All the ****ing notes

Sex organs

Early in embryonic development, the gonads and the internal sex organs are bisexual. All embryos contain the precursors for both male and female internal organs (wolffian and mullerian ducts)

Personality: humanistic- existential approach

Humanists believe in self-actualizing tendency, the human motive to realize our inner potential, as a major factor in personality regards personality as governed by an individual's ongoing choices and decisions in the context of realities like life and death

Emotional behavior: aggression

according to some, with aggression there is hate, which could be considered loathing on the emotional continuum and also included is the desire to do harm but that may or may not involve rage stress also can involve aggression, but it is usually tied more to fear and anxiety 2 types of adaptive aggressions that helps in survival and propagation of the species: predatory, silent biting attack behaviors, is observed in the acquisition of food and is linked to feeding behaviors and affective aggression, threatening behavior, noisy, posturing type, is observed in most vertebrates and is linked to reproductive behaviors almost all animals engage in aggressive behaviors, which involve threatening gestures or actual attacks directed toward another animals and are usually species typical (the pattern of movements are organized by neurocircuits whose development is largely programmed by an animal's genes) and are also related to self-defense, fear, frustration, or pain

Hypothalamus's role in homeostasis

acts indirectly creates humoral response responds to sensory signals by stimulating or inhibiting the release of pituitary hormones release of hormones provides motivating stimuli (hunger, thirst, or sexual arousal) so that organism acts on the environment

Piaget's stages: formal operational stage

adolescents can reason about abstract concepts...including things like love, success, freedom, courage, and morality

Phenotypic sex: internal & external organs

after the gonads differentiate one of these precursors for the internal sex organs will develop and the other will wither away

Maintenance of homeostasis

all the drive or motivational states involve arousal (activation of need) and satiation (alleviation of need) in between- mediating this arousal and satiation is the hypothalamus reward system with negative feedback

Seperate sexes

can be monomorphoric (look the same) or dimorphic (look different)

Leptin

hormone secreted by well-nourished fat tissue, appears to be one of the signals that stimulates the onset of puberty in females. (If body fat increases, leptin levels increase and signals the brain to suppress appetite.) activates the KISS1 gene Girls who remain unusually thin, through diet and exercise, reach puberty later

Behaviors require coordination of neural and hormonal components

hypothalamus and its connection to endocrine glands via the pituitary, and the ANS connection to endocrine glands play a role in this coordication

4 basic aspects of emotion: Physiological Arousal

hypothalamus governs the behavioral expression of emotions via the autonomic and endocrine systems ANS facilitates the behaviors and provides quick mobilization of energy for vigorous movements endocrine system (hormones) reinforces the autonomic response

Fat cells

long term storage of energy absorb nutrients from the blood and produce triglycerides combine to form adipose tissue if there is a depletion of glycogen stores, then the fat cells can be used to get glucose

Allostasis: Addiction

maintaining stability outside of the normal homeostatic range when the organism is pushed to adapt to chronic stressful situation there are changes made in the set points increases in dopamine when you take drugs drugs activates reward pathways w/o activating neuroendocrine system and doesn't send negative feedback

VLOP and MnPO neurons

primarily active during sleep contain the inhibitory NT, galanin and GABA VLPO is responsible for increasing GABAergic activity and turning off the ARAS why benzodiazepines and barbiturates work as sleep-inducing agents VERY addictive so they arent good to use on a regular basis

Kiss1

codes for proteins known as kisspeptins which interacts with GPR54 receptors on neurons in the hypothalamus expressing neurons may relay negative and positive feedback effects of sex steroids on GnRH secretion excites GnRH neurons and stimulates GnRH release by acting on the G protein-coupled receptor GPR54 GnRH release results in increased gonadotropin secretion from the pituitary gland, which stimulates sex steroid synthesis and secretion from the gonads Sex steroids (e.g., estrogen) regulate Kiss1 expression, such that inhibition of Kiss1 in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus (ARC) may reduce kisspeptin input to GnRH neurons and reduce GnRH and gonadotropin release in both sexes In females, stimulation of Kiss1 expression by estrogen in the anteroventral periventricular nucleus (AVPV) may increase kisspeptin input to GnRH neurons as well as GnRH and gonadotropin release

