm the Indians Where: Why: Demonstrated
Virginia Stamp Act Resolutions
When: 1765 Who: Patrick Henry What: Pushed through the Virginia assembly by Patrick Henry; emphasized constitutional issues with the Stamp Acts (taxation without representation) and denounced them. Didn't pass the House of Burgesses but were spread throughout the colonies, leading to 8 other colonial assemblies declaring no taxation without representation. Where: Virginia Why: helped increase intercolonial sense of community over dissent with the Stamp Acts, demonstrated discontent w Stamp Acts. Resistance to their passing showed how even though people weren't happy with the Stamp Act, still didn't desire complete independence from England.
Townshend Revenue Acts
When: 1767 Who: Townshend (new head of cabinet after William Penn What: Britain still had lots of national debt, with unemployment, price riots, and tax protests. Large landowners worked for their own interests in Parliament to cut down on their own taxes. Instead of using internal taxes like the Stamp Acts had been, since he thought colonists would have less of a problem with it, he tried putting import duties on glass, paint, paper, tea and other commodities. Heavily reinforced; established new vice-admiralty courts in port cities to prosecute those who violated the Acts, created the Board of Commissioners of the Customs. However, most still didn't want violent resistance. Repealed on the same day as the Boston Massacre. Where: British colonies Why: Contributed to the readoption of nonimportation by the colonies; most colonies adopted legislation banning the importation of goods enumerated by the Revenue Acts. Not a lot of violent opposition demonstrated how colonists still weren't to the point of breaking away from Britain. Helped rope rural communities into resistance vs Stamp Acts
Massachusetts Circular Letter
When: 1768 Who: written by Samuel Adams to assemblies; approved by Massachusetts House of Reps What: A letter of propaganda denouncing the Townshend Revenue Acts, opposing the plan to make royal officials independent of colonial assemblies, and encouraging cooperation among the colonies. Britain said any assemblies endorsing the letter should be dissolved, but the time that order reached the colonies, New Jersey, New Hampshire, Connecticut supported it, and Virginia issued its own circular letter. Where: Boston, circulated throughout colonies Why: Coupled with the threats of mob rule in Boston after violent unrest causing customs officials to flee the city, the British carried out the armed occupation of Boston, escalating tension. Increased British fear of rebellion, showed increasing cooperation among the colonies and collective identity.
Boston Massacre
When: 1770 What: British occupation of Boston had escalated tensions with colonists; colonists spread rumors of soldiers harassing them, and were brought into often brought into court. Troops and colonists often competed over jobs, since they could work off-duty. A riot occurred after a soldier was rejected from a ropewalk w/o being considered for a job, building up to a few days later, when a crowd taunted a guard in the Customs House. The guards were hit with stones and snowballs, and began firing. They escaped, but an angry mob formed, and British troops were withdrawn from Boston. Where: Boston Why: led to the slowing of American resistance to the British, since people were scared of how far apart they had grown from the British; led to propaganda circulating through the colonies depicting the British firing on defenseless colonists. First major bloodshed on the path to the Revolution.
Boston Tea Party
When: 1773 Who: Governor Hutchinson; colonists (farmers, merchants, artisans, professionals) What: Governor Hutchinson would not let the first tea ship that arrived to leave the harbor, but the colonists wouldn't let it be unloaded; Disguised as Native Americans, dumped the tea into the harbor. Where: Boston Why: Led to other tea parties throughout the colonies in places like New York and New Jersey. Showed how colonists resorting to outright rebellion. Led to Parliament passing the Intolerable Acts.
Tea Act
When: 1773 Who: Parliament, BEIC, British colonists What: Happened in the context of the rise of intercolonial cooperation. 1) Hutchinson (gov of Massachusetts) and royally appointed officials would be paid by the crown, making them independent of elected representatives 2) This made people publish things saying British wanted to enslave Americans, and made almost all the colonies create committees for sharing information about British actions, influencing public opinion and building intercolonial cooperation 3) Hutchinson letters calling for a restriction of colonial freedom published in the press. *The Tea Act* Passed in an effort to revive the almost bankrupt East India Company, since the tax on tea remaining from the Townshend duties resulted in the failure of the colonial tea market; Parliament couldn't let it fail, since it was their only instrument of power in India. Allowed the BEIC to sell cheap tea directly to American colonies. Radicals said it was an effort to make colonists complacent with paying taxes, tried refusing the shipments but failed. Where: British colonies Why: led to further beliefs that the British were attempting to corrupt the colonists, pushed the colonists to rebellion instead of just resistance, led to the tea parties in the colonies
Coercive / Intolerable Acts
When: 1774 Who: Parliament What: After the Boston Tea Party, wanted to punish Massachusetts / bolster British presence. 1) until Boston paid back the BEIC for the tea, ships couldn't unload / load in the harbor. 2) upper house delegates now appointed by the king, not elected by the assembly; royal governor controlled civil officers, appointed sheriffs who selected juries; also controlled town meetings, thus ending self-rule. 3) British officials couldn't be tried in colonial courts. 4) Quartering Act Where: Massachusetts Why: Led to the First Continental Congress.
First Continental Congress
When: 1774 Who: delegates who were mostly conservative, wanted to use economic coercion instead of war. What: Formed in response to the Coercive Acts. Created a Declaration and Resolves, asserting the rights of the colonists guaranteed by the constitution and charters. They said these had been violated by Parliament acts since 1763, and until those acts were repealed, there would be nonimportation / consumption of British goods and the exportation of colonial goods to Britain / other colonies. Called for democratically elected local Committees of Observation and Safety, which ran as local governments and formed conventions throughout the colony; suppressed Loyalist opinions from the press and coerced those who supported the British; helped link local communities together Where: Philadelphia Why: Helped lead to the formation of actual states due to the Committees; Created a more solid body of opposition against the British, demonstrated the ideas of rights guaranteed by the laws of nature that John Locke had proposed and would be touted in the Declaration.
Lexington and Concord
When: 1775 Who: General Gage What: After a stalemate in which General Gage tried seizing the ammunition of the Massachusetts militia but couldn't, ordered the attack of ammunition stored in Concord, but the British were stopped at Lexington by minutemen, who had been informed of their approach. They were disorganized and retreated, but didn't lay down their arms, so a few were killed. Then went on to Concord, burnt down supplies. Militia thought they were burning homes and on the Concord bridge, attacked the British, driving them back to Lexington. Reinforcements were there, but many were killed and were outnumbered by the minutemen. Where: Massachusetts Why: Demonstrated the might of the colonists in their convictions that they were defending their communities; first battles of the Revolution
Battle of Bunker Hill
When: 1775 Who: General Gage What: British soldiers outnumbered; fired from the harbor on American positions; killed many Americans and British Where: Boston Why: Enraged King George so he rejected the Olive Branch Petition, told subjects in America to bring the colonists to justice
Second Continental Congress
When: 1775 (After Lexington and Concord) Who: Most British colonies, few Loyalists What: Created the Continental Army. Many wouldn't admit that the end result would be independence; Passed the Olive Branch Petition asking King George to not invoke any more conflict so they could make up. Created a Declaration of the Causes and Necessities of Taking Up Arms saying they would rather die free than slaves. Appointed commissioners to try and keep Native Americans out of the conflict. Made Ben Franklin in charge of protecting mail. Approached Canada for help, but eventually turned on them because they didn't want the British to attack from Quebec; eventually forced out of Canada. Island colonies were aloof; Spain remained neutral, but shipped guns and ammunition using the Mississippi and ohio Rivers in exchange for the promise of the Floridas. Reconvening after the rejection of the Olive Branch Petition, took more steps toward independence and started acting like a new government - 1) organized a navy 2) contacted foreign powers 3) opened trade to everyone except Britain, since France and Spain wanted to get in on trade while also opposing the British. Why: Pushed the colonies past the point of no return in the fight for independence; helped create a more cohesive body of opposition to the British
Declaration of Independence
When: 1776 What: preluded by Congress encouraging states to adopt state constitutions. Instated rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, people have the right to make a new government. Delegates mostly wealthy men who knew they needed the support of ordinary people, so touted equality and the right to revolution. Voted for independence, and in doing so, committed treason.
Virginia Declaration of Rights
When: 1776 Who: George Mason (wealthy planter, democrat) What: Laid out inherent rights to life, liberty, property, pursuit of happiness and safety. Sovereignty in the people, government serves the people, people could reform / abolish it. Due process / trial by jury, no cruel and unusual punishment. Freedom of press and religion. Where: Virginia Why: Set a precedent for the Bill of Rights and other state constitutions
Thomas Paine, Common Sense
When: 1776 Who: radical Englishman What: Pamphlet. The values of America are different than Britain, which was founded on aristocracy and monarchy. King George is to blame for the oppression of the colonists. There is a new chance to start over / reshape society. Where: British colonies Why: Widely circulated, reshaped popular thinking / put a clear goal as independence; showed the power of literacy; allowed the easier breaking of emotional ties to Britain.
Battle of Saratoga
When: 1777 Who: General Burgoyne (Brit) What: Burg supposed to move south to meet Howe, but because of militias and a defeat, had to retreat to Saratoga. Surrounded and surrendered. Where: New York Who: Hadn't been looking good for the Patriots before this; even though their morales were high due to Princeton and Trenton, the British still winning in NY and NJ; this made it seem to the British that the colonists actually had a fighting chance. Resulted in the alliance of the French and colonists.
Valley Forge
When: 1778 Who: Continental Army, Washington What: Where the army stationed during the winter after being defeated by the British, who had taken Philadelphia. Couldn't get supplies from locals, since they overcharged, and farmers liked dealing with the British, since pounds were worth more than their currency. Many were from different backgrounds, poor + disadvantaged like indentured servants, African Americans, landless farmers. Very unsanitary, epidemic diseases. Women were nurses and buried the dead. Soldiers protested the lack of food, pay and clothing. Trained under von Steuben and learned to fight together, formed bonds Where: Pennsylvania Why: Spurred the nationalism that would bring people out of local mindsets, lay the foundation for a new country.
Alliance with France
When: 1778 Who: US and France What: At first, the French had only been loaning the Americans, since they wanted to win back territory lost during the 7 Yrs War. US win in Saratoga convinced the French foreign minister to create the Treaty of Alliance. Would take effect if Britain and France went to war. France would help US maintain independence, and neither side could make a truce with GB without mutual consent. US guaranteed northern parts of America and other things they won in the war, France got British islands in the West Indies. Why: Led to France and GB starting to fight; turning point in the war, because now Americans had a solid shot of winning. Showed how the French were still focused on American territory, just a pragmatic alliance. Led to French attempting to repeal the legislature that had started the Revolution, but nothing happened.
Economic crisis of the 1780s
When: 1780s, post Revolution What: Originated from problems with inflation during the Revolution, which was caused by the large amount of paper currency, the British blockade, and a demand for supplies. Depression hit! 1. Trade Deficit with Britain - US = raw good exporter and manufactured good importer. After the war, production of exported goods slowed down, but they were still trading with British merchants, who were flooding America with goods, creating a deficit that took hard currency away from circulation in America. Commercial banks wouldn't give new loans, wanted old ones repaid. 2. Debt - Lots of Revolution debt, and Confederation Congress couldn't raise taxes, so states imposed taxes, which people didn't like. State Solutions - 1. some creditors had to accept repayment with currency at face, not market, value. 2. Some imposed high tariff barriers to protect domestic industries from imports, but were easily avoided because goods could be imported to places without the restrictions. Where: US Why: Showed importance of national unity vs local communities, since state solutions needed to be implemented nationally in order to work. Shows how a stronger national government was needed. Resulted in Shay's Rebellion.
Articles of Confederation
When: 1781 What: First written US constitution; severely limited power of the gov't bc people were still scared of a strong nat'l gov't. Congress sole national authority, no executive branch, no national judiciary. State governments had all powers not delegated to Congress, ratification / amendment needed unanimity. Wasn't ratified for a few years because Maryland wanted states with a claim to Western land to give it up to Congress. Why: Shows how people were scared of a strong central government; resulted in heavy inflation / depreciation of Continental currency; resulted in low pay for soldiers, almost leading to a military coup with the Newburgh Conspiracy.
Articles of Confederation
When: 1781 What: First written US constitution; severely limited power of the gov't bc people were still scared of a strong nat'l gov't. Congress sole national authority, no executive branch, no national judiciary. State governments had all powers not delegated to Congress, ratification / amendment needed unanimity. Wasn't ratified for a few years because Maryland wanted states with a claim to Western land to give it up to Congress.Why: Shows how people were scared of a strong central government; resulted in heavy inflation / depreciation of Continental currency; resulted in low pay for soldiers, almost leading to a military coup with the Newburgh Conspiracy. Why: Ineffectiveness led to the Constitutional Convention
Battle of Yorktown
When: 1781 Who: General Rochambeau (Fr), Washington, Cornwallis (Br) What: Marched south to surround Cornwallis at Yorktown, forcing the British to surrender. Where: Virginia Why: One of the last events of the Revolution; further beat down Britain, which wasn't doing well in its other colonies, was losing money from the war, and was opposed by the Parliament and public for the war. Native Americans abandoned by British allies after.
Bank of North America
When: 1781 (Rev War) Who: Robert Morris (secretary of finance); Continental Congress What: Congress chartered it, first commercial private bank in the US. Deposited gold and silver coin, bills of exchange from foreign countries. Used these to back a new currency. Supplied the Continental Army with private contracts, made interest payments on debt. Where: Philadelphia Why: showed how the national government needed more power to run the country; helped bring the colonies out of the devastation caused by inflation
Demobilization Crisis / Newburgh Conspiracy
When: 1783 Who: Washington, Continental Army officers / soldiers What: part of the Continental Army was camped out in Newburgh. Soldiers discontented because they hadn't been paid, didn't think they would get the land and bounties they had been promised. Officers were worried because they had been promised life pensions for enlisting, but Congress didn't seem to have plans for this yet. Congress rejected their petition to get five years of pay in addition to the petitions. Risk of a military coup, as Continental Army officers wanted to stand up to Continental Congress, but Washington gave a speech that made the army realize how much he had sacrificed for them, and they calmed down. Congress converted pensions to bonuses, allowed people to start being discharged with bonuses. Where: Newburgh, NY Why: Demonstrated how people now knew they could stand up to the government, also showed the effects of the weakness of the Articles of Confederation.
Treaty of Paris of 1783
When: 1783 Who: US, GB, Fr, Sp What: Ended Rev War and war between GB and Sp. Britain and US negotiated separately from France, since US knew that France wanted to limit their power. Br acknowledged American independence, withdrew its troops, gave Americans fishing abilities in the North Atlantic, gave them the territory east of the Mississippi. Americans would stop taking Loyalist property, try to compensate them. They would both get to use the Mississippi. Spain got control of Florida again. Why: Showed how Britain didn't gain a lot from the Revolutionary War; destroyed the British Empire in North America; set the stage for westward expansion.
Treaties of Fort Stanwix and Fort McIntosh
When: 1784 / 1785 What: Iroquois and Ohio Indians forced to cede some of their territory in eastern Ohio by Congress, after which surveyors divided up the land. They did this by force, taking hostages. Where: Ohio Why: Set the stage for future conflicts between Native Americans and Americans in the West
Land Ordinance of 1785
When: 1785 Who: Continental Congress What: passed after Congress extended their authority west and dictated the creation of new states, since they hadn't decided how to divide up the land. Supervised the survey and sale of western lands, creating a grid system of surveys by dividing the land into townships. This land was then auctioned off for sale, in opposition to Jefferson, who wanted it to be given to settlers, because Congress needed more revenue. Surveyed land didn't go on sale until 1788, leading to the illegal settlement of land. Where: Northwest America Why: One success of Congress under the Articles of Confederation
Bill for Establishing Religious Freedom
When: 1786 Who: Thomas Jefferson What: Beginning of Revolution, established churches in most of the colonies. However, increasingly opposed during the 18th b/c of the Enlightenment, more religious diversity due to the Great Awakening. Where: Virginia Why: showed the effects of Great Awakening on tolerance; also demonstrated the spirit of reform coming after the political upheaval of the Revolution
Shay's Rebellion
When: 1786-1787 post Revolution Who: Daniel Shays = one of the leaders What: Happened in the middle of the economic crisis; farmers hit hard since agricultural commodity prices low, could only pay back debt in hard currency, so many of them had been to prison for debt. Massachussetts legislature raised the property tax to pay off war debt, revenue went to a small group of wealthy men. Farmers marched to the court house in Northampton armed, which forced them to close it, which then led to the same thing in other counties. Many were veterans. Essentially an urban vs rural conflict. Ended when merchants funded a militia to crush the rebellion. Massachusetts cut taxes, elected new legislature. Where: Massachussetts Why: Showed how much the Revolution / ideas of democracy had affected people - knew they could change their government. Caused similar rebellions in other colonies, making conservatives scared. Led to the Annapolis Convention / Constitutional Convention. Convinced conservative nationalists that they needed a new structure of government. Showed the weakness of the Articles.
Three-Fifths Compromise
When: 1787 What: Compromise between northern and southern states. South wanted slavery protected by the government, wanted slaves included in the population count for representation but not for taxes. North wanted the government to regulate commerce. Compromised - South supported the commerce clause, north agreed to count five slaves as 3 freemen. Prevented federal restriction on slave importation for 20 years. Could get back runaway slaves from free states. Where: Philadelphia Why: Showed how unity was very important, even though some disagreed with slavery - couldn't have the nation fall apart. Also protected slavery.
The Great Compromise
When: 1787 What: Compromise between the Virginia and New Jersey plans; representation by population in the House, equal representation in the Senate, in order to strengthen the national government while still giving states a role. Created national bicameral legislature. Included the Three-Fifths Compromise Where: Philadelphia Why: Showed how unity was key in creating a new government, both between different states and between states and the nation.
Northwest Ordinance of 1787
When: 1787 Who: Continental Congress What: Established government system for land north of the Ohio, said that the states created out of that land would have equal rights to the original states. Outlawed slavery in these states, power was placed in a congressionally appointed court of judges and governor. Where: Northwest America Why: Precursor to the division between the north and south over slavery later; One success of Congress under the Articles of Confederation
Virginia Plan vs New Jersey Plan
When: 1787 Who: Large states (VP) vs small states (NJ) What: VP- Reduced state governments to administrative bodies, national government directly taxes and enforces laws. Representation in legislative = population based. HR = popular vote, Sen = state legislators, would lead by controlling foreign affairs / official appointment. Council of Revision could veto stuff. NJ - single house, equal representation Where: Philadelphia Why: Led to the Great Compromise; showed how Shay's Rebellion had convinced delegates that more national power was necessary, but still divisions between states
Constitutional Convention, 1787
When: 1787 Who: Men from all states except Rhode Island. Many highly educated or lawyers, veterans, served in Congress, property owners, merchants. No women, farmers, artisans, etc. Economic and social elite. What: Approved by Congress; originally meant to revise the Articles, conservatives hoped it would strengthen the national gov't since they were bankers, merchants and planters. Most thought the government should rest on the consent of the governed, but didn't want a full democracy because ordinary people would act vs the interests of the privileged and the nation. Voted by states. 1. Great Compromise and Three-Fifths Compromise 2. created three branches of government / Constitution. Got the Constitution revised, then gave it to Congress so it could be ratified by nine states. Where: Philadelphia Why: Created a stronger form of national government; showed how the government still reflected the interests of the elite; showed how unity was prioritized.
