Aice Psychology: Chapter 2: The Biology Approach Study Guide

Part A: From the study by Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams): Name two things that participants were asked to do (or not to do) prior to the study 1 mark per correct statement(2)

Arrive a little before normal bedtime; Eat normally; Avoid alcohol; Avoid caffeine-containing drinks;

Part A:From the study by Canli et al. (brain scans and emotions): Name the main brain structure investigated in this study. 1 mark for correct answer. If more than 1 answer given credit the first(1)

Amygdala;

Part B: Identify three ways in which the laboratory environment was standardised in this study. 1 mark per correct standardised feature relating to the lab to max 3 marks. Standardisation before arriving at the lab is irrelevant.(3)

Same fitting of electrical equipment: • Electrodes near eyes • Electrodes on scalp • Wires gathered into 'pony tail' Participants in bed Quiet room Dark room Woken by doorbell There was a voice recorder

•Explain one difference between the Schachter and Singer study and one other core study from the biological approach. •4 marks available for the difference

Sample size/characteristics or Invasive/non-invasive or Generalisability or Equipment used (brain scan vs questionnaire) or Stooge vs no stooge

Part B: Suggest why REM duration was a more valid measure of dream duration than the number of words used to describe the dream. 1 mark for identifying a reason 1 mark for explaining the reason in comparison to other measure.(2)

timing is a scientific measure / is more objective; whereas the number of words used might be affected by vocabulary; whereas the number of words used might be affected by how easily the individual wakes up; Participants may lie about dream details (to please the experimenter / so use more words);

Part B: Outline how the participants rated their emotional arousal towards the scenes 1 mark per correct statement(2)

(after viewing a picture), a fixation cross appeared on the screen; They pressed a button to give the picture a rating; This ranged from 0-3; 0 = not emotionally intense/3 = extremely emotionally intense;

•Explain one similarity between the Schachter and Singer study and one other core study from the biological approach. • 4 marks available for the similarity

Both experimental- Both examined emotions -Ratings of emotions from questionnaire/being asked

Part B:Explain whether each guideline below was broken in the study by Schachter and Singer (two factors in emotion): • confidentiality • debriefing • deception • protection(8)

Confidentiality e.g. Any data should not be identifiable as a single participants' responses/participants' data must not be named as theirs All we know is that there were male students from the University of Minnesota/only the doctors had access to their medical records Debriefing e.g. After a study has been completed, participants should be told about the true aim of the study/what deception/occurred This guideline was not broken as after the self-report, the researchers explained the deception of the injection/stooge/answered any questions Deception e.g. A participant should not be deceived without a strong justification/only if revealing the deception would not cause discomfort This guideline was broken as they were told the wrong information whilst getting the injection Protection e.g. Participants should leave the study in the same psychological/physical state as they entered/Participants should not be potentially harmed by the procedure of a study The guideline was broken as the participants did receive an injection which may have caused physical/psychological pain The guideline was not broken as the injection was given by a professional doctor to ensure minimal pain They all had to be health screened prior to the study

Part A: State what is meant by 'participant variables'. 1 mark for explanation of participant variables(1)

Differences between individuals that could affect the dependent variable/ results/study = 1 Individual differences that could hide the effect of the independent variable/act as confounding variables = 1

Describe the ethical guidelines of 'right to withdraw' and 'deception' in research with human participants, using any examples. 4 marks max per guideline for definition and detail 1 mark for each example that is linked to a guideline, up to a maximum of 2 per guideline. Examples can include examples from any research (core studies, other studies, candidate's own studies)(6)

For example: Right to withdraw: ensuring participants know they can leave if they want to; (1 for definition) Deception: misinforming participants; (1 for definition) Right to withdraw • letting participants go if they want to; (1 definition) • and allowing them to leave without reason; (+1 detail) • because they are upset / they think they might be harmed; (+1 detail) • and take their data with them/ remove their data from the study; (+1 detail) • for example Milgram did originally tell his participants they could leave (1 for example) • although Milgram really denied the participants the right to leave with the verbal prods; (+1 for example) • 1 (accept 11) participants withdrew from Schachter & Singer's study (due to the injection); (+1 for example) • Less possible in lab than field experiments because unaware of participation; (+1 detail) Deception • participants should not be lied to / is when participants are lied to (about the aim); (1 definition) • as this means they cannot give informed consent / may be distressed / might have wanted to withdraw; (+1 detail) • for example in Milgram the participants were told they were doing a study about memory/learning/punishment (when in fact is was about obedience) / were told the shocks were real; (1 for example) • but sometimes deception is essential to avoid demand characteristics; (+1 detail) • Milgram's participants would have obeyed to 450V if they knew that the shocks were not real; (+1 for example) • Piliavin et al's participants thought the victim was really drunk / ill; (+1 for example) • Laney et al's participants were misled about the 'generated profile' (from the FHI); (+1 for example) • Laney et al's participants were misled about the aim, told food preferences and personality; (+1 for example) • If participants are deceived they should be debriefed (although this may not be possible in field experiments)