Mammalian circadian clock

composed of a transciptional-translational feedback network that uses a (-) feedback loop involving Clock genes, PER, and CRY. Heterodimerization of PER and CRY inhibit the transcription via negative feedback loop Once the PER-CRY complex is degraded, a new cycle of transcription can be initiated secondary autoregulatory feedback loop is composed of Rev-erba, which is a direct target of the CLOCK-BMAL1 transcription activator complex; REV-ERBA feeds back to repress Bmal1 transcription and competes with a retinoic acid-related orphan receptor (ROR) to bind ROR response elements (RREs) in the Bmal1 promoter in addition to the transcriptional activators and repressors, post translational modification and degradation of circadian cock proteins are crucial steps for determining circadian periodicity. (ex: the phrophorylation of clock proteins leading to polyubiquitination, which eventually degrades the proteins to proteasome) the per/cry/tau complex breaks down, releasing the clock/cycle dimer from inhibition

Physiological activity during sleep

consciousness during sleep is an altered state sensory info that is being brought into our CRNS is modified (dreamlike state) Dreams and nightmares usually begin during NREM sleep and peak REM sleep (80% occurs during REM): if we wake a person during REM, report that they were dreaming and they tend to be in a narrative form- storylike progression of events but if we wake a person during SWS, they will NOT report having dreams but may report the occurrence of a thought, an image, or some emotion Dreams that occur in the 1st part of the sleep cycle are oriented towards reality Dreams that occur in the 2nd part of the sleep cycle are more unusual and less readily connected to the days events, more emotionally intense and bizarre in REM sleep, we lose all muscle activity

Intensity of the emotion

only known to the person experiencing it (covert)

Nucleus accumbens

part of the primitive system that rewards behaviors receives dopaminergic info fro the ventral tegmental area (VTA)

Basic Emotions: Universality hypothesis

6 emotions you would be able to identify no matter who you are or where you live

Neural control of emotion: limbic system

1. Papez believed that the cortex is critically involved in the experience or feelings of emotions and that the hypothalamus governs the behavioral expression of emotion neocortex and hypothalamus are arranged so that the expression and experience of emotion are linked cingulate cortex is connected to the hippocampus, which sends fibers out via the fornix to the mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus hypothalamus is connected to the anterior nuclei of the thalamus which is connected to the cingulate cortex the cingulate cortex is in a unique position to provide an interface btwn the decision making processes of the orbitofrontal cortex, the emotional functions of the amygdala, and the brain mechanisms controlling the environment 2. also in this circuit is the part of the hypothalamus that releases hormones (related to stress) and controls the ANS- called the periventricular hypothalamus through these connections the hypothalamus interacts with the brainstem which has nuclei that sends out projections to the thoracolumbar region of the spinal cord to regulate the sympathetic system and form the interaction with the parasympathetic system (cranio-sacral) autonomic responses such as changes in heart rate, blood pressure, stomach contractions, dilation or constriction of blood vessels, skin resistance, and sweating of the palms of the hands or soles of the feet are all responses to emotional stimuli degree of expression of these visceral responses depends on a # of factors including experience with stimuli, person's level of normal response, environmental or situational events

Basic Emotions: Plutchik (1994)

8 basic emotions that can be organized into 4 pairs of opposites: joy/sadness, fear/anger, affection/disgust, expectation/surprise higher and lower intensity of each is also observed

Why do we sleep

1. adaptive response: sleep conserves energy and may prevent an animal from wasting energy during a time of day when food isn't available and tends to vary with environmental factors; it may also help animals avoid predators (dolphins and birds can "sleep" unilaterally- one hemisphere at a time) 2. period of restoration: certain anabolic physiological processes occur, wear and tear caused by activity during the waking period is repaired during sleep and makes sleep a physiologically necessary function; Deep slow wave sleep appears to be the most important stage of sleep in relation to the brains need to recuperate (animals that are sleep deprived do eventually die, but it is unclear whether is caused by the lack of sleep or the stress of the procedure needed to keep them awake...there is a definite connection with immune system), exercise can increase the amount of SWS- increasing brain temp induces sleep, like falling asleep while at the beach (if you keep the body temp cool, brain temp will remain cool, and sleepiness will not occur; remove waste- metabolites 3. aid memory consolidation: little or no learning occurs during sleep, but evidence suggests that memory for new material is improved if learning is followed by sleep, sleep following learning is characterized by the presence of more REM than usual, but memory encoding and retrieval take place most effectively during waking