Electoral College
When: 1787 Who: delegates in the Constitutional Convention What: Delegates wanted the president to be elected so they would be separate from Congress, but also didn't want it to be a direct election because they didn't think the public would be informed enough to choose a good leader. They made the Electoral College where each state chose electors equal to the state's representation in Congress. After the general election, electors met to elect the president. Where: Philadelphia (decision) Why: showed how many of the elite still didn't support democracy, even though they did support republicanism. Didn't trust the public. Reflected elite interests in the Convention.
The Federalist Papers
When: 1787-1788 Who: James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, John Jay What: Essays defending the Constitution. One argument was against people like Montesquieu who thought that a republican government could only work for small countries, since otherwise the people wouldn't really be represented. Madison refuted this by saying factions led to unequal distributions of property, but enlarging the government would control them and make sure no one is dominated by one faction. Where: US Why: Showed the power of the press, helps us understand the original intent of the Constitution.
Adams presidency
When: 1797-1801 Who: 2nd President What: Found it hard to assert his authority because 1) His vice pres Jefferson was a Republican and 2) kept most of Washington's cabinet, so they followed Hamilton's advice. Tensions with France: After Jay's Treaty, Fr suspended diplomatic relations w US, implemented shipping policy resulting in the confiscation of US cargoes / vessels -> Quasi-War. Sent delegation to negotiate, but the French requested a bribe in order to negotiate. Republicans were like that can't be true, but the XYZ affair happened and boosted anti-France sentiment, Adams's popularity. Supported the Alien and Sedition Acts. Making peace with France garnered anger of conservative Federalists like Hamilton. Lost the next election. Why: Led to further divisions between the two parties, allowing for true partisan politics to emerge as Jeffersonian Republicans became a true opposition party in Congress.
French Revolution, Citizen Genêt
When: 1789 What: At first, Americans celebrated the downfall of the French monarchy, but after the execution of Louis XVI and the start of war between Fr and Br, became divided. Washington's cabinet agreed on remaining neutral, meant that the US would get a lot of trade. Jefferson thought that France wouldn't ask the US to honor the 1778 treaty, but Hamilton thought that Washington should suspend the treaty immediately so they wouldn't get involved. Exemplified the division between nationalists (knew GB = trading and naval power) vs democrats (more international independence, distance from GB and closer to France, focus on expansion west). French ambassador Genêt came in 1793, garnered support from many Americans who hated Britain and supported republican ideals. Opposed by conservatives like Hamilton, who wanted to keep trade with Britain. Before Genet could get the US involved in the War, Washington issued a policy of neutrality, which made people mad, and some made Democratic Societies supporting France. Genet eventually lost power after telling Washington to call Congress to decide on neutrality. Why: Furthered division of Federalists into conservatives (Washington, Hamilton) and democrats (Jefferson, Madison, French Rev) and provided the start of foreign policy
Judiciary Act of 1789
When: 1789 Who: Congress, Washington What: implemented the judiciary clause of the Constitution by establishing a Supreme Court with six justices, three circuit and thirteen district courts. Against the wishes of nationalists who wanted a uniform justice code throughout the states, and conforming to the desires of localists who wanted to preserve the autonomy of communities and their laws, limited the original jurisdiction of federal courts to state court appeals. Why: Generated debate over how much power the federal court should have, and established the principle of judicial review of state legislation, demonstrating implied powers
Tariff of 1789
When: 1789 Who: Washington presidency What: First tariff passed by Congress. Established duties on imported goods as a source of revenue for the pretty broke government when it started out, rather than direct taxes. Served as a compromise between people who wanted protective tariffs to protect domestic industry and people who wanted moderate tariffs that would be a source of revenue. Why: Helped Hamilton's fiscal plan bring the US back out of high national debt / a lack of revenue.
Washington Presidency
When: 1789-1797 Who: What: Set many precedents for future presidents. Cabinet was established from secretaries of departments. Tried to adhere to the Constitution, didn't veto things except when they were unconstitutional. Farewell address. Executive privilege - refused to let protestors of the Jay Treaty see the diplomatic correspondence applying to it.
The Bill of Rights
When: 1791 Who: James Madison What: First 8 amendments = individual rights; guaranteed certain freedoms; prevented arbitrary legal proceedings; protected the unenumerated rights of the people and gave powers not held by the federal government to the people. Why: The promise of this encouraged states to ratify the Constitution; lasting impact of the Anti-Federalists. Help restrain the influence of the government over the people, something other countries aspire to.
Eli Whitney, Cotton gin
When: 1793 Who: Northerner hired by a plantation owner What: Formerly, cotton growth was slow because seeds had to be hand-cleaned; the gin used a hand-cranked cylinder with teeth that tore away the lint, speeding up + increasing cotton production. Where: South, Old Southwest Why: Led to the establishment of "king cotton". Rush of southern farmers into the black belt (Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi w fertile soil). Increasing importance of slavery.
Whiskey Rebellion
When: 1794 Who: Under Hamilton's fiscal plan, Washington's presidency, farmers What: Lots of farmers used corn surpluses to make whiskey. However, the government taxed whiskey because under Hamilton's plan, they needed more revenue in order to pay back their debt. Rural America protested, said internal taxes on consumption were against the principles of the Revolution, and that taxes on land speculators would be more acceptable. Escalated after a militia tried taking a tax collector. Came at a time during conflict with Native Americans, struggle with foreign policy, and Washington knew he had to end the unrest, so he sent an army, which was an overreaction considering the insurrection wasn't organized. Still ended the protests, he pardoned people who had been part of it. Where: Pennsylvania Why: Reinforced the idea of national supremacy to local communities, showed the dedication it took to keep the Union together, showed the struggles Hamilton's fiscal plan faced.
Jay Treaty
When: 1795 Who: Washington, Chief Justice John Jay What: Agreement between the US and GB. GB would pull its troops out of America, where they had been stationed in order to buffer Upper Canada from US expansion. Gave limited trade with British East and West Indies. Gave each other the same trade benefits they gave to other nations. Win for Hamilton, who wanted neutrality. Jeffersonians were mad because the US just ignored France. South was mad they didn't get any compensation for their slaves that had escaped to Britain. Democratic Societies and Jeffersonians protested. Southerners, westerners and supporters of France tried to stall the treaty, but it didn't work. Deadlock remained until the Pinckney Treaty - Spain was beaten by France, decided to move out of the territory south of the Ohio, set new boundaries with the US and open the Mississippi to US shipping since Spain was weak. Jeffersonians, West and South were happy, but had to approve the Jay Treaty before the Pinckney was approved Where: London Why: further created divisions between the emerging, conflicting parties; polarized different coalitions into political factions. Demonstrated Washington's policy of neutrality and showed the conflicting interests of people within the US. Angered France, making them create a harsh policy toward US shipping.
Washington's Farewell Address
When: 1797 What: Argued for neutrality rather than isolation; extend commercial relations with Britain, but don't get involved in the politics of Europe. Also detailed the dangers of factions and political parties, as well as the influence from foreign powers like France, saying that national unity should be prioritized. Finally, said morality and religion go hand and hand, but to be careful of religion's influence on politics. Why: Set a precedent for farewell addresses; served as an outline for some of his successors
Eleventh Amendment
When: 1798 What: After Chisholm v Georgia (1793), when Congress ruled in favor of South Carolinans suing Georgia, thus establishing federal dominance over disputes / toppling the notion that sovereigns couldn't be sued without their consent, localists didn't like how much power the Supreme Court held over states and proposed the 11th Amendment. No state can be sued by citizens from another state. Why: Demonstrated a continued struggle between nationalists and localists.
Alien and Sedition Acts
When: 1798 Who: Adams presidency, Federalists (majority in Congress) What: Four acts limiting freedom of speech + press, liberty of foreigners. Didn't want immigrants to introduce "dangerous" democratic / republican ideals. 1) extended period of residence needed for citizenship. 2) president could imprison / deport suspected aliens during wartime. 3) anyone saying things that were false / malicious against the government / its officers could be fined and imprisoned. The Jeffersonian Democrats were becoming a strong opposition party, with caucuses and floor leaders, and the House of Representatives became increasingly partisan. In an effort to stop them, the Federalists fined / imprisoned many Jeffersonian Democrat writers. Terminated with the win of the Jeffersonian Democrats in 1800. Why: Showed the dangers of rising partisan politics. Led to The Virginia and Kentucky Resolves / controversy.
Napoleonic Wars
When: 1799-1815 Who: What: Wars between Napoleon's France and other European powers, especially Britain, which controlled the seas. the US claimed neutrality in order to profit from trade with both countries, but their ships were targeted in order to stop trade w the enemy. Lots of Brit sailors deserted for American ships, but the Brits impressed Americans into the British navy. Where: Europe, on the seas Why: Resulted in the Embargo Act; demonstrated Jefferson's commitment to neutrality.
"Society with slaves" vs "slave society"
When: 17th What: A society with slaves was where slaves were one out of various forms of labor, while a slave society was one where slavery was the most common form of labor. When slavery first expanded to North America in the early 17th, the Chesapeake was a society w slaves - race wasn't seen as a definite factor of slavery, servants and slaves coexisted, Africans could own property, Africans and Europeans intermingled, and it was questioned if African Christians could be slaves. However, in the late 17th, there was a shortage of labor since planter elite took most of the arable land and English immigrants didn't want to come anymore, so the English Royal Africa Company imported slaves to fill the labor shortage, causing slavery to become the most prominent labor form in the Chesapeake. SC was always a slave society - huge slave population because of large rice and indigo plantations. The north didn't have slave societies. Where: North America Why: With the development of slave societies came the association of slavery with race; demonstrated how some colonies with large plantations required huge amounts of slaves
Planter elite
When: 17th / 18th What: Plantation owners owning many slaves; held most of the wealth and land in a stratified social structure. Had lots of power in colonial governments, as they grew in wealth, grew more distanced from the land-owning southerners. Where: South + the Chesapeake Why: Demonstrates how increasing prosperity of the English colonies was based off of the exploitation of slaves; showed how plantation economies increased wealth gaps / created a hierarchical society.
Mulatto
When: 17th century Who: Children of free whites and enslaved blacks What: Mostly slaves, unless children to a white woman. Those who were free couldn't hold office, vote, or testify in court. Where: colonies Why: The restrictions to free mulattoes showed how colonies attempted to create a distinction between whites and blacks. Demonstrated how whites and blacks influenced each other.
Salutary neglect
When: 17th, 18th What: an English policy of relaxing the enforcement of mercantilist regulations in its colonies in return for the colonies' continued economic loyalty. Didn't really care about enforcement, because the quantity of goods going from the English colonies to Britain was increasing, as well as imports to NA. Ignored colonial rules harmful to business. Traded food for sugar in foreign colonies, many used the sugar to produce rum. Where: English colonies Why: Demonstrated how British were ultimately focused on profiting from their colonies; Allowed lots of economic growth, because the colonies had protected economies due to tariffs on foreign goods.
The "Revolution of 1800"
When: 1800 Who: Jefferson, Democratic Republicans What: The first presidential campaign with Jeffersonian Democrats and Federalists making two distinct parties. Adams making peace with France had divided the Federalists, which weakened their cause. Tried to have sectional balance - Federalists had candidates from South Carolina, Jeffersonian Democrats from New York. JDs advocated for state rights, liberty, traditional agrarian purity, optimists. Federalists were more negative; dissed Jefferson and called him an atheist, struggled due to their divisions and advocated for public order, strong central gov't. Jefferson got the South and West, Republicans won. Burr and Jefferson got the same amount of votes bc Republicans all cast their votes for both of them. House of Reps chose Jefferson. Why: Led to the 12th Amendment; demonstrated the rise of partisan politics; showed strength of state interests and divisions of the US. Demonstrated a peaceful transition of power
Transportation Revolution
When: 1800-1840 What: Roads: At first, slow horse / carriage travel; local roads were poor even though states tried improving them. The National Road (1808) was funded by the federal government to improve interregional transportation. Tied the E + W together / opened up the W, but didn't improve efficiency shipping bulky goods. Canals and Steamboats: Before, water transportation of goods = best, cheapest commercial link north-south or coastal. The Erie Canal (Albany -> Buffalo) helped link the east-west using Irish contract laborers. Allowed easy passage to the interior for people + goods, drew settlers from the East / overseas, gave settlers a wider market for produce. Built interstate commerce / national community, led to more canal building. Steamboats stimulated interior river system trade, allowed boatmen to make faster roundtrips. Stimulated urban growth as well. Railroads: Need for iron led to iron industry modernizing. Railroads more common in New England, Old Northwest than South. lots of investors. Why: Led to lots of capital investment that created further developments, risk-taking mentality contributing to innovation. Easier for farmers to get produce to markets. Allowed people to spread, as well as epidemics. Connected distant markets and bolstered interstate commerce. Created a national pride and identity by connecting everything. Allowed for larger markets commercialization and industrialization needed
Era of Good Feelings
When: 1817-1823 Who: James Monroe, John Quincy Adams What: Monroe was easily elected over a Federalist; In the aftermath of the War of 1812, needed to focus on national development and expansion. Politicians agreed on a national agenda, because Monroe tried to balance the cabinet with people from the N and S, Republican and Federalist. JQA (Monroe's SoS) accomplished a lot diplomatically: 1: Rush-Bagot Treaty of 1817 and Convention of 1818 defined border between the US and Canada, resolved claim issues over Oregon with Britain 2: Transcontinental Treaty of 1819 3. Monroe Doctrine Where: Why:
Thomas Jefferson Presidency
When: 1801-1809 Who: 3rd President What: Pursued a policy of republican agrarianism / an agrarian republic of virtue and wanted expansion. Wanted to cut internal taxes, reduce the size of the army, navy and government staff, eliminate the national debt. Wanted the federal government to be smaller and weaker. He was successful because the federal government was only truly powerful in matters of post; otherwise, power and political loyalty was still local. Allowed Federalist officeholders, but during his presidency, the midnight judges were in power, SC became powerful nationalizing force. Louisiana Purchase. Napoleonic Wars, wanted neutrality, Embargo Act / peaceble coercion but it failed. Pan-Indian resistance. Lewis and Clark Where: US
John Marshall, Marshall Court
When: 1801-1835 Who: Chief Justice What: Decisions favored the power of fed gov't over state gov'ts, strong nationalizing force, which Republicans didn't like. Marbury v. Madison. In Fletcher v. Peck reinforced the inviolability of contracts. Dartmouth College v. Woodward, restricted the ability of the state gov'ts to control corporations, showed the implicit power to override state court decisions. Cohens v. Virginia, explicit constitutionality federal review of state court decisions + est power of fed over state gov't. McCulloch v. Maryland, upheld bank constitutionality under necessary and proper clause, confirmed implied powers. Gibbons v. Ogden - Congress can regulate interstate commerce. Why: Bolstered the legal authority of the Constitution and established the SC as its final interpreter; stretched its meaning to include implied powers. Gave the federal government more power.
Louisiana Purchase
When: 1803 Who: Jefferson, Napoleon What: France hadn't formally taken control of Louisiana in its deal with Spain, so Spain closed the port of New Orleans to American shippers and disrupted commerce. Jefferson wanted to buy Louisiana in order to regain New Orleans. After Napoleon lost in Haiti, in order to have enough money to fight his wars and in anticipation of another war with Britain, he sold all of Louisiana, resulting in the size of the US doubling. Why: Showed how Jefferson had to sacrifice his strict constructionist interpretation in order to fulfill his dream of expansion. Led to the mixing of American, French, Spanish.
Marbury v. Madison
When: 1803 (Jefferson Pres) Who: John Marshall, Jefferson What: Marbury was appointed as one of the midnight judges, sued Madison as he hadn't received his commission to take office. Marshall eventually compromised - said the Supreme Court wasn't given power by the Constitution to force the executive branch to give Marbury his commission. Why: 1: established the equality in power of the gov't branches 2: established the SC as the final authority for interpreting the Constitution 3: Constitution is the supreme law of the land 4: judicial review - can strike down laws passed by Congress
Embargo Act
When: 1807-1809 Who: Jefferson What: Napoleonic Wars and impressment making it harder for the US to stay neutral and keep on shipping goods to Europe. Stopped US ships from exporting and importing, sailing to foreign ports in order to cut off Britain and France from raw materials and make them acknowledge US neutrality. Widespread evasion. Why: Resulted in the standstill of commerce and a depression, as well as the growth of smuggling. Gave Federalists material. Demonstrated the failure of peaceable coercion. French used it as an excuse to seize American ships, British didn't have any American competition in Latin American markets.
End of international slave trade
When: 1808 Who: What: At the earliest date allowed by the Constitution, bill to abolish importation of slaves became law, and the participation of the US in the international slave trade was banned. Came at a time when all the northern states and some of the Upper South abolished slavery / gradual emancipation / freed slaves. Where: US Why: The unwillingness of the South to emancipate slaves showed how slavery was distinctively Southern. Made slave labor depend on natural increase
War of 1812
When: 1812-1814 Who: President Madison What: Caused by War Hawks - didn't like the continued influence of Britain on America with impressment, support for Indians. Young men continuing the work of the revolutionary generation. Westerners wanted to invade Canada to weaken British-backed indians in the Northwest. Pro = W, S; Opp = NE, Middle states, Feds. Brit navy made a strong blockade on coastal shipping along the Atlantic, attacked coastal settlements. The American navy = small, weak. American failed at invading Canada, attacking British forts in the Great Lakes area. Battle of New Orleans was one of the only major US victories. Hartford Convention. Treaty of Ghent. Where: US Why: 1. boosted national morale, made the British stop thinking of the US as a colony. 2. ended the hope of united Indian resistance to white expansion with the defeat of the southern Creeks and the death of Tecumseh 3. Led to the Panic of 1819
Treaty of Ghent
When: 1814 What: Didn't really make any major changes; British agreed to leave western posts. At first, British were trying to get neutral Indian people to occupy a buffer state in the Northwest, but failed. Where: Belgium Why: ended the war of 1812
Hartford Convention
When: 1814 Who: New England Federalists What: Met to discuss their issues with the War of 1812; Nullification doctrine - state could declare a national law void within its borders. Grievances ignored, since they were going to deliver them to Congress when peace was announced. Why: Resulted in the collapse of the "traitorous Federalist party"; importance of local interests persisted
Second Bank of the United States
When: 1816 (Era of Good Feelings) Who: Monroe What: Part of the American System. Chartered by Congress for 20 years. Intended to finance large-scale things that state banks couldn't handle, create a strong national currency. Where: Philadelphia Why: Jeffersonian Republicans changing their minds about banks showed how commercial interests had grown as strong as farmers. Showed the middle ground represented in the Era of Good Feelings.