Describe one similarity and one difference between an independent measures design and a repeated measures design, using any examples. 1 mark for a similarity that explicitly compares the two designs 1 mark for a difference that explicitly compares the two designs 1 mark for an example that is linked to one type design, up to a maximum of 2 per example Max 4 if no examples(6)

For example: Similarities: • both are ways to allocate participants to the conditions/levels of the IV = 1 • both designs are used in (lab/field/natural) experiments = 1 - e.g. Piliavin et al. was a field experiment and Bandura et al. was a lab experiment but both used an independent measures design = 1 (example) Differences: • in independent measures different participants do each level of the IV = 1 • in repeated measures the same participants do every level of the IV = 1 - e.g. Schachter and Singer used independent measures as participants did anger or euphoria/MIS or IGN = 1 (example) - e.g. Andrade used independent measures as participants either doodled or didn't = 1 (example) - e.g. Yamamoto et al. = repeated measures design as chimpanzees did 'can see' and 'cannot see' = 1 (example) • repeated measures designs are more prone to order effects (than independent measures designs) = 1 - e.g. if Bandura et al. had used repeated measures, the children could have already learned aggressive behaviour in the first condition = 1 (example) • demand characteristics are a bigger problem in independent measures (than repeated measures designs) = 1 - e.g. if Schacter and Singer had used repeated measures, the participants would have spotted the difference between the instructions/stooges' behaviour = 1 (example) • individual differences are a bigger problem in repeated measures (than independent measures designs) = 1 - e.g. if I did a study about memory and all the clever people were in one group they might remember more and make it look like there was a difference even if there was not = 1 (example) • it is possible to allocate participants to levels of the IV in an independent measures design in a lab experiment but this is unlikely to be possible in a natural experiment = 1 - e.g. Bandura et al. could allocate children to conditions, but if a study was done on real-life exposure to aggressive models, participants would already be allocated to conditions on the basis of their experiences

Part A: Standardisation was important in the study by Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams): State what is meant by 'standardisation'. 1 mark for correct answer. (1)

Keeping the situation/procedure the same for all participants = 1 mark Making sure that each person is treated the same way except for the IV = 1 mark Keeping everything the same = 0 marks Reducing differences between the levels of the IV = 0 marks

Part B: Outline one quantitative result from this study. 1 mark brief 2 marks for result with a comparison(2)

Participants were more likely to recall a dream in REM (1 mark) compared to nREM sleep (1 mark); Participants were more likely to estimate 5 minutes of REM (1 mark) compared to 15 minutes of REM (1 mark); 152 dreams were recalled (from 191 trials) in the REM condition (1 mark) compared to 11 (from 160 trials) in the nREM condition (1 mark); On 88% of trials the participants were accurate at estimating 5 minutes dream duration (1 mark) compared to 78% of trials for 15 minutes (1 mark);

Part B: Describe the revised procedure used to measure participants' estimations of REM sleep duration. 1 mark per correct point(2)

Participants were woke at either 5 or 15 minutes after the onset of REM; They were then asked to choose if they had been dreaming for 5 or 15 minutes;

Part A: In the study by Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams), the procedure that the researchers first used to measure participants' estimations of REM sleep duration was unsuccessful and had to be revised. Describe how the researchers first attempted to measure participants' estimations of REM sleep duration. 1 mark per correct point(2)

Participants were woken at different increments of time (in REM); They were then asked to estimate the time they had been dreaming; To the nearest minute; So, they were not given a fixed choice;

•State one of the questions that was used to measure physical condition, including the answer choices. • 1 mark for the question and 1 mark for indication of answers participants could choose from

Physical condition Q. Have you experienced any palpitation (consciousness of your own heart beat)? Four choices from 'not at all' to 'an intense amount'. Q. Did you feel and tremor? Four choices from 'not at all' to 'an intense amount'. •Accept the Epi MIS only questions of: Did you feel numbness in your feet? Did you feel any itching sensation? Did you experience any feeling of headache? (all same four choices as above

•From the Schachter and Singer study (two factors in emotion): • Describe the psychological theory that was being tested in this study. • 1 mark per correct point made x3

Physiological + cognitive (1 mark) •Cognitions arising from a situation can be interpreted via past experiences and this allows us to understand/label the emotion; •When someone experiences an emotion, physiological arousal happens; •They need a cue to be able to label the physiological arousal; •This may result in misinterpretations of the emotion as it is based on the physiological arousal

Part B: Suggest one participant variable that could have been important in the study by Schachter and Singer (two factors in emotion). 1 mark for identification of a problem linked to a participant variable in this study(1)

Some participants might be scared of the injection = 1 Some participants might already have anger management problems/be more aggressive anyway = 1 Some participants might be more inclined to copy than others = 1

What are some strengths and weaknesses of the Dement and Kleitman study?