Response to heat

1. anterior hypothalamus (preoptic area) responds to heat by signaling events that produce a dissipation of heat- resulting in a drop in body temp; area appears to be important for the dilation of blood vessels in the skin and suppression of shivering 2. increase in respiration and perspiration; hypothalamus also provides the driving force to produce voluntary behaviors to control body temp rat in a hot environment can be taught to press a lever for a puff of cool air; if you place the rat in a normal temp room and 'warm' the anterior hypothalamus, the rat will perceive it as warm and then bar press humans will engage in anticipator behaviors to be sure that core temp is not changed organisms will also seek to remove themselves from the extreme temps- seek shelter

Response to cold

1. hypothalamus releases thyrotropic hormone which activates the endocrine system to release thyroxine, from the thyroid gland, which increase body heat by increasing tissue metabolism (breaks chemical bonds to produce heat) 2. Under cold conditions, the sympathetic NS stimulates the metabolism of the mitochondria rich brown fat cells- found around vital organs in the trunk and around the thoracic and cervical spinal cord 3. the posterior hypothalamus responds to cold by producing responses that act to conserve or raise temps (such as shivering); muscular activity also produces heat (shivering is muscles contracting in synchrony) 4. Constricting blood vessels, which decreases blood flow, to conserve heat

4 essential feature of maintaining homeostasis

1. system variable (the characteristic to be regulated- primary reinforcer)- temp, water, food 2. set point (the optimal value of the system variable- homeostatic range) - 98.6, # calories, hydration 3. detector (monitors the value of the system variable)- hypothalamus, receptors 4. correctional mechanism (restores the variable to set point)- hypothalamus to activate behaviors via limbic system

Slow wave sleep: Stage 2

10 min after onset of stage 1 sleep EEG is generally irregular, contains periods of theta activity, sleep spindles and K complexes: brain actively working to shut down all of the sensory stimuli to fall asleep

Slow wave sleep: Stage 3

15 min later and signaled by occurance of delta activity ( <3.5 Hz)... about 25 min into sleep cycle contains 20-50% delta activity

Stages of Sleep

2 main classes: slow wave sleep (4 stages) and REM (rapid eye movement) sleep AASM guidelines: relabeled stage 1 as N1, stage 2 as N2, SWS as N3 and REM as R each class of sleep is defined in terms of the specific types of EEG activity

Influences on Identity formation

3 factors interact to influence self-development: cognition, socioemotional functioning, and brain development. Bidirectional influences are noted between each of these factors, and there is noted change over time in both neural and psychological components of the model

Basic Emotions: Ekman and Epstien (1992)

3 primary emotions: anger, fear, joy secondary emotions: guilty, sadness, melancholy, embarrassment, regret, etc

Attention cycle

40-65 min works in a cyclic kind of way

Metabolic activity (Adenosine)

Adenosine monophosphate (AMP) is broken down into adenosine and adenosine accumulates adenosine inhibits the neurons of the reticular formation that produce arousal- produces fatigue (brain drain- sleepiness) caffeine blocks adenosine receptors and "wakes" you up during sleep, adenosine levels decline and the inhibition of the arousal system is removed

Regulation of Blood Glucose

After a meal, conc of glucose in the blood increases, the pancreas secretes insulin and the liver converts glucose into glycogen After a fast, conc of glucose in the blood decreases and the pancreas secreted glucagon (promotes the breakdown of glycogen into glucose) and the liver converts stored glycogen into glucose brain can use the glucose from food but the body cant store it and the rest of the body cant transport it so the rest of the body uses fatty acids for energy but the excess glucose is released into the urine

Sex differences: regional male vs. female differences

Amygdala - larger in ♂ ♂ larger visual cortex Areas of the hypothalamus are larger in ♂ basal ganglia - caudate larger in ♀ Hippocampus - larger in ♀ ♀ thicker cortex in the right lateral frontal, temporal, and parietal cortices ♀ larger superior temporal cortex and Broca's region anterior commissure, fibers that connect the hemispheres - especially the olfactory circuitry, is 12% larger in women (and homosexual men) than in heterosexual men splenium of the corpus callosum has been reported to be larger in women than in men spinal nucleus of the bulbocavernosus (SNB) is larger in males than in females number of brain areas that have a larger ratio to overall cerebrum size in males and females