American Colonization Society
When: 1817 Who: Northern religious reformers like Quakers, southern slave owners from Upper South and border states What: Planned for gradual emancipation of slaves, compensation to their owners, their resettlement in Africa. Northerners especially wanted them to be sent to Africa, thought they were useless. Only managed to send a few back. Why: Showed the different views of people on abolition - differed from free African Americans, who wanted an immediate end to slavery and the equal treatment of black people.
Frederick Douglass
When: 1817-1895, prominent in mid 19th (American Renaissance) Who: Former slave, writer What: Wrote Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, which detailed his brutal life as a slave and acted as a social critique of slavery. Why: Demonstrated the social criticism prominent during the American Renaissance that contributed to the building of distinct American identity / themes in art. Revealed the horrors of slavery, helping to gain support for the anti-slavery movement growing as a precursor to the Civil War
Panic of 1819
When: 1819 Who: What: 1. shipping boom decline, European merchants resume trade; European farm production recovers, no farmers needed. 2: Settlers bought western land on credit but state banks couldn't foreclose on loans, which affeted small farmers. 3: Urban workers disadvantaged from decline in international trade + manufacturing failures due to British trade competition. 4: Southern planters hurt by a decline of price of cotton, started to not like the 1816 protective tariff. Why: Showed how the US was becoming increasingly dependent on commerce, and showed how workers felt the effects of the choices the most
Monroe Doctrine
When: 1823 Who: John Quincy Adams, Monroe What: European powers wanted to help Spain recover the colonies they had lost in Latin America, so in response, the Doctrine called for the end of colonization of the Western Hemisphere by Europe; US would get involved with Europe intervened in the New World; US wouldn't interfere in Europe or their New World colonies. Why: Contained the threat of Russian expansion
Corrupt bargain
When: 1824 Who: Henry Clay, John Quincy Adams, Andrew Jackson What: In the election of 1824, Andrew Jackson got more votes than JQA but didn't have a majority, so the decision had to go to the House of Reps. Henry Clay was the Speaker, so decided the president would be JQA. JQA made Henry Clay the Secretary of State, which was a stepping stone to the presidency, leading to supporters of Jackson accusing JQA and Henry Clay of making a corrupt bargain. Where: Why: Showed how popular opinion was becoming more of a force in the government and set up Jackson's later victory, portraying him as a champion of the people vs aristocracy
Peggy Eaton Affair
When: 1829 Who: Andrew Jackson What: John Eaton, AJ's Sec of War, married Peggy Eaton, who had been w/ other men before and so wasn't a part of what was considered polite society. Therefore, she was shunned by the wives of Jackson's cabinet members. Jackson forced them to acknowledge Peggy, berating cabinet members when they didn't make their wives do this. Why: Reduced the power of Jackson's cabinet members when they sided with their wives, showing how he veiled his moves for power w/ advocating for the common people.
Indian Removal Act
When: 1830 Who: Jackson What: The five Civilized Tribes were still in the Southwest and trying to assimilate with the whites. However, white settlers kept pushing for land, some Southern governments were giving in and starting to invalidate treaties giving Indians self-government in certain lands. Jackson backed this up w the Indian Removal Act, authorizing the relocation of Native Americans who lived east of the Mississippi. : Why: Demonstrated how Jackson tried to appeal to the common man - many people wanted Western lands. Therefore, showed the rising influence of popular opinion in politics. Led to Marshall ruling that the Cherokees couldn't be forced to give up their land. Led to some resistance, but the Trail of Tears.
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day
When: 1830 Who: Joseph Smith what: based on the teachings of the Book of Mormon. Common in the Burned-Over district, where there were many reform movements and changed by the Erie Canal. Close cooperation and hard work, exclusive. Polygamy, achieved almost complete self-government and isolation in Illinois from discrimination. Communal settlement. Where: Burned-Over District (NY)
Anti-prostitution movement
When: 1830s Who: evangelical women, Female Moral Reform Society What: Wanted to give prostitutes the salvation of religion, prayer and shelter. Common in port cities. Offered domestic work, which many women scorned. Wasn't super successful. Organized charity and work for poor women and orphans once they realized it was more of an economic issue. Organized punishments for male clients. Where: Demonstrated how the morals after the Market Revolution and Second Great Awakening drove reform movements.
Asylum and Prison Reform, Dorothea Dix
When: 1830s and 40s Who: Dorothea Dix, female evangelists What: Insane women used to be locked up with ordinary criminals and endured violence - efforts led to the establishment of state asylums, and more humane treatment of the insane. Also protested penitentiaries that didn't emphasize rehabilitation enough Why: Demonstrated how new morality after the Second Great Awakening and Market Revolution influenced reform movements.
Black Codes
When: 1830s, were tightened Who: state legislatures What: Laws concerning free black people. Couldn't carry firearms, purchase slaves, liable to whippings and judgements without a jury trial. Couldn't testify against whites, vote, hold office, serve in the militia. Essentially no civil rights except for property. Why: Demonstrated how whites still feared free African Americans, didn't want them to be examples of freedom to current slaves.
Gag rule
When: 1836 Who: Andrew Jackson, Congress What: Lots of abolitionist petitions requesting the abolition of slavery and the slave trade in the District of Columbia, but rejected by Congress, which then prohibited discussion of antislavery petitions Why: Northerners saw this as a threat to free speech, JQA protested so much it was repealed in 1844
The Alamo
When: 1836 Who: Texans, Tejanos, Mexico What: A mission fortress. Defended by texans against Mexican troops who wanted to reassert Mexico's authority over Texas / bring it under central authority (restricted American immigration, outlawed slavery, levied customs duties) All of the defenders were killed, but rallied Texans to force Mexico to give them independence. Where: Texas Why: resulted in the Republic of Texas
The Amistad
When: 1839 Who: JQA (abolitionist) What: slaves from Africa on the Spanish Amistad mutinied successfully, but were in American waters, and the US government supported the Spanish Claim. However, Adams won their case and they were freed to Africa. Why: Abolitionist's one solid victory in the early 1800s
The Liberty Party
When: 1840 Who: Antislavery politicians What: The first antislavery political party. Why: Split the abolitionists between people who wanted to take direct political action and people supporting Garrison who wanted to spur morality
John O'Sullivan, Manifest Destiny
When: 1845 Who: newspaperman What: How people justified pushing US boundaries, which risked war with GB and Mexico. Meant Americans had the God-given right to expand over the continent / bring benefits of American democracy to more "uncivilized" people (Mexicans, Native Americans). Fueled by pride in current infrastructure, missionary zeal, racism. Supported by politicians who wanted Western harbors to increase trade w Asian; Democrats wanted it to establish more agricultural territories that would counteract the industrialization they thought caused the Panic of 1937, uncontrolled urbanization, social unrest; Southerners wanted expansion of cotton; farmers wanted expansion. Whigs wanted stronger gov't policies to guide growth in current US land, didn't want to battle the issue of extending slavery to new territory. Why: Fueled expansion West, leading to further oppression of Native Americans and others already West. Demonstrated a divide between those who supported industrialization, others who supported agriculture / slavery. Expansionism increased sectional divides.
James K Polk
When: 1845-1849 What: Democratic president who wanted all of Oregon, to settle boundary dispute w GB; settled for all the land south of 49 parallel. Won his election on the re-occupation of Oregon, annexation of Texas. After the Mexican-American war, acquired California and New Mexico. Expanded commander-in-chief role by planning war strategy. Why: Election demonstrated the growing anti-slavery movement since the opposing Liberty party got lots of votes. Showed the effects of the manifest destiny mindset in the early-mid 19th. War decision fueled more sectional division.
Wilmot Proviso
When: 1846 Who: David Wilmot, northern Democratic congressman What: proposed that slavery be banned in all territories acquired in the Mexican-American war. Supported by northern Whigs and Democrats, opposed by southern Whigs and Democrats. Why: Showed how sectional interests began to trump party loyalty, signaled imminent breakdown of national party system, reopened a debate on slavery in the government. Affected voters in the 1848 election (Lewis Cass, Van Buren, Taylor)
Mexican-American War
When: 1846-1848 Who: James Polk What: Origins: Tensions w Mexico since annexed Texas, supported claim to land N of Rio Grande. Stationed troops in Texas, Polk sent an envoy to Mexico to offer money for the Rio Grande border, New Mexico, California. Invaded the Rio Grande territory, but lied and said Mexico invaded, declaring war War: Opposed by northern antislavery Whigs - thought it was a plot to expand slavery, huge northern protests. Dubbed Mr Polk's war by Whigs - planned war strategy. captured New Mexico and California after hard fights, bitter troops abused Mexican citizens. Ended by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. First war where journalists could shape attitudes toward war - telegraph helped quickly relay news to newspapers -> "Penny press", further uniting Americans Why: further sectional divides. Expanded US borders (product of Manifest Destiny)
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
When: 1848 Who: Nicholas Trist (Polk's envoy) What: Mexico ceded California, New Mexico, accepted Rio Grande as the boundary of Texas. US agreed to pay Mexico 15 mil, assume 2 mil of claims against Mexico. Polk wanted more expansion from the treaty - opposed by northern Whigs and Southerners (who knew they couldn't conquer Mexicans). Why: Sealed the expansion of the US that was opposed by northern Whigs, further increasing sectional divides.
Seneca Falls Convention
When: 1848 Who: organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton What: First woman's rights convention in American history, fighting for gender equality in legal rights, first proposed universal woman suffrage Where: upstate New York Why: Resulted in annual women's rights conventions to work for equality, persistent lobbying that forced states to pass new laws in areas such as property, divorce that were more fair
Popular sovereignty
When: 1848 election who: Lewis Cass, Democratic nominee for president What: Solution to the slavery crisis - citizens of each territory would decide the fate of slavery, not Congress. Ambiguous to win votes. Why: Showed how the US was unable to resolve sectional differences.
Chinese immigration
When: 1849 What: immigrated to California in search of gold, intending to return home as soon as they made money. Mostly men, Chinatowns started to form. Garnered hostility from Americans due to economic competition and their Chinatowns, imposed special tax on them and curtailed Chinese immigration in the 1870s. Faced lots of violence Where: California
California Gold Rush, '49ers
When: 1849 Who: Mostly Americans, then Mexicans / Latinos, Europe + Asoa What: Began after gold was found at Sutter's Mill. Thousands headed west and from all over the world in search of gold. Provided money for those who supplied the miners. Mining camps were dirty and dreary, most miners were young, unmarried and unsuccessful. Gold deposits quickly exhausted, started becoming workers for large mining companies. Wives did domestic work. Lots of racial violence, since didn't put effort into building communities vs Chinese, Mexicans, African Americans. Mining communities later became ghost towns. Where: California Why: Transformed California from a remote, sparsely populated frontier -> population booms, large cities, thriving agriculture, corporate mining industry, affluence, culturally sophisticated, multicultural. Bred racism. Led to the extermination of the California Indians + dispossession of Californios. Increased national pride.
Compromise of 1850
When: 1850 Who: Calhoun, Webster, Clay, Douglas What: 1. From the territories acquired during the Mexican-American war, California became a free state, others decided using popular sovereignty. 2. Texas (slave state) ceded land to New Mexico Territory, the gov't assumed some of Texas's debt 3. slave trade ended in the District of Columbia, in return for stronger national fugitive slave law. However, votes still sectional - northern antislavery Whigs + proslavery southern democrats less likely to compromise Why: Gave people hope that sectional differences could be resolved, but in reality, only put off the issue of slavery. Ensured that US would expand from coast to coast (Cali made a state). Precursor to Dred Scott v Sanford, Civil War. Didn't resolve the question of slavery - senate seats still up for contest / imbalance with popular sovereignty.
Panic of 1857
When: 1857 Who: What: Telegraphs spread news of the failure of an Ohio investment house quickly, leading to panic selling, business failures, unemployment. Major cause = downturn in agricultural exports to Britain. Affected the N more than the S's cotton exports. Why: Added fuel to the sectional dispute - S saw it as proof the system of slavery was superior to the N's free-labor system
Compromise of 1850 Debate
When: 1850 Who: Henry Clay (Westerner), Calhoun (S), Webster (N) What: Senate debate on slavery Calhoun: State rights / minority rights are protected vs majority rule, Congress doesn't have a constitutional right to prohibit slavery in the territories (Wilmot Proviso), since they were the common property of the North and South, slave owners can protect property wherever. Showed how the right to own slaves was fundamental to Southerners. Said the S had the right to secede. Webster Rejected S claims that peaceable secession was possible, wanted abolitionists to compromise to keep S in union, but opposed by N who thought secession threats proved danger of a slave power. Said north would always be a majority, couldn't keep evening out the slave and free states - democracy = majority vote. Clay Argued for compromise, set up the Compromise of 1850. Where: Washington DC Why: Demonstrated the sectional divisions building to the Civil War
Fugitive Slave Act
When: 1850 (part of Compromise of 1850) What: Northern abolitionists supported slaves running away, slaves found help in northern free black communities / were helped by people, the Underground Railroad. Northern laws passed personal liberty laws, saying they wouldn't help federal recapture efforts. Enraged Southerners who wanted to protect their property. This act, a concession to the South in exchange for the abolition of the slave trade, increased the power of slave owners to capture escaped slaves. Fugitives weren't able to testify on their own behalf, federal penalties imposed on people who helped slaves escape / didn't report. Required northerners to help recapture slaves. Why: Resulted in the escape of slaves to Canada. Led to more radical attempts to free slaves, such as the storming of a courthouse to free Anthony Burns, went against northern popular opinion further dividing N and S. Forced northerners to confront the issue, turned popular opinion against slavery. Encouraged secessionist opinion in S after N reaction. Contributed to the national party divisions in the election of 1852
Election of 1852, Franklin Pierce
When: 1852 Who: Franklin Pierce What: Defined by new tension among national parties following the Compromise of 1850 / the Fugitive Slave Act. Among the Whigs, a lot of southerners were mad because a military hero was nominated rather than a pro-southerner. Democrats had more candidates such as Lewis Cass, Stephen Douglas; eventually nominated Franklin Pierce, who polled well N and S after promising to stick to the Compromise of 1850, and attracted Free-Soil Party voters as well immigrant Irish and German voters (a result of Democratic machines; vote buying by urban bosses, corruption). Franklin Pierce won. Franklin Pierce started optimistic bc of N and S support. Supported the Young America expansionist mov't; Democrats who believed in manifest destiny, wanted to conquer Central America + Cuba. Private filibusters invaded these territories to extend slavery territory. Pierce tried buying Cuba from Spain, Ostend Manifesto. Made commercial treaty opening Japan to US trade. Supported Kansas-Nebraska Act. Where: Showed how unity in national parties was growing weaker and more sectional; contributed to the end of the participation of the Whigs in future elections because the election had divided them so much. Resulted in reformers complaining about corruption in election. Administration failed to resolve sectional differences.
Gadsden Purchase
When: 1853 Who: President Pierce What: Acquired parts of present-day New Mexico and Arizona; Made to facilitate a southern transcontinental railroad Why: Demonstrated manifest destiny mindset of Polk's presidency and of mid 19th; further sectional divides
Ostend Manifesto
When: 1854 Who: Franklin Pierce What: In response to Cuban slave revolts, Cuban slave owners wanted annexation to US so they could continue slavery; Pierce supported expansion. Manifesto tried convincing Spain to sell Cuba to US; said Cubans and Americans had one destiny, threatened to take Cuba by force if necessary. Backtrack after it was leaked to the press. Where: Belgium Why: Pierce administration lost its northern support w/ support of pro-slavery expansion, bolstering more sectional divisions as precursors to the Civil War. Demonstrated the impact of manifest destiny.
Republican Party
When: 1854 Who: N antislavery Whigs, Free-Soil Party supporters vs expansion of slavery but fine w it in S, northern reformers worried about temperance + Catholicism, merchants + industrialists who wanted strong nat gov supporting protective tariff, transportation improvements, cheap land for W farmers. What: Mostly northerners, evolved from the Free-Soil Party. Formed as the party opposing slavery / the slave power. Refused to accept the Dred Scott decision, said the decision was partisan, sectional, morally wrong, would lead to slavery in free states. Why: Quick rise apparent in the election of 1856 despite being a sectional party threatened national unity.
Kansas-Nebraska Act, "Bleeding Kansas"
When: 1854 Who: Stephen Douglas What: Wanted to further construction of transcontinental railroad to California from Illinois, so land west of Iowa and Missouri needed to be organized into territories. Needed the vote of southern Democrats in Congress, so needed territories open to slavery, proposed popular sovereignty states of Kansas and Nebraska. Thought pop sov would appeal to S, northern railroad appeal to N. Basically repealed the Missouri Compromise. Bleeding Kansas First Kansas settlers Missourians, established proslavery towns, flooded elections w Missouri pro-slavery votes. In response, Northerners came and established free-soil strongholds. Religious reformers, contrasted with the border ruffians of Missouri. Eventually the two, conflicted over popular sovereignty, began fighting. Proslavery forces burned a Free-soil town, then proslavery settlers were attacked. Bands of murderers never stopped, traveled around. Why: Divided the southern and northern Whigs, leading to the inability of the Whigs to unite for another election, opened up room for nativism. Weakened Democratic party, northern Democrats lost most seats in Congress so S Dems favoring slavery extension dominated. Shifted the opinion of Cotton Whigs (merchants, bankers, manufactures N) to pro-north, more sectional divisions. NAs signed off land, reservations. Bleeding Kansas represented the sectional divisions of US, mirrored increasing violence in cities.
Election of 1856, James Buchanan, John C. Fremont
When: 1856 Who: What: Democratic Party divided; Pierce and Douglas had the support of the S because of involvement in the Kansas-Nebraska Act, but found it hard for N + S Dems to compromise. Finally nominated Buchanan, bridge between N and S. Against Fremont (Republican) in the N, Fillmore (American) in the S. Fremont beat Buchanan in the N, but Buchanan won the election since he was the only national candidate. High voter turnout. Buchanan depended too much on S Dems, couldn't be impartial and fix divide from Bleeding Kansas. Also supported Dred Scott decision, furthered sectional divide. Lecompton Constitution. Why: Solidified role of Republican Party as a major party, threatening national unity. Showed sectional divisions.
Lecompton Constitution
When: 1857 Who: Buchanan What: Constitution for Kansas once it became a state. Before, two gov'ts: proslavery, won bc of illegal votes from Missouri border ruffians; Free-Soil, formed in protest. FS voters boycotted election for reps to write this constitution, so was proslavery. Even though probably FS majority, Buchanan scared to lose support of S Dems, endorsed the constitution. However, Douglas said it violated popular sovereignty, needed a fair vote, and Kansas was admitted as a free state. Where: Kansas Why: Dem Party broke apart with Douglas siding w N, led to more violence and killings in Kansas and Congress. Sectional divisions.