Strengths: 1. One method used was the laboratory experiment. In this part of the study it was therefore possible to control extraneous variables. If some participants, or participants in different stages of sleep, had woken more slowly they may have forgotten more of their dream. This was avoided by using a loud doorbell that woke them instantly, from any sleep stage. 2. The participants were not told about their EEG pattern or whether their eyes were moving in order to avoid possible demand characteristics, for example if they expected to remember more detailed dreams in REM sleep they may have made greater effort to do so. 3. Another method used was a correlation. This demonstrated a positive correlation between REM duration and the number of words in the dream narrative.However, as with any correlation, this could only demonstrate whether there was a link between variables. In order to explore this link in a more controlled way, Dement and Kleitman conducted the additional experiment comparing 5 and 15 minute REM sleep periods. 4. The definition of a 'dream' was clearly operationalised, as a recollection that included content, rather than just having the impression that they had been dreaming. This helped to raise validity, as Dement and Kleitman could be more sure that the details being recorded were of dreams. 5. At the beginning of the study, participants were asked to estimate how long they had been dreaming and although they were roughly (and occasionally exactly) accurate, this task was too difficult, so the method was changed. The task was limited to a choice between 5 and 15 minutes. This helped to raise validity as it reduced participant variables such as differences in the ability to recall dreams. 6. An EEG is an objective way to investigate dreaming as it is a biological measure. Differences in narrative length of the REM phase but also how expressive the participant was, making these reports more subjective. Nevertheless, this means that the study collected both quantitative data, from the brain waves, eye movement patterns and REM sleep duration, and qualitative data, which helped to provide insight into the reason for the eye movements detected. The EEG also provides a very reliable measure because it is unaffected by the experimenter's personal view. The consistent placing of the electrodes ensured that recordings taken from each participant would provide the same information. The reliability of the findings is supported by the similarity of the results to those of previous studies. 7. As there may be differences in the dreaming of men and women, or between the way they report their dreams, it was useful in terms of generalizability that there were both genders in the sample. Weakness: 1. There were only 9 participants total, the small size of the sample limits generalizability. 2. One aspect of the method that raised an ethical issue was the deception of participant WD who was misled about the stage of sleep he was being woken in. Participants should not be deceived as it can cause distress and means they cannot give their informed consent. However, in some cases the aim cannot be achieved without doing so and in this case it provided a way to test whether expectation of being woken in REM (at least sometimes) would affect a participant's dream reports. 3. Several aspects of the procedure potentially reduced the ecological validity of the findings. People who were used to drinking coffee or alcohol could have experienced sleep or dreams that were not typical for them as they had been asked to refrain from those drinks. Also, all participants would have found sleeping in a laboratory, connected to machines and under observation, quite different from sleeping in their normal bed. This could also have made their sleeping behavior less typical. Strengths: Breakthrough in dream research=Established relationship between REM and dreaming "dream" was clearly operationalised (how?) and not just on participants word so helped VALIDITY that dreaming was happening 5 or 15 minutes for dream limited participant variables and helped Validity EEG objective, BIOLOGICAL way to measure dreaming EEG Objective measure Provided quantitative data Results reliable as showed similar results of earlier studies Used both men and women (better for generalizability) SEE WEAKNESS and small sample size previous slide Lab experiment so extraneous variables controlled Woke participants instantly from any sleep due to loud bell so avoided participants forgetting dream due to time it took to wake Not told sleep stage as per EEG or if eyes were moving or not, so decreased demand characteristics Positive correlation between dream duration and number of words participants report in dream narrative (does not indicate cause and effect- just correlation) So, compared 5 and 15 minute sleep periods to further prove correlation Weaknesses: Narrative defined as number of words used to describe dream was subjective (BUT-strength is provided quantitative and Qualitative info) Small sample size impacts generalizability Ecological Validity decreased due to: lab experiment lowers it because: Sleeping with wires on Sleeping being watched Sleeping in strange room These 2 impact ecological validity and may have changed participants "usual" dreams and sleep patterns: Not permitted coffee that day Not permitted alcohol that day ETHICAL ISSUES: A Participant deceived (WD) about sleep stage woken in So can't give informed consent

What are some strengths and weaknesses of the Schachter and Singer study?

Strengths: 1. Schachter and Singer's laboratory experiment exerted a large amount of control through their standardised procedure. For example, they were able to randomly allocate different participants to the different conditions, they were able to deceive the participants of the real nature of the experiment and standardise the procedure as much as possible. They even ensured that the stooge did not know which condition the participant was in (double blind technique). 2. The use of questionnaires as a method to operationalise the dependent variable allowed Schachter and Singer to further standardise the collection of the data within the experiment. Questionnaires allow researchers to collect quantitative data quickly from participants that can be easily analysed and used to compare results across two conditions. Completing a questionnaire may not give the participants the same freedom to express their feelings as a discussion therefore we could argue that there is little ecological validity in this research. However, Schachter and Singer also use other measures such as observation and physical measures to assess both the physical and psychological impact of arousal. Weakness: 1. The sample in this research consisted of university students and introduced participant variables that could distort the outcomes of the research reducing the validity of the research. Adrenalin does not affect everyone in the same way, for example five of Schachter and Singer's participants were excluded from analysis because they experienced physiological symptoms. 2. A further problem with the procedure is that no assessment was made of participants' mood before the injection to gain a baseline from which to measure any change as a result of the stooge. 3. The sample consists of only male participants which further impacts on our ability to generalise the results to all; males could experience emotion differently to females and this has been ignored in this research. People do not usually experience emotions in the way in which Schachter and Singer induced them and are often aware of events before the onset of arousal giving us information to interpret our physical cues. Strengths: • Large amount of controls through standard procedures: 1. Random allocation of Ps to the conditions (what does this cut back on?) 2. Procedures consistent for: stooges behaviors, what subjects told, for the seven conditions 3. Double Blind Technique=Stooges and subjects did not know which condition subjects in Questionnaire used to: 1. Operationalize DV allowing 2. easy collection of quantitative data that could 3. Be used to analyze Ps across conditions 4. Used other measures (observations and physical measures) in conjunction with questionnaire as physical and psychological impact of arousal Weaknesses: • Questionnaire may not allow Ps to: express individual feelings or detailed information • Response set (although other measures helped offset this confounding-see #4 on previous page) Weaknesses continued: • Ecological Validity may be low Because....... • Epinephrine does not effect everyone the same way (proof= had to exclude 5 Ps from analysis b/c didn't react • No baseline taken of Ps mood prior to injection and stooge exposure (hopefully random assignment controlled for these participant variables) • Sample all males; males may experience emotions differently than females-IGNORED IN THIS RESEARCH-this lowers generalizability • People do not experience emotions in "real life" through Epinephrine Injections • Usually are aware of events before arousal giving us information to interpret our physical cues • (not after, as in the study=shots then stooge exposure and invasive questions) Ethical Issues: • Deception did not permitting Informed Consent • these college students received course credit • Possible physical harm of injecting epinephrine

What are some strengths and weaknesses of the Canli et al. study?