Dred Scott v Sandford, Roger Taney
When: 1857 Who: Under Buchanan administration; Roger Taney = Chief Justice, S Dem, supporter of state rights + property rights of slave owners. Background: Missouri Compromise, dispute over Wilmot Proviso / adoption of popular sovereignty, Compromise of 1850 + Kansas-Nebraska Act allowed white citizens of new states to vote on slavery. What: Dred Scott had been brought to Illinois and Wisconsin, free territories by the Missouri Compromise. Their daughter was born free, then went back to Missouri, sued for his freedom, his wife and his daughter, saying they were now free. Taney decision supported Calhoun's state rights stance: Missouri Compromise unconstitutional, fed gov't couldn't restrict slavery from any fed territory / interfere w property. Black people weren't citizens, had no rights. Clear sectional decision. Why: By trying to resolve the problem of slavery expansion, made it worse. N questioned authority of Supreme Court, opposed Buchanan. Challenged Republican Party. Worsened the panic of 1857, threw the future of W development into doubt. Increased fears of the Slave Power. Increased S belief the Constitution was on their side. Precursor to Civil War, made people angrier.
Lincoln-Douglas Debates
When: 1858 Who: Douglas = Democrat trying to win reelection for the Illinois Senate seat. Supported popular sovereignty. Lincoln = Republican underdog, radical Whig committed to freedom of slaves. Tried appealing to northern fears of expanding slavery. What: Douglas appealed to the racist audience by saying Lincoln wanted social equality for blacks, Lincoln didn't believe in equality but thought slavery was a moral wrong; said Douglas would lead to spread of slavery everywhere. People of Illinois gathered to watch. Where: Illinois Why: Showed how serious the issue of slavery was becoming; politicians had formerly tried to have national parties binding North and South. Demonstrated the democratic spirit of the people, hope prior to the 1860 election that a solution to slavery could be found. Showed the effect of racism on the decision, growing sectionalism of the parties. Made Lincoln a strong candidate for the 1860 election.
John Brown, Harper's Ferry Raid
When: 1859 Who: Glorified after killing proslavery men in Kansas. What: Plan to raid S, start a slave uprising, thought like most N abolitionists that slaves only needed a spark. Failed and he was captured, hanged. Mourned throughout N; even though not all supported his action, supported his cause. Funded by the Secret Six, N elite who wanted to finance attacks on slave system. Where: Harpers Ferry federal arsenal, Virginia Why: In the S, aroused fears northern abolitionists were driving slave revolts. Further divided N and S, S thought secession was becoming only option.
Election of 1860, Abraham Lincoln
When: 1860 Who: What: Democrats divided sectionally: Douglas, S wanted him to support a federal slave code protecting slavery in the territories but he wanted to preserve pop sov / his N support. Further split with the Constitutional Union Party, S Whigs joined with nativists. Republicans tried getting rid of radical abolitionist image; condemned John Brown's raid, denied wanting social equality for black people, wanted to preserve Union. Only Douglas presented himself as a national candidate, talked about dangers of secession. Lincoln won all the free states and the election, even if he wasn't on the ballot in many S states. Why: Demonstrated final sectionalism before Civil War; led to secession of many other slave states.
Confederacy / Confederate States of America
When: 1860 Who: Jefferson Davis = president, moderate What: Wrote constitution same as US, except strongly in favor of state rights, made abolition impossible. Chose moderate leaders to argue that secession was reasonable. Where: Why: Demonstrated how slavery was the actual issue.
First Battle of Bull Run
When: 1861 Virginia. Union expecting to win, accompanied by journalists, politicians and sightseers. However, untrained and broke ranks, then retreated. Why: Showed people the true reality of the war - couldn't be won easily.
Fort Sumter
When: 1861 What: important military fort since it was at entrance to Charleston harbor, one of the major areas of the Confederacy. Held by the Union. Lincoln attempted to send food to the fort, but Davis ordered the surrender of the Fort, opened fire and claimed by the Confederacy. Why: Steeled the North, unified them despite the uncertainty after Lincoln's election with patriotism. Lots of Northern volunteers. Bolsted Confederacy confidence. First firing in Civil War, pressured southern states to take sides. Forced Lincoln to call state militias, order naval blockade of S, expand military budget.
Union Pacific and Central Pacific Railroad Companies
When: 1862, 64 Who; Congress What: UPRC laid track westward from Omaha; CP laid eastward from California, to create a transcontinental railroad Why: Showed Republican fulfillment of expansion promises, again government extension into transportation, branching out of Market Revolution, nationalized
Legal Tender Act, National Bank Act
When: 1862,63 Who: Lincoln: What: 1. Created a national currency. 2. prohibited state banks from issuing own money, had to apply for federal charters Why: Set the precedent for more government involvement in everyday life. Showed Lincoln's expansion of federal power, wartime necessity, centralization of economic power.
Creole
When: 18th Who: country-born slaves What: Those who determined which parts of African culture to include in African American culture. Influenced by mutual acculturation, developed a new culture composed of music, dance, religion, and oral tradition, shaped by their experiences with slavery. Invented a language with different dialects making it possible for different Africans to communicate, and also used music + dance as a common bond. Family based on kinship and generational connections was essential. Influenced whites (raised white children, transformed food, influenced music / dance, etc). Where: North America Why: Demonstrates how slaves born in America created a distinct identity from Africans, uniquely shaped by slavery. Shows how whites and blacks had mutual influences on each other.
Ten-Percent Plan, Wade-Davis Bill
When: 1863, 1864 Who: Abraham Lincoln, Radical Republicans What: Ten Percent Plan: Proposed by Lincoln under the Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction. If 10% of a Confederate state's voters who voted in the 1860 election took the oath of allegiance to the US and its laws (including emancipation), they could establish a state gov't. Wade-Davis Bill proposed by the Radical Republicans angered by the 10% plan, more harsh toward white South. 50% of a seceding state's white male citizens had to take a loyalty oath before elections held for a convention to rewrite the state's constitution. Guaranteed equality before the law, not suffrage, for former slaves. Vetoed by Lincoln since he wanted to build political unity in the South. Why: Demonstrated different views between Lincoln and Radical Republicans on Reconstruction; RRs wanted to radically change southern society after the war ended, limit participation to small # of southern Unionists. Lincoln wanted to build new state gov'ts that won support from S whites for emancipation through Reconstruction in order to win the war.
Special Field Order 15, "forty acres and a mule"
When: 1865 Who: General Sherman What: Sherman wanted to alleviate the burden on the Army from many poor, free African Americans. Only freed people could settle on the Sea Islands (off coast of Georgia) and part of the SC low-country rice fields. Each family promised forty acres of land and a mule loaned from the Army. Why: Showed the potential for Reconstruction / new land distribution that was let down by actual Reconstruction. Resulted in an influx of freed people into "Sherman land."
Freedmen's Bureau
When: 1865 Who: Lincoln + his Republican Congress What: Gave food, clothing, fuel to former slaves. Supervised + managed abandoned southern land; controlled anything related to refugees or freedmen. Could lease 40 acres of abandoned/confiscated S land to freed slaves / white Unionists, who could purchase it after 3 years. After black codes, racial violence, Congress voted to enlarge the FB; gave it the power to build schools, pay teachers, establish courts to prosecute those depriving blacks of rights. Vetoed by Johnson, but overturned. Success was limited. Supervised schools throughout the South that helped educate blacks. Why: Helped lay foundation for S public education. Courts allowed freed people to bring suits vs white people, challenging notions of white domination.
Thirteenth, Fourteenth, Fifteenth Amendments
When: 1865, 1868, 1870 after Civil War What: 13th: abolished slavery. 14th: defined national citizenship to include freedmen / all born in US; states couldn't take away citizen privileges w/o due process of law. Congress could reduce state representation if it denied suffrage to men over 21. Passed after the Civil Rights Act of 1866. 15th: prohibits states from denying the right to vote based on race, color, previous condition of servitude. Why: Passing 14th, 15th amendments became prerequisites for reentry during Congressional Reconstruction. Galvanized women's rights activists b/c only granted equal rights to males; argued against 14th, 15th - didn't want all men to be enfranchised w/o women.
Andrew Johnson
When: 1865-1869 Who: Successor to Lincoln, Democrat, former slaveholder sympathetic to white southerners / anti black What: Originally supported by RRs, hinted at indicting + disenfranchising Confederate officials, taking away their property. Lost support; wanted fast Reconstruction carried out by executive branch, blamed the planter elite but not whole states for secession so wasn't harsh in reentry policies. Gave amnesty, pardon, restoration of property rights to Confederates who supported emancipation and loyal to Union, pardoned most of Confederate officials / wealthy landowners. Declared "restoration" complete contradicting Radicals / Congress. Vetoed the Civil Rights bill and the enlargement of the Freedmen's Bureau. Alienated voters, leading to the Republicans increasing their majority in Congress.
Civil Rights Act of 1866
When: 1866 Who: Radical Congress What: Coming after the black codes + racial violence, Congress, overwhelmingly Republican, decided that African Americans needed more protection, so passed it. Overturned Dred Scott + black codes by giving blacks full citizenship. Everyone born in the US = citizens, blacks given rights like the right to make/enforce contracts, sue, give evidence, buy/sell property, equally protected under law. Vetoed by Pres Johnson, who said it would make the gov't too powerful, but overturned + only united Radicals and moderates more. Why: unified Radical and moderate Republicans in their efforts to stop Johnson from controlling Reconstruction, using federal power to protect citizens. Demonstrated how Congress vs Johnson ideas of Reconstruction increasingly diverging. Led to the passing of the Fourteenth Amendment to stop the Act from being unconstitutional.
Ku Klux Klan
When: 1866 Who: founded by white Confederate veterans as a Tennessee social club What: Carried out acts of violence vs black and white Republicans to stop them from voting in the election of 1868. Terrorized black southerners during the Reconstruction era, Reconstruction gov'ts, local leaders. Supported Democratic Party, planter class, white supremacists. Some employed by planters to enforce labor discipline among African Americans. Murdered many Republicans.
Reconstruction Acts of 1867 / 1868
When: 1867, 1868 after Republicans increased majority in Congress, controlled all N states Who: Radicals + moderate Republicans What: laid out requirements for southern readmission, forming new gov'ts. First Reconstruction Act: Passed over Johnson's veto. South = five military districts under martial law. Had to call constitutional conventions elected by universal manhood suffrage. After making new constitutions, giving blacks voting rights, ratifying the 14th, could be readmitted to the Union. Why: Signified start of Congressional Reconstruction. Inspired more political activity among African Americans.
Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871
When: 1871 What: Made infringing violently upon civil / political rights a federal crime, in response to the Ku Klux Klan murdering Republican voters. Part of the Enforcement Acts passed by Congress to counter racial terrorism. Why: Demonstrated how Congressional Reconstruction depended on federal government to enforce protection of freedmen.
Slaughterhouse cases
When: 1873 Who: Supreme Court What: First ruling on the 14th Amendment. Butchers sued over a charter giving a Louisiana meat-packing company a monopoly over the butchering business. The Supreme Court said it only protected former slaves, national citizenship rights, not the regulatory powers of states. Part of a series of rulings in the 1870s by the SC that undermined the 14th and 15th amendment Why: Undermined the original intent of the Amendment to protect citizenship rights from infringement by states.
Southern aristocracy
When: 18th century Who: Rich, plantation/slave-owning Southerners What: In the slave colonies, the social structure was stratified, with the planter elite having most of the land and wealth. They tried to present themselves as an aristocracy, creating marriage alliances, business dealings, and dressing / adopting mannerisms of the aristocracy. Owned large numbers of slaves, had a large influence. The gap between this class and the land-owning southerners increased, even as prosperity for all land-owners increased. Where: South Why: Demonstrates how increasing prosperity of the English colonies was based off of the exploitation of slaves; showed how plantation economies increased wealth gaps / created a hierarchical society.
Slave revolts
When: 18th century What: The first notable slave uprising was in New York City - killed colonists and burned buildings. Again in New York, black leaders who had conspired together were killed / sold. The Chesapeake rebellion of 1730 was the largest one - hundreds of slaves chose leaders and escaped, but were hunted down by Native Americans hired by the Chesapeake colony. In the Lower South, there were various uprisings in South Carolina and Georgia, causing the halting of the slave trade through Charleston for 10 years. Few revolts in North America because conditions favoring it (large African majorities, brutalization with low survival rates, little acculturation, geographic isolation) didn't exist in most colonies. Didn't want to risk the new communities / culture that they had built. Where: English colonies Why: Demonstrated how there was resistance to slavery, and why masters, fearing revolts, used brutality to keep order.
Field slaves vs house slaves
When: 18th, early 19th What: Field slaves: most. Constant, year-round labor. Divided into communal labor groups, brutalized with whips, worked long hours. Aged fast due to poor diet, heavy labor; when old, did other tasks in the black community. House slaves: Grew as profits from slavery grew. less physically demanding, better fed and clothed, more access to information / news. Didn't like constant white supervision, rarely saw their own families, had to act grateful.
Maroons, Seminole
When: 18th? Who: Escaped slaves What: Spain wanted to mess with England, so they allowed runaways from English colonies to take refuge in Spanish Florida. They established new "maroon" communities amongst the Creek Indians, mixing to create the Seminoles. Also hid maroon communities in the Lower South, fewer in the Upper South. Where: Florida, South Why: Demonstrated how a common form of resistance to slavery was running away; how slaves were a medium for colonial powers to fight.
New Lights vs Old Lights
When: After Great Awakening (early 18th) Who: revivalists vs old guard; factions within the church What: New Lights: vs Arminianism (salvation by good works) as a rationalist heresy, wanted revival of Calvinism; small farmers, craftsmen, people who didn't benefit as much from economic growth . Old Lights: vs emotional enthusiasm, heresy to think you have a direct relationship with God outside of the church. Saw revivalism as anarchy, wanted rational religion; upper class, middle class. Congregationalists split into these factions and wandered around the countryside causing trouble. Fought politically for control of offices. Where: British colonies Why: Gave people the first chance to participate in public debate / action affecting their lives. Believed their opinions counted for something. Let ordinary people question their leaders.
Virtual vs actual representation
When: An argument that occurred after the Stamp Act of 1765 Who: British vs colonists What: Actual: colonists can't vote in British elections and so are politically separate, meaning Parliament can't tax them; there has to be a direct relationship between the people and their representatives. Virtual: Parliament represents all citizens of the empire and can tax the colonists. Why: Demonstrates how the Stamp Act triggered arguments vs taxation without representation; Argument = foundation for the Virginia Stamp Act Resolutions; Demonstrates how with the rise of American nationalism / a distinct identity, more conflict between British and Americans
Sugar colonies
When: Became prominent in the late 17th century Who: Dutch, Portuguese, England, France What: Began with Columbus, who helped establish sugar plantations in Hispaniola, requiring importation of African slaves from Spain since the Natives were so depopulated. The Portuguese / Dutch financiers established sugar plantations in Brazil as well. Dutch used their commercial skills to make sugar into a staple for less wealthy people, and when it became very profitable, English and France wanted to establish West Indian sugar colonies. Built plantations and brought slaves to the Lesser Antilles, resulting in the Eng Barbados and French Martinique generating a lot of profit. English took over Jamaica and French took over W Hispaniola later on. Late 17th, Caribbea sugar and slaves = foundation of colonialism. Hugely profitable, so allowed slaves to die because they could just keep buying more. Where: The Caribbean Why: Resulted in the rise of the Atlantic slave trade / importation of African slaves to the Americas (half of imported slaves brought to the sugar colonies).
Apprenticeship system
When: Before early 19th Who: Men What: how preindustrial production was controlled in urban areas by skilled craftsmen. Apprentices were treated like family members, lived w masters. At the end of their contract period, became journeymen that worked for skilled craftsmen until they had enough capital to start their own shops. Only for men. Destroyed by the Market Revolution. Why: Demonstrated how preindustrial production was less efficient - weren't using a large source of labor (women), tradition of work in family rather than disciplined employees. Reflected the patriarchal structure of society.
Federalists vs. (Jeffersonian) Republicans
When: Began to be named by 1796 Who: Hamilton, Washington (F) vs. Jefferson, Madison (R) What: Coalitions in fights of commercial vs agrarian, Atlantic seaboard vs frontier, Anglophiles vs Francophiles during Washington's presidency. After Jay's Treaty, the two political factions became more defined. Federalists (Hamilton supporters, merchants, property owners, urban workers) : organized by some of the Washington administration. Wanted strong central gov't, friendship w Britain. Didn't like French Rev. Interests with the commercial economy. Minority party after 1800. Republicans (Jefferson, southern planters, northern farmers) : Limited federal gov't, didn't like Britain, liked French Rev. majority after 1800. More partisan in the Middle States, sectional interests more important in New England and the South. Not a lot of discipline, even though Adams (Fed) was elected, Jefferson (Republican) was made a vice pres. Used the press to spread their ideas, since a lot of Americans were literate. Why: Led to more popular political participation / suffrage
Separation of Powers, Montesquieu
When: Came into play in the Constitution in the late 18th Who: Enlightenment thinker What: Montesquieu wrote about the separation of powers in Spirit of the Laws. Dividing government into branches in order to prevent any from having too much power/ to promote liberty. should be separate, act independently. Legislative branch = enacts laws, collects money. executive = administers public policy. Judicial = Interprets the constitution and laws. Why: Affected the creation of the Constitution and our gov't.