Strengths: 1. The main method was a laboratory experiment as all of the participants were tested in a standardized environment and given the same items to rate in each condition. The procedure was incredibly standardized to the level of the time that each item was presented for and the duration of the interval between presentations. This means that the research has internal validity as the researcher can be more confident that there were fewer confounding variables that they are measuring. 2. The use of an fMRI scanner to measure one of the dependent variables provided the researchers with vast amounts of quantitative data relating to the activation of the amygdala, enabling them to carry statistical analyses such as correlational analysis about the level of activation and subsequent memory of the scene. 3. Although the task of being scanned in an fMRI scanner is hardly ecologically valid, it would not be possible for the participants to respond to demand characteristics, which increases the validity of the data collected and allows for very sophisticated analysis. 4. Although most fMRI research uses contrast imaging as a method to determine which parts of the brain are most active, because the signals are relative to the individual rather than measured against a baseline, some question the validity in comparisons across individuals. However, in this research, a repeated measures design was used to minimize the impact of this, as participants scores were compared against themselves. Weaknesses: 1. Using fMRI scanners to measure the biological response on the brain of the different images gives an objective finding for each participant as it does not need the research to interpret any results. However, we need to be careful that we do not infer too much from fMRI results as there are still many unknowns about locations of specific behaviors in the brain. Although the method is widespread, there is insufficient knowledge of the physiological basis of the fMRI signal to interpret the data confidently with respect to neural activity and how this maps onto specific behaviors. 2. The sample in this research consists of right-handed females only and therefore introduces participant variables that could distort the outcomes of the research reducing the validity of the research. Females were chosen as the researchers felt that they would have a higher emotional response and might react differently to the scenes that were presented. Therefore, we must be cautious in generalising the results of this to males and left-handed individuals, as they may respond differently, for example females were chosen rather than males exactly because they were thought to be more emotionally reactive. Study Strengths: S=Lab experiment, so Standardization of procedures was exceptional in environment, instructions, rating scales S=Good Internal Validity (confoundings were controlled for and IV was what impacts the DV S=Vast quantitative data (since fMRI provides that) on amygdala activity (DV) allowing for statistical analysis such as correlation coefficients S= fMRI provides objective findings-no subjective interpretation needed S=Quantitative date also relates to the rating scales used S=repeat measured design used so participants were measured against themselves and compared to themselves, reducing participant variables S= Demand characteristics: 1. low since individuals could not manipulate the amygdala brain activity seen on fMRI 2. They were told purpose of the study but that would not impact ability to purposely produce brain activity Study Weaknesses : W=should not infer too much from the fMRI results since mapping of certain behaviors to brain area are still unknown W=ecological validity: 1. low since environment was artificial 2. and does not resemble a "real life" stressor (mundane realism low) 3. Amygdala Stress activation may have been misleading since subjects stress already high from being in unfamiliar fMRI machine 4. In "real life" most of our emotions are to events and interactiosn with others (not to pictures) so emotional reactively may have been weak/not representative of actual reactions W= may be that brain activity and behavior in fMRI is individual so some may question validity since no baseline across participants (means no "normal" established for all participants as a group) W=should not infer too much from the fMRI results since mapping of certain behaviors to brain area are still unknown W= only used right handed females since researches thought would have higher emotional response W=this could introduce participant variables that could distort results and validity W=as a result, cannot generalize results to males or left handed individuals

What is the biological approach and what makes studies adhere to that approach?

The biological approach is assumption that emotions, behaviors, and cognitions are controlled by biological systems and processes like hormones and evolution. This means that it can be investigated by manipulating and measuring biological responses such as brain activity and eye movements. The Memory and Emotions study adheres to this approach by using brain scanning to look at the link between the amygdala and memory for emotional experiences. This relates since the biological approach is interested in the role of the brain in our experiences. The Sleep and Dreams study adheres to this approach by using different methods to investigate the relationship between dream content and eye movements. This relates since the biological approach measures the biological response of eye movements to investigate the brain. The Two Factors of Emotions study is an experiment that looks at the role of two factors, cognition and physiology, in our experience of emotions.

Part A: Describe two independent variables from the study by Schachter and Singer (two factors in emotion). 1 mark for identifying an IV, ×2 1 mark for operationalising the IV, ×2(4)

The emotional situation (1 mark); anger or euphoria (1 mark); The injection information (1 mark); misinformed/informed/ignorant/placebo (1 mark for any two of these);

Explain what is meant by a 'sample', using an example from a core study from the biological approach. 1 mark for a definition 1 mark for example from a biological core study(2)

The people (or animals/sources) from a population who become the participants/ are used in the study/are used to generalise from; e.g.: Canli et al. - the 10 right-handed women whose brains were scanned; Dement and Kleitman - the nine adult participants who slept in the lab; Schachter and Singer - the 184 male students whose responses to injections were observed;

Describe the procedure during the brain scanning phase of the study by Canli et al. (brain scans and emotions). 1 mark for each correct statement(5)

They entered an fMRI scanner; Ps viewed 96 scenes via a screen; Viewed them through a mirror directed at the screen; Movement was minimised by using a bite-bar; These were already rated for valence/arousal; The order of the scenes was randomised; Each picture/scene was shown for around 3s; There was a gap of c.13s in between pictures/scenes being shown; A fixation cross appeared on the screen; They were told to look at each picture/screen for the time it was on the screen; When fixation cross appeared they had to rate their emotional arousal; This was done by pressing a button/using a clicker The ratings were from 0 (not intense) to 3 (extremely intense).

Part B: Explain two differences between the study by Schachter and Singer (two factors in emotion) and the study by Canli et al. (brain scans and emotions).(8)

They used different sexes as participants. Schachter and Singer used 184 male students from the University of Minnesota whereas Canli only used 10 females who were all right-handed.

Part A: From the study by Schachter and Singer (two factors in emotion): Outline what the participants in the 'Epinephrine Ignorant (EPI IGN)' were told during their injection. 1 mark per correct point made(2)

They were told that the injection/drug was mild/harmless; They were told that there were no side effects.

Part B: Explain one weakness of using brain scans in this study. 1 mark - brief answer or answer not linked to study 2 marks - detailed answer linked to study(2)

e.g. People may act differently when having a scan compared to real life (1 mark); People may act differently when having a scan compared to real life so the emotional intensity scores may have been different in a real-life situation rather than on a screen (2 marks); People may feel stressed/anxious whilst having a brain scan (1st mark) and this could have affected how they rated the emotional intensity of each picture/scene (reducing validity) (2nd mark);

Part C:Suggest one real life application from this study. 1 mark for brief application but linked to study OR plausible application outlined but not explained/only has the what or how 2 marks for application that clearly shows who would benefit/linked to study/how it would be done/has the what and how.(2)

e.g. The EEG can detect REM/nREM sleep so can be useful in diagnosing problems with these (1 mark); The EEG can detect REM/nREM sleep so can be useful in diagnosing problems with these so that a treatment can be found to help with any disorder (2 marks); The EEG can detect REM/nREM sleep so could be useful for people with sleep disorders. A psychologist can use the EEG output to see how their sleep patterns are different to a 'normal' sleeper (2 marks); Can be used to analyse dream content (0 marks);

Part B:Describe the results from the Activity Index measure in the Euphoria condition for 'Epinephrine Ignorant (EPI IGN)' group compared to the Epinephrine Misinformed (EPI MIS) group. You must use data in your answer 1 mark for stating which group scored highest/lowest 1 mark for describing what the result meant 1 mark for using data (can be just the data for one group)(3)

e.g. The score on the Activity Index was higher for the Epi Mis/lower for the Epi Ign (1 mark) which meant the Epi Mis joined in more with the stooge or were more euphoric/Epi Ign joined in less or were less euphoric (1 mark). The average score was 22.56 (Epi Mis) and 18.28 (Epi Ign) (1 mark for either)

Part A:Describe two aims of the study by Schachter and Singer (two factors in emotion). 1 mark for brief aim 2 marks for detailed aim 2 marks available per aim(4)

e.g. 1 mark To test out the two factor theory of emotion To test out the role of cognitive labels in emotions To test out the role of physiology in emotions To investigate the effect of a stooge on behaviour e.g. 2 marks To test out the two factor theory of emotion which is that an emotional experience comes from a cognitive label and some physiological arousal To test out how cognitive labels like anger and euphoria affect how we perceive our own emotions To test that when physiologically aroused and there is no immediate explanation for it; do we describe feelings based on available cognitions? To test that when physiologically aroused and there is an immediate explanation for it, we do not use available cognitions to explain it To test given the same cognitive circumstances, will an individual describe their feelings as emotions only when they experience physiological arousal? To investigate the effect of a stooge on behaviour who would be angry or euphoric

Two friends, Lok and Hiruni, are discussing the ethics of the study by Schachter and Singer (two factors in emotion). Lok thinks the study is ethical but Hiruni thinks it is unethical. Explain one reason why Lok is correct and one reason why Hiruni is correct, using evidence from this study. 3 marks for the answer for Lok 3 marks for the answer for Hiruni(6)

e.g. Lok Data collected was kept confidential (1 mark). No individual data was published (1 mark) as all we know is that there were male students from the University of Minnesota (1 mark). e.g. Hiruni The participants were deliberately deceived (1 mark). They were told the wrong information whilst getting the injection (1 mark). For example one group was told that they would experience numb feet/get a headache after the injection (1 mark)/told it was Suproxin for vision (alternative 1 mark).

Part C: Outline one conclusion from this study. 1 mark brief conclusion 2 marks detailed conclusion(2)

e.g. The amygdala affects memory (1 mark); Amygdala activation could/can predict memory (1 mark); The activity in the (left) amygdala during encoding could predict subsequent memories (2 marks);

Part A:From the study by Canli et al. (brain scans and emotions): Explain why the study is from the biological approach. 1 mark - brief answer 2 marks - clear explanation or linked to a general assumption(2)

e.g. The study was interested in the role of the brain in behaviour and this is biological (1 mark); The study was investigating the role of the amygdala in memories (1st mark); The biological approach is interested in the role of the brain in our behaviour/experiences (2nd mark); They were testing the role of the amygdala in memory (1 mark) and this is part of the brain which is biology/neurology (1 mark);