Puritans / Separatists
When: Came to America early 17th Who: English Calvinists What: wanted to reform / purify the Anglican church and eliminate practices not mentioned in the Bible; believed that congregations had authority, not just the clergy of the Anglican church. Focused on enterprise, so appealed to people who were transforming England like merchants and entrepreneurs. Didn't like the decline of rural communities. Became prominent in English congregations and universities. They were persecuted by James I and Charles I, causing them to migrate to New England (Pilgrims). In the Great Migration, many moved to Massachusetts, until the end of the English Civil War. Thought they had the right to move into "unused" land, viewed themselves as given the land by God and targeted villages depopulated by disease for expansion. Pressured Indians into signing quitclaims so they gave up and put themselves under Eng protection. Participated in the Pequot War. Wanted well-ordered communities and a social hierarchy. Not tolerant to other religious views -> new colonies. Where: New England colonies (N Atlantic coast) Why: Demonstrates how religion / persecution in England played a large part in their colonies; led to the spread of more colonies due to a lack of toleration; showed how God was a major reason / excuse for colonizers to brutally invade the land of Indians; shows how colonies weren't really places of religious freedom
Homestead Act, Morrill Land Grant Act
When: Civil War Who: Congress What: 1. free 160 acres of public land to any citizen who improved land after 5 years. 2. gave states public land allowing them to finance land-grant colleges teaching practical skills Why: Encouraged future westward expansion, expansion of federal government power, nationalized by connecting common people more to government
Calvinism, predestination
When: Declined before early 18th w Great Awakening What: During a decline in religious devotion preceding the Great Awakening, more people started questioning Calvinism / predestination, turned to Arminianism (salvation by good works) which went with the Enlightenment view that people are rational beings who can shape their own destinies. Where: British colonies Why: demonstrated religious conditions influenced by the Enlightenment preceding the Great Awakening
New France
When: Early 17th Who: Champlain, France What: Started when Champlain founded quebec on the St. Lawrence to monopolize the northern fur trade. *Motives* Monopolize the northern fur trade, compete w/ other colonial powers *Demographics* Slow population growth - wouldn't let Huguenot come bc wanted it to be Catholic, small settlements compared to Spain. French came to work in the fur trade / fishery but returned to France. *Economics* Not agriculturally productive bc was by the St. Lawrence which froze, so intercepted fur traders traveling down to the Atlantic, made furs flow to Quebec. Farmers lived along the river, used Indian farming techniques for subsistence crops and created a decent export economy. Created commercial relations w hunters. *Religion / culture* Catholic, spread out settlements. Missionaries tried learning more about natives to integrate Christianity into their lives. *Interaction with Indians* allied w/ Hurons (who controlled Great Lakes fur grounds* and helped them fight the Iroquois; sent traders to native communities to learn language / customs, to make furs flow to Quebec; intermarried, used alliances w/ Indians and commercial relations to build an empire since didn't have power. Why: Frontier of inclusion based on commercial relations rather than brutality like Spain; built a distinct identity bc mingled w Indians
Maryland
When: Early 17th Who: the Calverts, supporters of the Catholic King Charles I What: The Calverts were given land by Charles I, and as the owners of the land, they could divide up the land into feudal manors to produce a profit and appoint the civil officers (proprietary). Catholics were encouraged to settle here, since they were a persecuted minority in England at the time, so a large Catholic minority. Catholic landlords also dominated the House of Delegates. Became similar to Virginia because it had a tobacco plantation economy requiring lots of land (so couldn't be divided up into manors) and adopted headright grants, leading to independent planter settlements spread around Chesapeake Bay. Eventually Calverts were overthrown after the GR by the Protestant Association. Where: the Chesapeake Why: Shows how some people could use colonies to profit off of privately (proprietary) and how influential tobacco was in the economy of the Chesapeake colonies. Also demonstrates how religion played a huge factor in the settlement of colonies.
Massachusetts Bay Company
When: Early 17th Who: wealthy puritans What: Joint-stock company; Given a royal charter to settle in Massachusetts Bay; led by John Winthrop, wanted to make a city on a hill. Transferred company operations to America and made the colony into a civil gov't - many colonists came in groups w/ men experienced in gov't. General Court with government, deputy, magistrates and freemen who were corporation members, male heads of households and church members). Freemen voted for delegates to represent towns in drafting laws, delegates + magistrates = leg. houses. Origin of democratic suffrage, legislative bicameral division. Where: New England Why: Because! A group of wealthy Puritans who were granted a royal charter in 1629 to settle in Massachusetts Bay
Free labor
When: Early 19th What: People have the economic freedom to choose whether to stay bound to a position or not. Tied to values of hard work, self-discipline and economic independence that were important in an industrial economy. Why: Demonstrated new middle-class values of individualism that seeped into all aspects of life.
Artisans vs. wage workers
When: Early 19th What: With the Market Revolution, the increase in productivity caused a shift from artisans to unskilled workers working for wages. Why: Granted people, especially women, the freedom to make more choices about where to live / how to live. More workers mistreated. Men no longer had complete control. Allowed for more productivity.
Ohio Company (Rev War)
When: late 18th What: Congress sold over 1.5 million acres of land in the Northwest to them in order to get revenue, since the surveyed land from the Land Ordinance of 1785 wouldn't be sold until 1788. However, settlers didn't wait for this land to be opened, but settled illegally. Its president was chosen as the first governor of the Northwest Territory. Where: Northwest Why: Aided in the division of western land after the Revolutionary War
Lowell Mills
When: Early 19th Who: Established by Lowell, who stole British manufacturing ideas What: Cotton textile factories financed by Boston investors. Built neatly around a central area, with a workforce of New England women. Attracted women w/ promises of rules of conduct, religious services, cash wages, cultural opportunities. They also saw it as a way to escape rural life and get enough money to earn an education. Rigid work-schedule penalizing people. Learned how to operate machinery in the same way. Men still earned more, even though women were the majority of the workforce. Close-knit women often striked against the wage cuts and work speedups. Where: Massachusetts Why: Demonstrated how industrialization caused major shifts in the workforce / other changes. Demonstrated the influence of British machinery on American industrialization.
Charles Finney, perfectionism
When: Early 19th Who: Revivalist What: all Christians can become perfect like God by living morally / religiously Why:
John Quincy Adams
When: Early 19th Who: Secretary of state under Monroe What: Accomplished much diplomatically during the Era of Good Feelings. 1. cleared up borders between Canada and US, over Oregon. 2: Transcontinental Treaty of 1819 - Spain ceded Florida, Louisiana Territory, Oregon; US ceded Texas, assumed debt from US citizen claims vs Spain. 3: Monroe Doctrine Where: Why: Contained threats to US expansion like Spain and Russia, and showed the effectiveness of reason and diplomacy
Capital
When: Early 19th (Accumulation) Who: Merchants in seaboard cities, the wealthy. What: Money for investment. People started to accumulate it during the Market Revolution. Came from 1. both international and local banks 2. family connections 3. Southern cotton - cotton exports got transshipped through northern ports, meaning that northern merchants also benefitted. The wealth could be reinvested in northern endeavors. || Nationalism led people to want to take risks / invest capital to build a large domestic market. This accumulation was aided by the shipping boom of 1790-1807. Why: Allowed for the building of infrastructure, as well as increased dependency on banks / a cash economy.
Strikes
When: Early 19th (Market Revolution) What: first strikes led by rural women workers. Most were unsuccessful, and employers just found new sources of labor from Ireland, Canada, etc. Why: Demonstrates the breakdown of communal interests between employers and employees with the Market Revolution.
New middle class (why is the middle class growing?)
When: Early 19th (Market Revolution) Who: white-collar workers, managers What: With the Market Revolution, there were more opportunities for social mobility and unskilled labor, resulting in the rise of white-collar workers (accountants, bank tellers, clerks, managers) and the decline of skilled artisans / the apprenticeship system. Their jobs were based on the demand of industrialization, and their lives were transformed by the discipline, sobriety, hard work and responsibility that their new jobs required. After the Second Great Awakening, used evangelism / its stress on self-discipline to adjust to a new working environment. Had a division of labor where men worked outside of the home, not the head of a house combining work and personal life. Women did domestic things, but instead of contributing to production, maintained the house for men to come back to after work. More cooperation, women expected to be moral, men industrious. Had less children, because gave more resources and attention to them, abortions used more. Allowed their children to stay in the house / not go to work young until they were financially stable, sacrificed to make them stay in school. Primarily raised by women, who maintained traditional values. Rise of sentimentalism. Why: Created new values, demonstrated increasing social mobility, new identity / class
Planters
When: Fortunes grew immensely early 19th What: Small slave owners - small yeomen moving to commercial production; had to work another job / work with their slaves in order to get money for more. Very economically vulnerable, set back by Panic of 1837. Some middle-class professional men had the capital to become large slave owners; owned skilled slaves, rented them out for public. Planter elite - 2.5%. Admired by Southerners, inherited wealth, weren't as dominant in politics as smaller slave owners appealed more to expanding democracy. Secured places in aristocracy through marriage. || Tried emulating the English aristocracy - large houses, masculine activities; women were supposed to be gentle. Aimed for self-sufficiency - directly controlled daily operations. Paternalistic ideology. Why: Fortunes kept afloat by slavery; unwilling to let it go - slavery unique to South
Phyllis Wheatley
When: Late 18th (Revolutionary era) Who: Poet, slave What: Kidnapped from Africa, converted to Christianity during the Great Awakening. Poems combined religion and indignation on behalf of other enslaved blacks. Talked about how God has a principle of freedom. Where: Boston Why: Exemplifies the rise of African American writers in the Revolutionary era, shows effect of Great Awakening in inspiring people who didn't have a voice
Western Problem (American Revolution)
When: Late 18th after Rev War What: Colonists viewed victory as over the Native Americans as well, and wanted grants of land from them. Many colonists migrated west. British troops stayed in the Northwest and encouraged Native Americans to attack settlements; Spain blockaded the Mississippi from the colonists, which gave colonists access to many markets. Congress couldn't come to an agreement with Britain (would withdraw troops if paid debt) or Spain (wanted US to lose control of Mississippi), so some people were like **** it I don't want to be in the Confederation, lets be spies for Spain or join the British. Congress was like no and extended their authority over the west, said it would be divided into republican states. Land Ordinance of 1785, treaties of Fort Stanwix and McIntosh, Northwest Ordinance of 1787.
Radical Republicans, Thaddeus Stevens
When: Reconstruction era (late 19th) Who: What: RRs: wanted harsh treatment of South + radical changes to S society during Reconstruction, equal rights for freedmen. Wanted powerful national government instituting equal political rights / economic opportunity. Thought universal education, equal rights, and free labor in the S, + civil rights / suffrage for freedmen enforced by the fed gov't, would give it the N's wealth, progress and social mobility. Thaddeus Stevens: Representative; wanted redistribution of 400 million acres from wealthiest 10% of S to yeomen, N land buyers.
King Cotton
When: Late 18th, early 19th Who: James Henry Hammond (SC) What: Refers to the dominance of cotton in a rapidly expanding South and its importance in the American economy. The invention of the cotton gin and the Industrial Revolution in England that enabled rapid production of cotton cloth led to cotton becoming almost 60% of American exports. JHH said this; no one would make war on cotton bc of its national / international economic importance. Cotton fueled northern industrialization, providing capital - northern families invested in new textile manufacturing, made money from cotton shipping. Southerners increasingly tied their fortunes to the slave system of cotton production. Where: Expanded from the South into Old Southwest (Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia, etc) Why: Led to Trail of Tears / Indian Removal Act bc of expansion; Led to Southerners being adamant about keeping slavery as cotton was so important to the South; Led to the emergence of a slave society, and the South remaining rural compared to the north. Didn't industrialize as much / invest in transportation - capital went to land and slaves. Didn't want to introduce free wage labor into controlled slave system. Led to loss of political dominance - couldn't keep population up with the North.
Putting out system
When: Market Revolution (early 19th) What: Merchants gave raw materials to people / paid them a certain amount for every finished item. The unskilled workers then produced a lot of one part of the goods at home for lower wages. When the whole thing was done, the merchants sold it. Deviated from the preindustrial system of skilled labor making one good. Supported by merchant investors, women got hired a lot which scared skilled male workers. Why: Allowed capitalists to get more labor for the same price, leading to an increase in shop production, the replacement of artisan shops, and the disappearance of the apprenticeship system. Gave production control to merchant capitalists, who could decide to specialize it to appeal to certain markets. Allowed for more flexibility, since the owner of the business could adjust the labor force with economic shifts. Fueled the new national market that had been created by expanded transportation. Helped shift farm families away from the barter system. Made commercialization possible.
Quakers
When: Mid 18th Who: English dissenters preaching social equity and pacificism What: First colonists to protest slavery and have a significant antislavery movement; Published critiques of slavery, urging empathy and wondering what differentiated slaves from free men. Voted to condemn slavery, urged masters to free their slaves. Where: Pennsylvania, New Jersey Why: Demonstrated how even though the plantation economy was prominent, there were some dissenters. Attitudes spread when the Revolution occurred.
Stephen Douglas
When: Mid 19th Who: Illinois senator / Democrat What: Advocated for popular sovereignty, appealed to racists in the Lincoln-Douglas debates. Drove the Compromise of 1850 through Congress. One of the Democratic candidates in the election of 1852,
Free blacks
When: Post Revolution (late 18th) What: Population grew due to some people starting to free slaves, as well as taxation / prohibition of international slave trade. Most significant in the Upper South. Started establishing institutions ("African" schools, churches) - including "African" represented pride in their heritage Why: showed effect of Revolutionary ideals on African Americans
Continuation of Slavery
When: Post revolution (late 18th) What: American victory only reinforced slavery; many slaves escaped and left with the British to settle in Canada, West Indies and Africa. Commitment of planters to slavery weakened by a drawing back from tobacco planting as well as Revolutionary idealism - people questioned the morality of keeping slaves while fighting for liberty. Started gradual emancipation by freeing slaves in wills, and some granted freedom to slaves. Lower South planters were still super dependent on slaves, most states except SC and Georgia taxed the international slave trade. By 1804, every northern state implemented abolition or gradual emancipation. Why: Demonstrated effect of religious ideals, increasing divisions between north and south
Liberal Republicans, Horace Greeley
When: Reconstruction (late 19th) What: Alongside growth of larger enterprises, RRs declined, Republicans started to align with business interests, not free labor / freedmen. Some started to become disillusioned with the corruption of the government, influenced by the Credit Mobilier affair (Grant's scandal). Liberal Republicans emphasized classical economics (supply/demand, free trade, defense of property rights, individualism), limited government (said too much interference in economy had led to high taxes, corruption). Cautious to expand democracy - thought only the educated and wealthy should participate in politics. Opposed more federal intervention in the South - view that former slaves now had to take care of themselves represented by Horace Greeley, who LRs and Democrats nominated for the presidency. Ran against Grant, argued that Reconstruction should be more lenient w/ universal amnesty, impartial suffrage. However, beaten by Grant, LRs declined Why: Demonstrated pushback to the rise of capital influence in the North during Reconstruction. Their views continued to attract middle-class professionals / businessmen suspicious of immigrants, shying from racial justice, opposed to government interference.
Crop lien system
When: Reconstruction (late 19th) What: Became the main form of agricultural credit in the South. Shortage of capital, banks in the South bc dependent on cotton. Merchants + planters were the only sources of credit, granted loans / supplies to farmers and sharecroppers for liens / claims on cotton crops. Charged high interest rates and had high prices of goods sold in their stores. Inflated figures, taking advantage of illiteracy + leading to high debt to stores among sharecroppers and tenants. Why: Led to increasing southern dependency on cotton, more and more people turning to cotton growing in order to get credit. This + foreign cotton resulted in depressed prices of cotton, leading to a cycle of poverty among farmers. Led to merchants emerging as a new economic elite
Railroads (role in politics and economics)
When: Reconstruction (late 19th) What: Before Civil War, federal government funded a transcontinental railroad. Pacific Railway Act from Nebraska to California, recruited African + Irish American workers, Chinese. Railroad corporations = first big businesses; needed lots of investment capital, growth -> more economic power of banks, investment houses. Bigger companies attempted to absorb smaller ones and set rates, some amassed lots of wealth. In politics, railroad lobbyists, lawyers, promoters became very influential on lawmakers; could give land to politicians in exchange for support. railroads given lots of government subsidies. Why: Growth stimulated expansion of coal, iron, stone, lumber expansion. Influential in politics etc. Fostered larger, capital-intensive enterprises. Led to corruption in politics. Speculative investing in railroads led to Depression of 1873
Carpetbaggers and Scalawags
When: Reconstruction, late 19th What: groups of Southern Republicans. Carpetbaggers: Well-educated, middle-class white northerners. Wanted personal gain, reformation of South by introducing N institution like free labor, public schools, and developing material wealth. Mostly veterans staying in the South, Freedmen's Bureau agents, businessmen who invested in plantations. Got lots of Reconstruction offices even though were a small population. Scalawags: native whites; mostly small landowning farmers, merchants, planters. some prewar Whigs who wanted political influence through Republicans; others saw it as an agent of modernization, economic expansion. Loyalists / small farmers wanted Republicans to relieve debt, destruction. White southerners didn't identify w/ the goals of African Americans; more concerned with white control of Republicans, economic investment in the South Why: Showed white support for Republicans in the S since Af Am support wasn't enough.
Whigs (British)
When: Rev War Who: political party in Britain What: Opposed the war, feared that the French would ally with America. Near the end of the war, a Whig came to power in Parliament who favored US independence. Where: Britain Why: Fears proved right after the alliance between France and the US
Continental Congress
When: Rev War / after What: Power severely limited by the Articles of Confederation, but it was supposed to have national authority over foreign affairs, war, army, taxes, coinage and trade. it was composed of delegates and each state had one vote. Couldn't directly tax people, so had to rely on states. Financed the war through foreign loans, but couldn't get states to raise taxes, resulting in inflation. Divided up the West, created a national bank. Where: US Why: Lack of real power demonstrated a need for more national power / other organization of government. Created the beginnings of a national bureaucracy by organizing land, foreign affairs, post office and finance.
Patriots
When: Revolutionary War Who: American colonists who fought for independence from Great Britain during the Revolutionary War What: Many didn't like the idea of the Continental Army, wanted to serve in militias. Had the support of the majority of colonists. At first, were more loyal to their local communities, but gained national loyalty through fighting together. Controlled local governments, and women served as camp followers (supplied soldiers on the battlefield, cooked, etc) and even fought / spied. Where: America Why: Shows power of nationalism
militia
When: Revolutionary War Who: Armed men from local communities What: Didn't like the discipline required in a national army, wanted to protect their lands and reputations locally. High rates of desertation, had short terms of enlistment and chose their officers. Therefore, didn't contribute as much as the Continental Army. Resulted in higher state quotas for the CA, longer enlistment. Patriots, who controlled local governments, pressured people to serve in militias. Where: US colonies Why: Demonstrated how many colonists still identified with their local communities, meaning it was hard to support the Continental Army + politicians needed to find a way to unite the colonists; also showed how people didn't like standing armies
nationalism vs localism
When: Revolutionary era (late 18th) What: most people identified with local communities rather than nationally, the states were where most political struggles happened.
Sons of Liberty
When: after 1765 Who: Merchants, lawyers, craftsmen What: After the Stamp Acts, coupled with unemployment and inflation after the 7 Years War, the workers and poor were mad; joined street protests, which could grow violent. The Sons of Liberty were secret groups wanting to moderate the resistance movement to the Stamp Acts by controlling it. They spread petitions and pamphlets, said crowd protests were a last resort. SoL erected liberty poles in NYC, which were destroyed, leading to riots. Where: Throughout the British colonies Why: Demonstrated how many colonists weren't angry w Britain to the point of wanting to use forceful resistance; showed how the upper classes didn't want lower class to have too much power; demonstrated the power of literacy / reading in spreading resistance efforts. Contributed to the growing tension leading up to the Boston Massacre.
Federalists vs Anti-Federalists
When: after Constitutional Convention in 1787 Who: Federalists - many merchants, manufacturers, large landowners, professionals. Antifederalists - many farmers What: Federalists - supported the Constitution. In places where there was a commercial economy, since thought it would help grow a commercial society Antifederalists - thought the Articles already had a federal gov't where state and Union power balanced; Constitution would make a national gov't that had too much power, so states would lose autonomy. More in the backcountry. Weren't really unified, since they were for local interests. Basically aligned along agrarian-localist and commercial-cosmopolitan lines. Where: US Why: Showed how divisions were both economic and political in the US
Continental Army
When: during Revolutionary War (1775-1783) Who: George Washington What: Formed by the Second Continental Congress. Washington fought to implement it, but most people didn't like standing armies. At first, didn't have enough men bc most joined militias, but after Congress saw the militias were failing, it increased quotas and enlistment length. Helped rouse national sentiment even though many still cared more about local communities. Food and pay shortages led to mutiny and desertion. Started recruiting African Americans after British promised them liberty; only a few got freedom through service. Many served because they had been promised land / bounties. Where: America Why: Helped create unity in purpose / foundation of the nation, helped rouse nationalism.