From the study by Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams): Describe one result about dream recall in REM sleep and one result about the estimations of dream-duration time in REM sleep. You must use data for one of these results. 2 marks per result (must have some meaningful comparison to gain the 2) 1 mark for correct data in one of the answers(5)

e.g. dream recall in REM sleep There were many more instances of dream recall in REM (1 mark) compared to instance of no recall/recall in NREM (1 mark); There were 152 instances of dream recall in REM across all participants/39 instances of no recall (1 mark: data)/There were 11 instances of dream recall in NREM/149 instances of no recall (alternative 1 mark: data). DN was more accurate with his estimations of 5 minutes in REM compared to estimations of 15 minutes in REM (2 marks: comparison). He was 80% correct for 5 minutes (1 mark: data)/He was 50% correct for 15 minutes (alternative 1 mark: data). e.g. estimations of dream-duration time in REM sleep Participants were more accurate at estimating 5 mins (1 mark) compared to 15 mins (1 mark); On 88% of trial (45/51) the participants estimated 5 mins correctly (1 mark: data); On 78% of trials (47/60) the participants estimated 15 mins correctly (alternative 1 mark: data).

From the study by Canli et al. (brain scans and emotions): Describe one result about the ratings of emotional intensity of the scenes and one result about the percentage of participants who 'remembered' the scene across intensity ratings. You must use data for one of these results 2 marks per result (must have some meaningful comparison to gain the 2) 1 mark for correct data in one of the answers(5)

e.g. emotional intensity They were similar across the scenes (1 mark); there were slightly more scenes rated as 0 (not emotionally intense) (1 mark); 29% of scenes were rated as not emotionally intense (1 mark: data) There was a negative correlation between emotional intensity and valence (2 marks; 1 if just 'correlation'). The r value was -0.66 (1 mark: data) There was a positive correlation between emotional intensity and arousal (2 marks; 1 if just 'correlation). The r value was +0.68 (1 mark: data) There was a positive correlation between emotional intensity and (left) amygdala activation (2 marks; 1 if just 'correlation' OR amygdala activation was higher for scenes rated higher (2 or 3) compared to those rated lower (0 or 1) (2 marks) e.g. 'remembered' scenes More of the scenes rated as 3 (extremely emotionally intense) were remembered (1 mark); Those rated 0-2 had similar levels of % remembered/less than those rated 3 (1 mark); 42% of scenes rated 3 were 'remembered' (1 mark: data) The scenes which had higher emotional/intensity ratings were remembered more (1 mark) than those with a low emotional/intensity rating (2 marks total: comparison)

Part A:Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams) found a positive correlation between REM duration and the number of words used to describe the dream. Explain what is meant by a 'positive correlation', using this study as an example. 1 mark for 'both variables go up together' OWTTE 1 mark for idea that longer REM durations was linked to more words(2)

when one variable increases the other one does too = 1 longer REM phases had more words to describe the dream = 1 An increase in one variable makes the other one rise = 0 Having longer in REM gave the P more chance to describe the dream in more words = 0

•Outline why only females were used as participants (Canli et al. brain scans and emotions): . • 1 mark - partial answer, 2 marks - full answer

• (Females) are more likely to report intense emotional experiences/males less likely (1 mark); •so are therefore more likely to be affected by the imagery (1 mark)/more likely to express their true emotion (1 mark). _____________________________________ •(Females) are more likely to show more physiological reactivity (in conjunction with valence judgements)/males less likely (1 mark)

•In the study by Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams), participants were fitted with electrodes for the EEG (electroencephalogram). • Describe the procedure after these electrodes had been fitted. • 1 mark for every correct stage given.

• They then went to bed in a quiet (dark) room; •The wires became as a single cord/ponytail (to stop entanglement); •The EEG was run continuously through the night (at speeds of 3 or 6 mm per sec); •At various times during the night, participants were woken up via a bell; •They were woken in REM/nREM or they were woken 5 or 15 mins after REM began; •They were tested on dream recall/ask to estimate length of time in REM; • If they could recall a dream they were asked to describe it (in detail); •They were allowed to go to sleep; •They recorded their dreams into a tape recorder; They were sometimes asked questions by the experimenter.

•From the study by Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams): • Name the technique used to measure brain activity. • 1 mark for the correct answer.

•EEG/electroencephalogram/electroencephalograph (accept incorrect spelling if the meaning is clear) 1

•Explain one reason why the procedure in the Schachter and Singer study was standardised .