Paternalism
When: during slavery Who: Planter elite - how they justified their maintenance of the master-slave relationship What: Each plantation = black and white family - master = head of family, provided for everyone, treated them w humanity. In return, slaves worked and obeyed like children, should have gratitude. Being a master is a burden. Plantation mistresses took care of family members, supervised slaves in daily tasks, prepared for guests. Had responsibility but no real power. In reality, slaves were brutalized and women slaves sexually abused.
Ohio Company
When: mid 18th century Who: Virginia and London capitalists What: given a land grant by the king so they could build a fort in the upper Ohio Valley to challenge the French, who fought British over control of the Ohio country. The British had been expanding with backcountry settlers and frontier land speculators, which threatened French settlements, so they expelled British traders and built forts. The Ohio Company was an effort to reassert dominance. Where: Ohio Why: Involvement of the Crown; contributed to the tensions between Britain and France preluding the Seven Years' War.
Liberty Party, Free Soil Party
When: early / mid 19th What: Liberty Party: Uncompromising northerners vs slavery who garnered many votes in the 1844 election. Wanted to ban the admission of slave states to the Union, end slavery in the District of Columbia, abolish interstate slave trade. Wanted to deny office to all slaveholders, not use slaves on federal construction projects. However, too uncompromising for most northerners, who knew the southerners would leave the Union. Led to the Free-Soil Party: Adjusted abolitionist principles to practical politics, shifted focus from slavery's morality to how slavery threatened northern expansion - northern farmers moving west would be ata an economic disadvantage to large planters using slaves. Freedom, individualism would be destroyed by the slave labor system. Antiblack; wanted to ban blacks from new territories to appeal to northerners who didn't want social equality. Why: Demonstrated the increasing sectionalism of politics, rather than divisions in parties, that would lead to the civil war.
New Netherlands
When: early 17th Who: Holland What: *context* Holland = center of Europe economic transformation; 1. surplus of crops 2. Amsterdam = first stock exchange / investment banks 3. controlled Baltic / North Sea trade of fish, lumber, iron, grain 4. greatest commercial power due to the DEIC and DWIC *founding* Henry Hudson founded two settlements near the Hudson *Economics* Allied commercially w/ the Iroquois to compete w the French for furs and supplied them with weapons / items, leading to the Beaver Wars *Interaction with Indians* allied with them for furs and supplied them with items, but otherwise kept up a frontier of exclusion Where: near the Hudson Why: Based on commercial relations w Indians
The Chesapeake
When: early 17th Who: Jamestown, Virginia Company, John Rolfe, Powhatans, Maryland What: *Motives* First English colonies, VC wanted to profit and wanted to compete with Spain *Demographics* mass immigration - used families to populate vs Spain, which used men; lots of indentured servants (headright grants) and people came from England, which was going through an issue with homelessness *Economics* Not very viable except for tobacco plantation economy, which required lots of land and labor; large demand in England *Politics* Virginia = royal colony w/ crown appointed authorities, property-owning colonists elected representatives to the House of Burgesses, which controlled taxes and finances; Maryland = Calverts appointed officers *Culture / Religion* Small family size, poorly constructed houses b/c people invested everything in tobacco, spread out settlements since people looked for new farmland, few community institutions and still close to England. *Interaction with Indians* tensions were high bc needed land for tobacco (Powhatan Uprising); excluded them since didn't need Indians as workers / spouses, since there were so many emigrants
"City on a hill"
When: early 17th Who: John Winthrop, Puritans What: wanted Massachusetts Bay Colony to be a model of Puritan society / obedience + life for God, because they thought they had been chosen by God to be his representatives and had to uphold his name (all eyes were upon them, so they were like a city on a hill). Where: Massachusetts Bay Colony / New England Why: Demonstrates how many Puritans thought they had been chosen by God to colonize, which was one of the justifications for the brutality directed toward Native Americans
Powhatan Confederacy
When: early 17th Who: King Powhatan, English What: Lived in the Chesapeake at the time of Jamestown, led by King Powhatan, who was wary of them, but also wanted metal tools to extend his power and so let the settlement be built. At first, aided Jamestown and helped the colonists survive until he couldn't support them, causing the VC to launch a war against them until 1613, when the king's daughter was captured. Sealed peace when Pocahontas married John Rolfe, but as the expansion of the tobacco economy of the Chesapeake colonies occurred, the new chief was pressured to give up land for tobacco growth, leading to an uprising of the Powhatan and a war lasting for 10 years until the Powhatans made peace. Where: the Chesapeake Why: Demonstrated the effect of the tobacco economy on Indians and the brutality of the colonizers.
Pequot War
When: early 17th Who: Pequots, Puritans, Narrangansetts What: The Pequots were one of the last tribes who could resist Puritan expansion; allies with Dutch, controlled the production of wampum, which was used in trade. Puritans + Narrangansetts attacked and killed most of the Pequots while they were sleeping, justified their actions by saying the Scripture and God approved. Where: Connecticut / New England Why: Demonstrated how colonizers used God to justify the brutal means of expansion / colonization they used; The peak of conflict between Puritans and Indians; demonstrates how colonial powers fought indirectly through Indians
Mayflower Compact
When: early 17th Who: Pilgrims What: First document of self-gov't in North America combining men hired by investors to go to North America into a civil body politic, since they didn't like the authority of the Pilgrims. Created a temporary set of laws for governance, combining the people of Plymouth into one society working for the common good. Where: Plymouth / New England Why: The earliest successful attempt at democracy in North America, setting the foundation for future colonists seeking independence from England and creating a new democracy.
Roger Williams, Anne Hutchinson
When: early 17th Who: dissenters of Puritanism What: Puritans weren't tolerant of other religious ideas, leading to the start of new colonies. Roger Williams, a minister, advocated for tolerance, separation of church and state, and bargaining for Indian land -> banished -> bought Indian land, founded the Rhode Island colony for dissenting communities, which had self-gov't and religious freedom. Anne Hutchinson - held religious discussion groups, criticized Puritan ministers for encouraging good works as a method for salvation. Banished, moved to a settlement in Rhode Island. Where: New England / Rhode Island Why: demonstrates the role of religion / religious freedom in colonies; shows how a lack of toleration led to the creation of more colonies, shows early ideals of freedom that would later make their way into the Constitution.
Napoleon Bonaparte, Haiti, Louisiana
When: early 19th Who: General in control of France. What: Got land in a large chunk of Europe, so Britain went to war against him. Considered fighting the British in North America, which Jefferson was scared of. Wanted to reconquer Haiti and use slaves to produce sugar to finance his wars. In order to do this, reacquired Louisiana Territory from Spain in order to grow food for Haiti once it was reconquered, to stop US expansion that could threaten Spain NA colonies, and to balance out Britain in Canada. However, he was defeated and offered Louisiana to US, leading to the Louisiana purchase. Why: Forced Jefferson to stretch the Constitution and purchase land; continued strain on US neutrality.
Mayflower, Pilgrims, Plymouth
When: early 17th Who: first colony made by Pilgrims = Puritans / Separatists who thought the Anglican church was too corrupt to reform, so had to separate from it What: Backed by the VC, sailed on the Mayflower with mostly families and men hired by investors. Formed the Mayflower compact b/c some men didn't like the authority of the Pilgrims. Many died of malnutrition and scurvy, but were saved by the Pokanokets in return for an alliance vs their enemies (Narragansetts) which would be broken in King Philip's war. Not financially successful - had large amounts of debt to investors, which they tried paying back with trade, fishing and lumbering, but didn't make a lot to export, instead farming for themselves. However, started out as a strong self-sufficient community that later dissolved into different communities. Where: New England Why: Demonstrated the influence of religion on emigration to the colonies, also showed how many colonies were aided by Indians in their early stages. Also demonstrated how the North Atlantic coast was less viable for commodities, making it a haven for Puritans.
Jamestown
When: early 17th Who: adventurers, gentlemen What: First permanent English settlement in NA, resulting from a charter given to the Virginia Company that backed the mission. The VC sent ships to Chesapeake Bay, and people built Jamestown. They came into a land populated by the Powhatan Confederacy, led by King Powhatan. They survived because of Powhatan's help, but he stopped helping them, making the VC launch a war against the Powhatan that ended when Pocahontas was captured, and peace was made when she married John Rolfe. Economy became based on tobacco after John Rolfe created a variety of tobacco that could compete with Spanish tobacco, leading to an influx of indentured servants. Where: the Chesapeake Why: gave England its first foothold in a continent that had been primarily dominated by the Spanish, beginnings of its empire. Also showed how Indians were helpful to the colonists, who in return gave them violence. Showed the importance of tobacco to colonies in the Chesapeake.
Virginia Company
When: early 17th century Who: London investors / joint-stock company What: Given a charter by King James I to colonize the mid-Atlantic; they sent ships to Chesapeake Bay and established Jamestown. When the Powhatan Confederacy stopped aiding the settlers because they couldn't spare supplies, the Company launched a war against them, attacking villages / killing until 1613. Struggled to find a commodity they could sell until a large demand for tobacco due to the rise of smoking in England occurred; they developed a new type of tobacco and shipped it to England, helping return their investments. Made headright grants to help support tobacco growth. After an uprising of the Powhatan in 1622 (see Powhatan Confederacy) the Virginia Company became bankrupt and Virginia became a royal colony. Also backed the Plymouth Colony later. Where: The Chesapeake / Virginia Why: Demonstrates the influence of joint-stock companies on exploration and colonization; helped expand the dominion of the English in the New World and expanded the tobacco trade.
Headright grants
When: early 17th century Who: The Virginia Company What: The VC gave large plantations to wealthy colonists if they used their own money to bring laborers from England to work on the plantations. Lots of people came to Jamestown to work since farmland in England was being enclosed to let more sheep graze, kicking farmers off; there was also lots of inflation and higher living prices making people homeless. Started in Virginia, but later expanded to Maryland. Where: the Chesapeake Why: Demonstrates one reason why there were so many indentured servants / emigrants coming from England; shows why the tobacco industry was so strong. Increased the amount of independent planter settlements.
Tobacco
When: early 17th century Who: Virginia Company What: With the rise of smoking in England came a huge demand for tobacco; The Virginia Company saw their opportunity, a colonist developed a new variety of tobacco leaf and shipped it to England, further fueling the tobacco craze. Land and labor were the largest concerns, since growing needed hand labor + fresh soil, resulting in headright grants and the increased population of the Chesapeake. Resulted in the Powhatan Uprising of 1622. It meant that settlements couldn't implement feudal manors since tobacco growing needed a lot of space. Indentured servants worked in tobacco fields. Where: the Chesapeake Why: Led to the creation of the headrights grants and the large influx of indentured servants, as well as some slaves, into the Chesapeake; turned the economy of the Chesapeake settlements into a tobacco plantation economy; strengthened the growing English empire in the New World; led to increased conflict between English and Indians
The Great Awakening
When: early 18th Who: Jonathan Edwards, George Whitefield What: A revival of religious enthusiasm condemning the officialism and wealth-orientation of established Protestantism; wanted to restore piety and purity, attempted to do this through emotional preaching that instilled fear in people but gave them hope that God would grant salvation. Appealed to people stressed about finding land, marrying, getting in on the economy. Where: British colonies Why: Encouraged a breakdown in respect for traditional elite (don't depend on leaders for salvation), united colonists through a common experience, showed a pushback to the Enlightenment; Led to further divisions within the church (NL vs OL); emphasized the power / right to individual decision making on religion, contributing to the Revolution. Showed women + minorities they had a voice. Many more young people went to church.
Jonathan Edwards, George Whitefield
When: early 18th Who: Preachers What: Jonathan Edwards helped start the Great Awakening within New England; churches had become more about wealth than religion, allowing church membership w/o conversion and prominent families sitting at the front; young people were frustrated because they couldn't marry as land was expensive / scares, discontent -> skipped church. He preached to appeal to their emotions -> religious fervor, church growth. George Whitefield also used emotional preaching in an intercolonial mov't, touring colonies + scaring people , giving them hope of salvation Where: British colonies Why: contributed to the Great Awakening
Yeoman values
When: early 19th Who: Independent Southern farmers that grew their food, produced some cotton, worked depleted land with their families What: Emphasized the local community - worked together in planting, harvesting, construction. Established systems of barter to repay people, small slave owners loaned out slaves to others. In places where they lived next to large slave owners, large bough food for slaves from small, ground their corn and ginned their cotton. Voted for Andrew Jackson - wanted to become rich like him / expand holdings. Enthusiastic in democracy. However, most valued independence more - lived in places where plantation agriculture didn't thrive. Self-sufficient and property-owning, controlled wives and children. Where: Virginia to Mississippi, NW Georgia Why: Made them resist capitalism and industrialism, since they thought it would strip away their freedom.
Republic of Texas, annexation
When: early 19th What: Americans who came to Texas only viewed it as an extension of the US in the first place. In 1828, in an effort to bring Texas under control of the Mexican gov't by centrists, restricted American immigration, outlawed slavery, levied customs duties. Made Americans in Texas want to rebel; after 1830, an influx of anti-Mexican expansionist Americans into Texas increased the plans to take over Texas and made compromise w the Mexican gov't impossible. A volunteer American and Tejano army fought and won independence for Texas. Congress refused to admit it since didn't want more slave states. With continued tension with Mexico, Tejanos were discriminated against and subjugated to American rule. Annexation became an urgent political matter; didn't want an expansionist republic bordering the US or for Texas to ally with GB. Increased sectional fears when Calhoun advocated for annexation (slavery potential). Whigs put Clay up for election, who took a neutral stance. Democrats elected Polk (pro-Texas annexation). After this election, President Tyler took it as a mandate for expansion and annexed Texas as a slave state. Where: Texas Why: increased sectional divisions over slavery; demonstrated the expansionist mindset of Americans in the mid 19th century; showed the repression of others by Americans in the quest for expansion
Slave Revolts
When: early 19th What: Gabriel's Rebellion, Denmark Vesey, Nat Turner's Revolt were all the most prominent organized slave resistance. First two failed. Nat Turner's: moved to different plantations killing white people, eventually most of the rebels were executed. Well-treated and intelligent, so scared white people. Why: Exposed that only force kept slaves, and revolt was always possible.
Utopianism, Millerites, Shakers, Oneida Community
When: early 19th What: Utopian religions popped up in places experiencing radical change, reform movements. Millerites - believed in a specific day for the Second Coming of Christ. Shakers - Oldest utopian group from Quakers, wanted to abolish the family in favor of a family joined in equal fellowship of everyone. Celibacy, simple, structured lifestyle, isolation from the world, belief in equality drew in people, especially women. Oneida Community - sexual freedom, one family. Children raised communally. Associated with socialism, wasn't super successful. Where: Common in Burned-Over district in New York Why: Demonstrated how some people wanted a refuge from the turmoil of the time.
Barter system to Cash economy
When: early 19th What: With the Market Revolution, people started to use wages to buy manufactured goods. Employers only interacted with employees through a paycheck. Why: made it harder for artisans and farmers to make a living. Development of less local economic ties.
Indian Problem
When: early 19th What: the relationship of Americans with NAs. Formerly, settlers had just kept on pushing NAs west, but the tribes of the Great Plains, Rocky Mountains, Southwest and West Coast couldn't be removed. First western pioneers ignored the problem, but later the government started Indian wars to constrict NAs to reservations.
Santa Fé Trail, Santa Fe Trade
When: early 19th Who: What: the trail crossed Indian Territory. This was a space eastern Indian tribes had been pushed west toward due to expansion, justified by saying they could live undisturbed by whites there. This trail changed that. Opened by American merchants to trade with Mexico after its liberalization of the formerly restrictive trading policies of Spain, since it gained its independence. High danger of Native American attacks, so got federal protection. Huge profits. Lots of settlements and trading posts grew along the trail with multiethnic populations, intermarrying with Mexicans and NAs. Also economically diverse - trapped, hunted, farmed Where: across Indian Territory (Oklahoma , Kansas, Nebraska) to New Mexico (still part of Mexico) Why: Contributed to the creation of the Kansas and Nebraska Territories / opening of far West to white settlers, the loss of autonomy / tribal identity of Indians. Led to some American trappers / traders living permanently in New Mexico. Example of a frontier of inclusion.
"Midnight judges"
When: early 19th Who: Adams, Jefferson What: After the Federalist-dominated Congress passed laws creating new judiciary positions, before Adams left office he appointed Federalists to the new positions. Where: US Why: Resulted in Marbury v. Madison, the strengthening of the federal gov't through the Marshall Court
Five Civilized Tribes
When: early 19th Who: Cherokees, Choctaws, Creeks, Chickasaws, and Seminoles What: They had ceded most of their lands due to white settlers moving West, but some tried to assimilate instead of leaving. They intermarried with whites and African Americans, took lessons from missionaries that led to them being able to read English, created businesses, etc. However, it wasn't enough, evident from the Indian Removal Act. Where: Why:
Temperance Movement
When: early 19th Who: Excessive drinking by young men, who used it as a pastime after hard work. New moral middle class, employers who didn't want drinking to ruin productivity, Whigs and women supported it. Immigrants who viewed drinking as culturally important, northern cities opposed it. Why: Demonstrated influence of new morality after Second Great Awakening and Market Revolution; part of sweeping reform movements.
African Methodist Episcopal Church
When: early 19th Who: Founded by Reverend Allen and other African American ministers What: The Second Great Awakening introduced many slaves to Christianity, and African Americans founded African churches like the AME. Enslaved black preachers preached to slaves of faith, love and the coming of the promised land. However, most slave owners wanted religion to make slaves obedient, so brought them to white church. Held secret prayer meetings. Why: Gave black people a new community centered on religion that helped them to survive as active opponents of the slave system, protesting in small ways. Spiritual freedom.