•It would allow the study to be more easily replicated (1 mark) D •Therefore, it could be tested for reliability (1 mark) B •For example having standardised prompts/behaviours for the stooge means exact replication is possible (1 mark) A •It would increase the (internal) validity of the study (1 mark) D •Therefore, cause and effect are (more) likely to be seen (1 mark) B •For example knowing it was 'injection information' causing behavioural changes (1 mark) A •It can help to reduce extraneous/uncontrolled variables (1 mark) D •So that we know it is probably the IV of information about the injection [any named one] (1 mark) B •causing the change in pulse rate/side effects/behaviours shown - the DV (1 mark) A

•From the Dement and Kleitman study (sleep and dreams): • In which phase of sleep did participants recall most of their dreams? • 1 mark for correct answer

•REM/Rapid Eye Movement/Paradoxical sleep

•The study by Canli et al. (brain scans and emotions) used adult participants. • Identify two other features of this sample. • 1 mark for each correct feature

•Ten participants; •(All) female; •Right-handed; •Volunteers;

•From the Canli et al. study (brain scans and emotions): • Describe the procedure of this study from the point when the participants returned three weeks after the fMRI (functional Magnetic Resonance Imagery) scans had taken place 1 mark per correct part of the procedure noted

•The participants were given an unexpected recognition test; •They viewed all previous (96) seen scenes; •They viewed 48/new/never seen before foils; •The foils were chosen to match the previous scenes on valence/arousal; •During the recognition test, participants were asked if they had seen the picture before; •If they said yes they had to state 'remember' if they were certain they had seen it; •They had to respond with a 'know' if they were less confident that they had seen it; •No rating was asked for if they stated that they had not seen it before.

•In the study by Schachter and Singer (two factors in emotion), the anger condition used a stooge and a questionnaire. • Describe the procedure in the anger condition after the participants met the stooge. 1 mark per correct point made: • 1 mark can be given for an example of a stooge comment and •1 mark for any of the set questions asked in the questionnaire.

•They were told by the experimenter that he would be back in 20 minutes; •The stooge complains about the questionnaire with statements about it being unfair; •Annoyed at being given shots [injections]; •The stooge began to show anger; •The questions begin with 'innocent' ones before getting more personal; •The stooge 'paces' his answers to match that of the participant; •The stooge makes standardised comments about various questions; •The comments begin with 'innocent' comments but get increasingly hostile; •He crumples up the questionnaire (at the end); •(At the end) he stamps out of the room; •The participants' behaviours were observed through a one-way mirror; •Their behaviour was placed into categories/six categories were used.

•From the study by Canli et al. (brain scans and emotions): • Identify the sampling technique used in this study. • 1 mark for correct answer

•Volunteer/self-selected

•Only females were used in this study (Canli et al. brain scans and emotions): . •Identify one feature of the sample, other than gender. • 1 mark for one other feature

•e.g. (All) right handed (All) healthy

•In the Schachter and Singer study (two factors in emotion), after each participant completed their session with the stooge they completed a questionnaire about their mood and their physical condition. • State one of the closed questions that was used to measure mood, including the answer choices. • 1 mark for the question and 1 mark for indication of answers participants could choose from

•e.g. Mood Q. How irritated/angry/annoyed would you say you feel at present? Five choices given from 'I don't feel at all irritated' to 'I feel extremely irritated' • •Q. How good or happy would you say you feel at present? Five choices from 'I don't feel at all happy/good' to 'I feel extremely happy/good'

•The study by Canli et al. used a brain scan. •Explain why brain scans are used in the biological approach to psychology. Use an example in your answer. •Award 1 mark for correct reason for using brain scans in the biological approach. •Award 2-3 marks for correct reason with relevant example (from Canli et al. or other biological approach study) •Award 4 marks for correct reason with elaboration and an example.

•• because the biological approach studies the role of neurons/the brain (1) and how they control/affect emotion/behaviour/cognition (1), and CAT/ MRI scans tell us about brain structures. (1) For example, their size in different people/how they change with age/when they are damaged (1) •• brain scans can tell us about what different areas might do (1) and PET/ fMRI scans tell us about brain activity. (1) For example, how it is linked to perceptions or actions (1), the focus of the scan on amygdala in Canli et al. was used with participants who were awake/actively engaged in a task/rated emotionality to visual scenes which showed scan activity was related to a cognitive variable/memory (1) •• it is an objective/reliable technique typical of the scientific stance of the biological approach (1) and allows for controls to be imposed (1). For example, the control in Canli et al. was neutral images (1). These would be rapid when the patient was dreaming, by watching the eyes, they would move rapidly when the patient was dreaming. (1)

•State one aim from the study by Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams).

•• to investigate the relationship between eye movements and dreaming (1) •• to see if more dreaming happens during REM sleep than non-REM sleep (1) •• to investigate whether there is a link between the length of time in REM sleep and the length of dreaming (1) • to see if there is a relationship between the pattern of REM observed in sleep and the content of the dream discussed when awake. (1)