Mountain men
When: early 19th Who: Fur trappers What: 1820s, US fur companies beginning to challenge Brit dominance of trans-Mississippi fur trade w the rendezvous system, employed mountain men. Gathered in fur rendezvous to trade. Established connections to Native Americans. Many married NAs, who helped them trap/cut furs and were diplomatic links between whites and NAs Where: Rocky Mountains, far West Why: Contributed to the dominance of US in the fur trade in the 1820s that fueled later Western expansion
Tecumseh/Pan-Indian Resistance
When: early 19th Who: Jefferson pres What: Despite acts attempting to insulate Indian land / Indians, there was still a cycle of invasion, resistance and defeat. In addition to disease and increased dependency on the white economy, led to some tribes rising in armed resistance. After pressure from white settlers, Tecumseh led a group of traditional Shawnees west from the Ohio Valley, His brother preached that the indians should reject contact with the Americans and go back to farming and hunting, with an end to the accumulation of private property, violence, etc. Turned his bro's religious following into a resistance movement, supported by the British who sent food and guns. Started defensive, but became a resistance to William Harrison, governor of Indiana Territory. Why:
American System
When: early 19th Who: Madison proposed, Monroe supported, Henry Clay What: Deviated from Jefferson's agrarianism, because Republicans recognized the federal government needed to be involved in economy and commerce in order to foster success. Program of government subsidies / national economic development to promote US economic growth, protect domestic manufacturers from foreign competition. 1: Second Bank of the US 2: Tariff of 1816 - after war of 1812, Brits dumped low cost manufactured goods to undermine US industry growth, so tariffed those goods. 3: Road and Canal funding Why: Demonstrated the realism during the Era of Good Feelings that helped the American economy develop after the War of 1812
Comanches and Apaches
When: early 19th Who: Native American tribes What: Attacked settlers along the Santa Fe Trail. Comanches - using horses, raided Texas settlements and Mexico in order to hold onto buffalo / for horses. Came into conflict with Tejanos and Americans. Nomadic. After the Republic of Texas formed, continued to kill trespassers, only conquered after the Civil War. Where: Texas and surrounding area; Great Plains; Southwest. Comanches = N, W Texas Why: led to the Mexican gov't permitting American settlement in Texas to buffer between Comanches and Mexico. Pushback to American expansionism
The Grimke Sisters
When: early 19th Who: Quaker reformers in the Abolition and Women's Rights movement What: Spoke about slavery to groups of men and women, became the first female public speakers in America. Criticized bc they were women and abolitionists. Asserted that they should be equal to men. Also advocated for women's rights. Why: Demonstrated how women struggled to make their voices heard in reform movements, but were still promiment.
Public education, Horace Mann
When: early 19th Who: Secretary of Massachusetts State Board of Education What: After the Market Revolution, people began valuing children more, educational reformers wanted children to be nurtured and encouraged. Horace Mann's public education system was spread, uniformity of curriculum and teacher training, grades. Created a new career opportunity for women. Why: effects of Market Revolution, family limiting, Second Great Awakening
Tippecanoe
When: early 19th Who: Tecumseh, William Henry Harrison What: Part of the Pan-Indian resistance to white settlement and expansion. Fought, angry followers of Tecumseh then went into settlements in Indiana and Michigan, killing pioneers. Why: Led to the formal alliance of Tecumseh with the British, increased tensions between Natives and Americans. British involvement = one of the factors leading to the War of 1812.
Transcendentalism Emerson, Thoreau, Fuller
When: early 19th Who: popularized by Emerson What: There is an ideal, intuitive reality transcending ordinary life. In order to gain this individual intuition, you need to go into the natural world. Thoreau denounced the new materialism brought by the Market Revolution, recommended a simple life. Fuller talked about the wasted potential of women. Thoreau and Fuller were deemed too radical. Why: Added to the feelings of self-reliance / individualism that helped shape middle-class values, fulfill the personal transformation required by the Market Revolution.
Texas, Tejanos
When: early 19th Who: tejanos = Spanish-speaking Texans descended from 18th cent Spanish + Mexican settlers What: Texas had some American colonies managed by empresarios, mostly made of farmers who introduced slavery / cotton growing to Texas. Tejanos composed of rancheros who raised cattle, as well as cowboys and poor tenant farmers. Little contact between Americans and Tejanos, but leaders mingled and Tejano elite intermarried to strengthen power. Wanted weak federal union and more local control after the Mexican Revolution, wanted a strong role for Americans. Tejanos joined with the Americans at Alamo, as well as in Texas independence. Afterward, frontier of inclusion -> influx of Americans -> racism -> frontier of exclusion, anti-Mexican. Tejanos attacked, Spanish-speaking communities conquered. Where: Texas Why: Demonstrated effects of American expansion on minorities
Stephen Austin, empresarios
When: early 19th Who: the first American empresario (land agent) What: Mexican gov't wanted buffer from Comanches, granted Austin's dad land in Texas after the Mexican Revolution. Agents who got a land grant from the Mexican gov't in return for organizing settlements. Austin agreed to become Mexican citizens, adopt Catholicism. Chose southern slaveowners as settlers who saw it as an extension of the cotton frontier brought slaves, created enclaves resulting in little contact w Tejanos or Indians. Where: Texas Why:
American System of Manufactures
When: early 19th What: The production of interchangeable, standardized parts. Slowly spread. Why: Reduced manufacturing cost and time. Allowed for mass-production of goods for ordinary people, supporting democratic ideals and resulting in national pride.
Republican agrarianism
When: early 19th (Jefferson presidency) Who: Thomas Jefferson What: Wanted an agrarian republic composed of small family farms clustered together in rural, self-sufficient and virtuous communities that would eventually expand all over. He thought that this would cause people to be more invested in the common good. Influenced by Malthus Where: US Why: Encouraged the spread of plantations based on slave labor in the South. Created brutality toward Native Americans, since was based on expansionism. Drove a lot of Thomas Jefferson's ideas
Cherokee Nation vs Georgia
When: early 19th, after the Indian Removal Act Who: John Marshall, Andrew Jackson What: Ruled that the Cherokees were a nation that couldn't be forced by Georgia to give up its land against its will Why: Jackson ignored it, showing his emphasis on executive power
Internal slave trade, natural increase
When: early, mid 19th Who: What: After the banning of the international slave trade, slavery depended on a natural increase of slaves. The cottom boom led to an increase in domestic slave trade; slavery became clustered in the Lower South, Upper South slave owners sold slaves "down the river" to meet growing demand for labor in the Old Southwest. More migrated than had been brought to America. Higher fertility of African American women, white owners wanted to profit. However, high mortality of kids because of inadequate nourishment, worked too hard, pregnant too much. Where: South Why: Showed how slavery became distinctively southern; demonstrated how much the Southern economy depended on slavery. Expanded the African American slave community.
Sold down the river
When: early, mid 19th after banning of international slave trade Who: What: After cotton boom, growth in domestic slave trade. Upper South slave owners separated slaves from their kin and sold them to large trading firms, after which they were held in pens in northern cities. Then, were transported in steamboats down the Mississippi to central Lower South markets like New Orleans, presented to buyers, and sold w/o keeping families together. Some cleared land for farms in a relatively cooperative way, but on cotton plantations, more strictly disciplined, which was unusual for slaves from other parts who were used to more individuality. Where: Upper South to Southwest (Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Texas) Why: made owners more fearful of resent from slaves; bred new tensions; fueled cotton growth even more
Harriet Tubman, Underground Railroad
When: early-mid 19th Who: Female runaway What: Escapes more successful in the Upper South, but continued to flee, some like Tubman helping others. Freed 60-70 slaves in rescue missions. Runaway herself even though most who escaped were young men, since they didn't have children. Slaves still ran away for a few days to protest, warning of discontent masters heeded.
New Mexico
When: late 16th, early 17th Who: Spain What: *Motives* Pueblo communities were densely settled, lots of potential converts for Franciscan missionaries. Thought there was gold along Rio Grande, another Aztec empire, so enslaved Indians but couldn't find gold. Founded Santa Fe after church got the monarchy to make it a missionary colony, used it to get to surrounding Indians. *Demographics* native population fell a lot b/c of diseases; few settlers came from Mexico, so only growth came from Pueblo women and colonial men marrying. Mostly mestizos in a few towns, surrounded by Pueblos *Economics* small-scale agriculture and sheep raising, not a lot of commodities since no gold - more focused on religion *religion / culture* Before Pueblo revolt, missionaries tried eliminating the Pueblo religion, but compromised after *Interaction with Indians* Frontier of inclusion, mingled with Indians since few settlers came from Mexico, used natives as laborers Where: Southwest Why: Spain = frontier of inclusion, focused on conversion of natives
Mercantilism
When: late 16th-18th Who: European countries What: idea that change in economics = peaceful war because total amount of trade didn't change; if one country's trade increased, others would decrease; should export more than importing to get more bullion; wealth = bullion; state gov't should be involved in / regulate economy to make sure the state benefits from slavery. Parliament made tariff barriers protecting from competition from foreign products, regulated wages, fostered agriculture / manufacturing w/ subsidies. Where: Europe Why: Led to the Navigation Acts / increased restriction on colonies. Demonstrated how slavery influenced the policies of England.
New Amsterdam / New York
When: late 17th Who: Charles II What: Dutch wanted to emulate NE's merchant economy, so DWIC sponsored emigration to the Hudson River valley so it could become a diverse supply center for the West indies; Eng passed the Trade and Navigation Act -> Dutch vessels banned from Eng colonies -> naval wars. Eng sailed into the Manhattan Harbor and New Amsterdam surrendered, was renamed. Governmental and commercial center that was religiously, ethnically and linguistically diverse since Charles II let it be. Where: Northeast Why: Signaled the rise of English dominance in the Atlantic, even though Dutch still dominant in the Baltic and East Indies
North and South Carolina
When: late 17th Who: Charles II What: NC: Moved into by Virginians, small farmers + tobacco planters. SC: Came from the Caribbean colony Barbados (rich from sugar) with many Eng owners and African slaves (most of the population, imported to work plantations) Where: Virginia -> Sp Florida Why: Cash crop economy that would lead to increased slavery later
King William's War
When: late 17th Who: English, Iroquois, French, Algonquians What: start of a conflict between Eng and Fr to control NA interior; French moved W for new commercial opportunities since the Covenant Chain challenged their fur-trade empire, and in the N, Eng made Hudson's Bay Company (royal fur-trade monopoly) to challenge the French. Eng + Iroquois attacked Montreal, French + English traders fought on Hudson Bay as part of the larger conflict (WoLoA). French and Algonquians burned settlements in New England and attacked the Iroquois, and in retaliation, the English captured a French outpost, but couldn't conquer Quebec. Ended by the Treaty of Ryswick (1697) which only kept the peace for 5 years. Where: Canada, North of North America Why: Violence resulted in Eng tried to control its colonies more (scared it would lose them to chaos) - English Board of Trade recommended turning charter / proprietary gov'ts into royal colonies, causing most of their colonies to change. Demonstrates how conflicts in Europe translated over to North America, how Indians were also getting involved in European conflicts. part of violence in NA colonies during the late 17th.
Glorious Revolution
When: late 17th Who: James II What: James II strengthened royal power over the colonies which had powerful assemblies, abolishing some assemblies, transferring power to a royal governor, creating the Dominion of New Eng from NE, NY, NJ and imposing Anglicanism on Puritans. However, he was deposed b/c appointed Catholics to high positions and people didn't want a Catholic dynasty; replaced with Protestants William of Orange + Mary, who agreed to a Bill of Rights - respected civil liberties, enforce Parliament legislature, consult parliament, making Eng a constitutional monarchy. Where: England Why: After colonists heard about the GR, rebelled vs the royal authorities; WoM let the Dominion of NE dismantle and the proprietary rule of Maryland end; All colonies affected by James II brought back their assemblies and self-government, Eng only established authority in those colonies years later. Shows how much of an effect English events had on NA.
Navigation Acts
When: late 17th Who: Parliament What: Established due to British mercantilistic policy encouraging gov't regulation of the economy for state power. Passed because English manufacturers didn't want foreign products to be more prominent in colonial markets than domestic goods; Aimed to make colonies markets for domestic goods and suppliers of raw material for England; restricted foreign goods from reaching English colonies and established enumerated goods that could only be shipped to England, so basically, colonies couldn't trade with other European powers. Things coming from the colonies to England had to be shipped in English / colonial vessels. Wasn't successfully enforced; New Englanders traded food for sugar in foreign colonies, exported lots of rum. Where: Britain / English colonies. Why: Demonstrated how mercantilism was put into practical use; roused resentment among the colonies toward Britain that contributed to the Revolution.
Enumerated goods
When: late 17th Who: Parliament What: Listed in the Navigation Acts as goods that the English colonies could only ship to England, in an effort to adhere to mercantilist policy by having England benefit from the commerce of its colonies. 1) South slave colonial products (sugar, molasses, rum, tobacco, rice, indigo 2) Northern Native American trade (furs, skins) 3) shipping industry (masts, tar, resin, pitch). Once in England, mostly re-exported somewhere else. Where: English colonies Why: Showed how mercantilism affected actual laws; allowed England to profit greatly;
Toleration Acts
When: late 17th Who: Parliament, Charles II What: Massachusetts + Connecticut stopped religiously persecuting people; allowed other Protestants to make congregations, but Congregational churches still supported through taxation. Wasn't really enforced in the south. Where: British colonies Why: Demonstrates rising ideas of tolerance in New England
New Mexico (Pueblo Revolt)
When: late 17th Who: Pueblos vs Spanish What: Spanish colonists wanted to convert them to Christianity to make them loyal subjects, but they mostly added new practices to their old traditions. Missionaries tried stopping this by invading kivas, destroying artifacts, making people work in penance, and killing religious leaders. This, combined with drought, famine and disease led to a revolt. Many colonists were killed, and made the governor's home into a kiva and communal home. A new Pueblo confederacy was made, trying to remove every Spanish thing which was hard since they needed wheat, fruit, horses, and sheep. Also struggled without the help of the Spanish vs their enemies who raided them. The colony was reestablished later, but missionaries learned their lesson, let them practice in kivas and in chapels. Protected their land in exchange for loyalty, no more forced labor, worked together to fight invaders Where: New Mexico Why: Demonstrated how religion and labor was a large part of Spanish colonization, dependence of Indians on European tools
King Philip's War
When: late 17th Who: Puritans, Pokanokets, Narragansetts, Iroquois What: Tensions rising: Puritans preached to Indians and Algonquian converts were moving into praying towns; expansion of Puritan populations meant threat of expansion into tribal lands. The Pokanokets led by Metacom were forced to give Plymouth colonists sovereign authority over their lands, causing them to plan to break their alliance with Plymouth and fight. Pokanokets were arrested for killing a Christian Indian -> tried allying with Narragansetts -> NE colonies invaded the Narragansetts -> war. Metacom asked the Iroquois Confederacy for help, but they attacked since they wanted to be a trading intermediary between the English and other tribes. Metacom + his people were defeated and sold into slavery or killed, and the Iroquois allied with New York in the Covenant Chain, becoming dominant over all tribes. Where: New England Why: Many Native and colonist communities were left in ruins; colonists burned Christian Indian praying towns because they feared more attacks. Showed how Indian warfare was now motivated by colonial powers, and the effects of Puritan expansion / the violence that came with the spread of settlements in the late 17th.
Pennsylvania
When: late 17th Who: William Penn, leader of the Quakers What: Proprietary colony. Had a Frame of Government that guaranteed religious freedom, civil liberties, elected representation. Tried treating the Indians fairly - purchased land before settlement. Many came from England, fertile valleys good for agriculture -> America's breadbasket, Philadelphia = most important colonial port. Where: Northeast Why: Showed how equality somewhat present in a few colonies
Bacon's Rebellion
When: late 17th Who: tobacco planters and former indentured servants led by Nathan Bacon What: Bacon made a manifesto demanding an end to Indians as well as the rule of aristocrats. raided Indians while expanding from Virginia; Virginian governor tried stopping them, but Bacon and his followers pillaged and burned Jamestown. Collapsed after Bacon died, Virginia signed a treaty w the Indians but most had already joined the Iroquois. Where: the Chesapeake Why: Virginia favored armed expansion into Indian territory to make amount of land available greater, in order to win the support of backcountry men. Also accelerated to slave labor b/c didn't want unrest from former indentured servants.
Slave codes
When: late 17th - early 18th century What: Laws that controlled the lives of enslaved African Americans and denied them basic rights. Developed by the colonists since English law said nothing about enslavement. Children were born into slavery if their mothers were slaves. Christian baptism couldn't stop someone from being a slave. Killing a slave wasn't a felony. Barred slave marriage. Where: southern colonies Why: Served as a way to further divide blacks and whites in order to establish that black people were inferior, leading to the association of race with slavery. Enabled lifelong, hereditary and brutal slavery.
Sharecropping
When: late 1860s What: Dominant form of working land among African Americans. individual families contracted w/ landowners, responsible for a plot --> plantations became broken up farms. Received some of the crops. Preferred to gang labor, since families could set own hours / tasks, free from white supervision. Stabilized workforce for planters by making sharecroppers stay until the harvest, employ all family members. Caught in a cycle of poverty due to the crop lien system. Why: demonstrated how, even though many dreamed of economic independence / land ownership, most freed people didn't. Led to most land being occupied by family-sized farms, most black southerners becoming sharecroppers. Led to further racial divisions.
Hamilton's Fiscal Program
When: late 18th Who: Alexander Hamilton, Treasury Secretary for Washington What: Charged with fixing the national debt from the Revolution, the lack of revenue. "Report on the Public Credit": Called for the assumption of state debt and the full payment of national debt at face value, in order to allow the confidence of domestic and foreign investors in US credit. State debt assumption generated controversy, because some states already decided to liquidate it, but others just didn't pay it. Debt assumption plan was passed after a sectional dispute over where the capital would be: Madison promised to get enough South votes to pass Hamilton's plan, north agreed to have the capital in Philadelphia temporarily. Bank of the United States: Funded by private capital as a place to deposit government funds, tool of the Treasury. Some people like Jefferson argued that it was unconstitutional, federal government should only have enumerated powers (strict constructionist) Hamilton said Constitution granted them implied powers through the elastic clause. "Report on Manufactures": investment capital for growing industries comes from gov't securities; high protective tariffs to grow an industrial economy. Why: Bank of America got lots of reserves from foreign investment in government securities and domestic capital, notes circulated widely and stimulated business. Revived the US economy, pulling it from national debt. Showed the importance of implied powers to a strong national gov't.
James Madison
When: late 18th Who: also known as the Father of the Constitution. What: Took notes of the Convention and helped draft the Virginia Plan. Federalist and one of the authors of the Federalist Papers. Turned the propositions for amendments from Anti-Federalist delegates in state ratification conventions into the Bill of Rights. Why: Helped build the basis of our current government, his essays give a glimpse in how the Constitution was originally interpreted.
Stamp Act Congress
When: late 18th Who: delegations from 9 colonies What: Passed resolutions saying that taxation needed representation, Parliament couldn't taxed. Stopped importation from Britain in adherence to the nonimportation movement, and also defused radicals because said that colonies needed to submit to Parliament, leading to less mob attacks against taxation officials.
Judicial Review
When: late 18th Who: under Washington's presidency, Chief Justice John Jay What: Implied power in the Constitution; federal courts can review / determine the constitutionality of acts passed by Congress and state legislation. First implemented in the Judiciary Act of 1789, in Ware v. Hylton (struck down a Virginia law) and Hylton v. US (said a law passed by Congress was constitutional). Why: Established the Supreme Court as the final, definite authority over smaller courts in order to help bind them together.
Judith Sargent Murray
When: late 18th Who: First self-declared feminist in the US and writer What: As women grew more literate, trend of popular women's books, people argued women should also have a new role in the new republican order. Wrote "On the Equality of the Sexes", said women were equal to men. At the time, even though people agreed that women should be better educated since they could instill virtue into households, which would lead to better self-government (republican mother). Where: Massachusetts Why: Showed the rising role of women in American society
Committees of Correspondence
When: late 18th (Pre-Revolutionary Era) Who: Organized by Samuel Adams What: During the rise of intercolonial cooperation. 1) Hutchinson (gov of Massachusetts) and royally appointed officials would be paid by the crown, making them independent of elected representatives 2) This made people publish things saying British wanted to enslave Americans, and made almost all the colonies create committees for sharing information about British actions that would affect the colonies, influencing public opinion and building intercolonial cooperation. Predicted there was a British plot to destroy American liberty, which was confirmed to them by the Quebec Act. Where: British colonies Why: Demonstrated the rise in unity of the colonies in opposition to Britain
Loyalists / Tories
When: late 18th (Rev War) Who: Colonists loyal to the British crown What: Mostly recent migrants born in England, Scotland or Ireland, or those paid by the British gov't; scared of political upheaval. A lot were ethnic minorities that were persecuted, like Highland Scots in New York. Also southern tenant farmers w Patriot landlords. In some colonies like New York and Georgia, were a large portion. Their property and rights were stripped away by bills of attainder, and they couldn't speak out against the Revolution bc of state treason acts. Targeted by mob violence. Although dissatisfied politically, still loved America. Many fled to Canada or England. Where: America Why: Demonstrated the creation of a distinct American identity even though they still disagreed with the Patriots; showed how colonies were founded on the basis of freedom, but still suppressed many
inflation of Continental currency
When: late 18th (Rev War) Who: Continental Congress What: Congress was being loaned by foreign powers, but wasn't enough to cover the value of Continental currency circulating. States wouldn't raise taxes to pay and started making their own currency, further increasing the face value of money. This resulted in the rapid decrease of Continental currency's value while prices rose. Had a heavy impact on people with fixed incomes like soldiers, merchants. Where: US Why: Resulted in the creation of the Bank of North America; demonstrated how ineffective the Articles of Confederation were
George Washington
When: late 18th (Rev War) Who: commander of the Continental Army What: Fought to have the Continental Army, because he knew the colonists needed to unify against the British, needed something separated from politics. Helped lead the Continental Army to victory. Helped avoid a crisis at Newburgh, and his resignation set an example of military submission to civil power. Why: Set an example of proper power by not becoming a dictator, key in winning American independence.
Mercy Otis Warren
When: late 18th (Rev War) Who: poet, playwright What: her home was a center of Patriotic activity. Wrote satires mocking Loyalists and supporting Patriots. Where: Boston Why: Showed how the Revolution gave women more of a political role in society, showed them they had a voice. Demonstrates the integral role women played in the Revolution.
Democrats vs Whigs (American)
When: late 18th (rev era) Who: Democrats = farmers, artisans, ordinary people. Whigs = conservative colonial elite who wanted to increase their own power What: Dems - Power in a popularly elected assembly, with no property qualifications to vote or hold office. Representatives in the assembly should dictate what the governor does. Judges should be popularly elected, decisions reviewed by the assembly. Community meeting is the best for of government; people can set their own taxes, form militia, run churches and schools, regulate the local economy. State government should help communities coordinate. Whigs - A balanced gov't with a strong executive power and upper house is needed to temper the majority. Property qualifications and long terms in order to get the wisdom of rich, experienced men. Didn't want majority tyranny Why: Demonstrated how farmers, ordinary people were getting more of a voice in government / the base of politics was broadening with political mobilization during the war. This argument shaped the formation of state constitutions, with some radical, some conservative and some in the middle.
Virginia and Kentucky Resolves
When: late 18th after Alien and Sedition Acts Who: Written by Madison and Jefferson What: Created in protest to the Alien and Sedition Acts, which they viewed as unconstitutional for restricting free speech. Declared that the states could nullify unconstitutional laws, and states could go their own way if the central government became oppressive. Why: Would lead to the justification of secession during the Civil War. Demonstrated the growing partisan politics, further divisions between Jeffersonian Democrats and Federalists. Reflection of consent of governed principle.
XYZ Affair, "Quasi-War"
When: late 18th, cusp of 19th Who: Adams presidency What: After Jay's Treaty, Fr started seizing American ships and cargo, causing a loss of millions of dollars. Adams sent people to negotiate, but the French requested a bribe before they negotiated. When the Jeffersonian Republicans heard about this, they were skeptical, but Adams released documents as proof that substituted the names of the French involved with X,Y,Z, and led to anti-French sentiment as well as the popularity of Adams. Congress tripled the size of the army, feared a French invasion, which abated after British scored a naval victory over the French. However, in 1799, France finally showed they were ready to make peace when they released American ships and asked to negotiate. Against the wishes of conservative Federalists, Adams made peace with France, ending the Quasi War. Why: First time US neutrality was strained, led to more divisions between the parties.
The Second Great Awakening
When: late 18th, early 19th What: Transformed orderly Puritan religion / conception of sin into a more evangelistic, democratic and enthusiastic faith, where people believed in salvation by faith. Conversion and repentance became community events. The converted had to demonstrate morality in their daily lives. Where: Started in Western frontier, but made its way into other places with the Market Revolution Why: Fostered individualism, self-discipline that granted the middle-class new values, allowed them to adjust to a new industrial environment. Also made its way into employer demands - workers had to make their own way, no longer paternalistic system.
Expansion of suffrage
When: late 18th, early 19th What: With the rise of partisan politics came a rise of Fourth of July celebrations, as well as an increase in suffrage. 1789: Women, African Americans, Native Americans couldn't vote, as well as many free adult males, who didn't pay taxes or own property. Voting turnout was low, and voting was by voice, so the wealthy, landlords and employers could pressure people to vote. However, w increasing partisan politics, white manhood suffrage was expanded and property requirements reduced, higher voter turnout. Why: Ensured more voices could contribute to the government, benefit of partisan politics.
Impeachment of Andrew Johnson
When: late 19th What: Radicals / moderates in House voted to impeach on the basis of Johnson's violation of the Tenure of Office Act; charged him with high crimes, misdemeanors. Influenced by their bias against his political views, opposition to Reconstruction Acts. However, moderates in Senate thought his conviction would hurt the separation of powers b/c would show Congress could remove a president b/c they disagreed with them. During trial, agreed to obey Reconstruction Acts. Wasn't convicted. Why: Maintained the principle of separation of powers - political disagreements didn't warrant removal from office.
"Redemption"
When: late 19th Who: Democrats What: Northern Republicans started to lose interest in southern allies, freedmen. Southern Democrats started to take control, blaming Republicans for tax increases / the fiscal crisis due to their spending of public money on schools, roads, other improvements. Dems took control of the House, began "redeeming" Southern states, sometimes using violence. Why: Led to new obstacles to Af Ams voting, more control of plantation labor, cuts in social services.
Black codes
When: late 19th after Civil War What: Laws denying most legal rights to newly freed slaves; passed by southern states following the Civil War. Black labor force's freedom restricted, freedmen kept close to slavery + economically disabled. Laborers who broke contracts lost all wages, could be arrested by whites. Vagrancy = fines, plantation labor. Apprenticeship = black children worked w/o pay. Denied equal civil rights. Employment of freedmen restricted. Where: South Why: Demonstrated deep-rooted white supremacy. Boosted the Radicals; increasing moderate Republicans joined their cause, majority of Congress, established Joint Committee on Reconstruction, passed Civil Rights Act + enlarged Freedmen's Bureau. Set the foundation for the Jim Crow laws.
Union League
When: late 19th, Reconstruction Who: Republican Party organizations in northern cities. Brought together African Americans, soldiers, Freedmen's Bureau to advocate for the vote, end legal discrimination vs African Americans. Brought out Af Am voters, instructed freedmen about citizenship, promoted Republican candidates. Fostered Af Am political activism. Why: helped foster origins of Af Am organized involvement in politics, Republican activity in predominantly Democratic South. Helped Republicans dominate southern constitutional conventions, producing constitutions that expanded democracy, abolished property qualifications for offices, state-funded education systems in the South, etc. Led to Republicans coming to power in the South.
Overland Trails
When: mid 19th What: How pioneers traveled to Oregon and California. Journey was slow and dangerous, pioneers didn't have much food, belongings. However, many took the journey; farmers wanted more economic opportunities after the Panic of 1837, escape from malaria; wanted adventure, to see the unknown. Formed "trains" (groups) to travel together, cross obstacles w wagons; hired former fur trappers and elected leaders. Cholera, accidental deaths Where: from mid US / banks of Missouri to Oregon and California Why: Shows how much people risked to go west; gave a route West
Nativism, American Party, "Know-Nothings"
When: mid 19th What: Nativism = antiimigrant feeling, came from the room left from the breakup of the Whig Party after the Kansas-Nebraska Act. fueled by the growth of the American Party, political outlet for nativism, reaction to Democratic Party's success in getting support from Catholic foreign voters like Irish immigrants (vs Whig hostility, were antiblack). Whigs were more nativist, didn't like immigrants bc were poor, Catholic (Catholic Church opposed the 1848 revolutions which US liked), didn't like temperance movement, were associated w crime. AP made up of young Whig men in white/blue-collar jobs; had secret fraternal societies for native-born Protestants, thought Catholics took orders from the pope. Were known as the Know-Nothings. Won some N elections and S, but soon split into N and S factions, resulting in support going toward the Republican Party. Why: Demonstrated how racism was a national thing, how sectional differences couldn't be resolved for long. Showed effect of reformers.
Slave Power
When: mid 19th Who: James Birney (leader of Liberty Party) coined phrase What: A group of aristocratic slave owners who wanted to control the federal government / dominate the political + social life of the South, therefore compromising free speech / institutions. Fueled by the desire of proslavery people to keep dominance in the Senate by keeping the number of slave and free states equal (slavery expansion). Why: This threat led to deeper sectional divide since stirred Northern fears of the S as a large threat to the federal gov't during the 1850s.
Thoreau, Civil Disobedience
When: mid 19th What: part of the northern protesters vs the Mexican-American War who thought that the war was unnecessary + would expand slavery. Refused to pay taxes to support the war, wrote Civil Disobedience that justified the moral duty of people to oppose an immoral government. Where: Massachusetts Why: The basis for activities of civil disobedience by Gandhi, MLK in civil rights movement, etc. Demonstrated sectional divides further amplified by the Mexican-American War.
Oregon, Fifty-four Forty or Fight
When: mid 19th (1845) Who: President James K Polk (anti-British) What: slogan saying the US would go to war if it didn't get all the territory south of this latitude, the border between Russian Alaska and British Canada. Came after strain between US and GB from an influx of US settlers / their attempts to establish a government in Oregon, which they occupied jointly. However, eventually compromised, south of 49th parallel became the US Canada border. Where: Northwest, Oregon Why: Precursor to the decline of the British fur trade in Oregon; further expansion of the US.
Harriet Beecher Stowe, Uncle Tom's Cabin
When: mid 19th century (American Renaissance) Who: Activist for antislavery What: Combined the sentimentalism of popular women's domestic novels and the brutal experiences of slavery acquired from northern abolitionists and escaped slaves. Uncle Tom enduring cruel treatment of slave. Became a best-seller, got made into a play to reach wider audiences. Why: contributed to the social criticism of the American Renaissance helping to build a national identity. Contributed to the antislavery movement before the Civil War, called people to act.
Slave marriages, "natural increase"
When: natural increase in 18th What: Slave marriages were banned by the slave codes, but slaves still performed informal marriages. In the Lower South, husbands and wives lived together in slave quarters; in the Upper South, women + men from close farms married, so still managed to build families. The ability to build families contributed to a natural increase of slaves (not an increase in population by purchasing more). It was also because in the tobacco colonies, profits lower than sugar plantations, so couldn't keep buying new slaves if they died - had to make sure they didn't work them to death, fed them better so there was less disease. Also natural increasing slave population in the Lower South. Where: the Chesapeake / the Lower South Why: Helped build African American culture / sense of kinship, fuel the expansion of plantations
Frontier of Inclusion vs Exclusion
When: start of 17th Who: Dutch, English, Spain, France What: Dutch and English (Virginia, New England) were frontiers of exclusion. Settlers and Indians lived in separate societies, since In places like the Chesapeake, mass immigration meant Indians weren't needed as workers or marriage partners - instead, there were indentured servants. In Spain and France however, there were frontiers of inclusion (cultural mixing). Converted Indians to subjects bc couldn't bring a lot of their own people to populate, making natives a part of colonial society. Why: Demonstrates different methods of colonization
Abolitionism, Fredrick Douglass
When: started 1830s Who: headed by William Lloyd Garrison What: northern antislavery religious groups were radicalized by Garrison's The Liberator; went to hear firsthand accounts of slavery from Frederick Douglass. Style of writing similar to religious revivalists; wanted to depict the evils of slavery to force slave owners to repent and free their slaves. Very personal, published antislavery literature. Eventually there was a split between Douglass and Garrison, bc Douglass became more active in politics rather than just reciting his story. Many whites didn't want social equality. Liberty Party split people Where: Why: antislavery literature --> southern states toughened slave laws, made it a crime for slaves to read. Antiabolitionist violence from Irish, who competed w free blacks for jobs. Mob action in abolitionist meetings. Led go gag rule,
White skin privilege
When: started in the 18th What: White people equal in their freedom - counted on blacks to do the hardest tasks. Perpetuated by universal white manhood suffrage even though the gap between rich and poor white people widened.
Loyalists
When: started to join the fighting around 1775 Who: those supporting the British monarchy vs colonists What: In Virginia, promised any slave who fought with the British that they would be freed, but was still defeated, used naval vessels to attack. In North Carolina, crushed, driving the British out of the South for a couple years. Suppressed from the press and not present at the Congresses. Where: British colonies Why: aided British vs colonists
Free African-Americans
When: starting late 18th / early 19th What: Growing; for most, freedom came before 1800 since manumission laws were tightened in the South until it was pretty much impossible afterward. Most lived in the Upper South countryside, working as tenant farmers / farm laborers. Harder for women, since only could find small jobs like laundry work. Skilled black craftsmen could work as blacksmiths, carpenters. Flourished especially in cities like Charleston, created own institutions. Why: Scared white people, leading to the black codes. Showed how still discriminated against.
Law of Multiple Proportions
Whenever two elements form more than one compound, in these compounds, the masses of one element that combine with a fixed mass of the second element are in a ratio of small whole numbers
The Proprietary Colonies
Where: Carolina, New York, Pennsylvania Who: established by Charles II What: See individual cards
New England
Where: Northern Atlantic Coast - Massachusetts Bay Colony, Plymouth What: Less favored since not easy to produce commodities, so a place for Puritans *motives* Puritans wanted a safe spot to propogate their religion due to persecution in England before the English Civil War *Demographics* Lots of Puritans came during the Great Migration *Economics* During GM: sold things to newcomers; After: emergence of cod fishery economy, shipped cod, lumber and farm products to the indies for sugar, molasses and rum with a huge fleet. that sailed throughout the Atlantic, creating a diverse economy and long-term strength *Politics* General Court with two legislative houses (delegates and magistrates); freemen who were corporation members, male heads of households or church members could vote for delegates. Origin of democratic suffrage, leg bicameral division *Religion / Culture* Puritan, not tolerant. Well-ordered w/ a social hierarchy where land was distributed proportional to social status. Clustered settlements, strong communities, arranged marriages, strong education for men, women subordinate to men, mistrust of women -> Salem *Interaction with Indians* thought they had the right to move into their land, Pequot War
colonies
a country or area under the full or partial political control of another country, typically a distant one, and occupied by settlers from that country.
Electrolyte
an ionic compound that breaks apart into ions in solution and conducts an electric current
Second American Party System
emerged during the Jackson era in the 1830s. Dems: Believed in democratic rights of small, independent yeomen farmer. Appealed to the South and the West (rural). After Jackson, associated with independence, dislike of interference from the government or economic monopolies. Expansion, Indian removal, frontier freedom. Didn't like the quick social changes going on. Whigs: Started and benefited from economic change. Believed in a strong gov't role in the national economy, so liked the American System, the Bank, a protective tariff, internal improvements. Lots were religious, since they thought religion -> self-discipline-> a good life. Supported government intervention in social stuff as well, wanted education and social reforms to improve the common citizen. New England, Old Northwest (factories and commercial agriculture).
Density
g/mL; g/cm^3
Alkali metals
group 1
halogens
group 17
Noble gases
group 18
Alkaline earth metals
group 2
Naming Acids
ide -> hydro__ic acid ite-> ous acid ate -> ic acid
Popular sovereignty
led to fighting in "Bleeding Kansas"
Patrick Henry
literate opposed stamp acts
Republicanism
o Colonial press reprinted the ideas of the Whigs (those who wanted resistance to British rule), political theorists by John Locke, essayists and pamphleteers o Said that the elite like kings, aristocrats and Catholics wanted to create a tyranny, and warned that the British were gaining too much power, which threatened liberty o The power of the state should be limited, because a fair society should give people the greatest amount of liberty possible o John Locke said people should be able to choose their own leaders and take them out of power, and so power should be distributed among the people o Government should depend on the people and their prioritizing politics, only possible if people are independent and free. People are independent if they can own property. o Fit with the colonists - lots of property owners, representative assemblies, struggle vs royal authority Why: Shows the power of literacy; foundations of the Declaration
Sugar Act
o Duty on imported sugar o Stricter regulations for ships and officers o Increased jurisdiction of Halifax court, where customs cases were tried - no right to a jury, assumption of guilt o People were mad because it would cut down the income of merchants, restrict smuggling opportunities o Protested by many people, since colonial taxes were also super high o James Otis Jr - no taxation without representation, people have the right to life, liberty, property An effort to help pay back debt after the Seven Years' War.
Treaty of Paris of 1763
o French lost all NA possessions, and ceded everything east of the Mississippi except New Orleans (went to Spain) to Britain o Spain gave Florida in exchange for its Caribbean and Pacific colonies back o British Empire had complete dominance over eastern North America Established the British Empire as the main NA power
Telegraph, Samuel Morse
one of the most important advances in communications. sent messages using electric currents. Could send messages almost instantly across long distances, increased interconnectedness of the US.
Periods and groups
periods = horizontal groups = vertical
Mass number
protons + neutrons (A)
Atomic Mass
relative mass, measured in amu; how heavy one atom of an element is compared with an atom of another element - based on Carbon (mass of C-12 atom = 12 amu). Needed to establish a standard form of measurement. Calculated using a mass spectrometer
Antietam
the first major battle in the American Civil War to take place on Northern soil. It was the bloodiest single-day battle in American history, with almost 23,000 casualties. After this "win" for the North, Lincoln announced the Emancipation Proclamation
Mixture
two more more substances combined so each one retains its chemical identity
Molecule
two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds (non-metals)