Anabolism vs Catabolism

Anabolism: store our energy for later use Catabolism: use stored energy pools by breaking down the stored glycogen and triglycerides into either fatty acids or ketons

Levels of intensity

Annoyance -> Anger -> Rage Boredom -> Disgust -> Loathing Pensiveness -> Sadness -> Grief Distraction -> Surprise -> Amazement Apprehension -> Fear -> Terror Regar -> Affection -> Adoration Happiness -> Joy -> Ecstasy Alertness -> Expectations -> Vigilance evolutionary roles of these behaviors: if not prob secondary type of emotions as if they do have a role then they are part of primary emotions

Sexually dimorphic

Bodies, parts of their brains, reproductive behaviors are different one of the factors: exposure to sex hormones, both before birth and after birth Y chromosome controls the development of the endocrine glands that produce the male sex hormones

Hypothalamus & Reward System

CNS integrated input from longterm energy stores (ex: leptin) and short term meal related signals (nutrients and gut derived satiety signals) to regulate food intake and energy expenditure in a manner that maintains table body fat stores over time + energy balance induced by overfeeding inhibits the rewarding properties of food while enhancing meal induced satiety, thereby reducing food intake in response to energy deprivation, CNS adaptive responses are engaged that both increase the rewarding properties of food and reduce the response to satiety signals, collectively resulting in increased food consumption until deficient fat stores are replenished

Hypothalamus: Posterior Pituitary (neurohypophysis)

Direct control secretion of neurohormones into the general circulation through the vasculature of the posterior pituitary (neural lobe) which is a giant network b/c hormones floats around in blood b/c it needs blood to get to target organs water balance; salt balance large neurons in the paraventricular and supraoptic nucleus make arginine vasopressin (AVP) and oxytocin (both referred to as magnocellular neurons and play a role in reproductive behaviors)

EEG Patterns: Waking State

During wakefulness, the EEG of a normal person shows 2 basic patterns: alpha activity and beta activity (difference is amplitude of activities)

Hypothetical dream circuitry (Activation- Synthesis Hypothesis)

Hobson- suggest there are fluctuations in activity of the pons that trigger '"thoughts" that are random and then cortex tries to fit these together

Reproductive Behaviors: Mating Systems

If males stay with one female they may greatly increase the chances that their young will survive. BUT, then they get to mate with only one female 3% of mammals are monogamous 12% among primates Birds are roughly 90% monogamous

Reproductive behaviors: hormonal control

In female rats, the amount and timing of hormone release determines lordosis behavior (lifting rump and deflecting tail). In males hormones play a role - but at least in guinea pigs, do not account for the level of the reproductive behavior (sex drive). In most species, females are unwilling to engage in sex except during estrus (period when the female is ovulating and sex hormones are high). Humans and some nonhuman primates engage in sex throughout the reproductive cycle. While estrogen is largely responsible for a female's willingness to have sex, it is testosterone that is a better gauge of a woman's sexual motivation. Women tend to initiate sex more when their testosterone levels are elevated. During menopause, both estrogen and testosterone levels decrease. Here again it is the level of testosterone that is more important for intercourse frequency after menopause steroid hormones not only get into the cells and produce changes in the proteins that cells are making - but, they also have effects on the way cells work by changing the synapses (anatomy and strength)

Gender Identity: anatomical considerations

In humans, the Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus (SDN) is clustered into 4 regions called the interstitial nuclei of the anterior hypothalamus (INAH): INAH-2 and INAH-3 are twice as large in the male brain as the female brain & appears to undergo organizational changes prenatally bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, also part of the "sexual response circuitry", is also similar to female size in male transsexuals (males who transition to females). Usually in men this is twice as large as females due to organizational effects or activational effects brains of homosexual men may be organizationally set up differently than those of heterosexual men: INAH-3, which is normally twice as large in men as it is in women, is similar to the size of women in homosexual men AND the nucleus is smaller and the cells are more scattered

Dihydrotestosterone (DHT)

In males, testosterone is converted into another androgen to cause the development of the external organs an enzyme, 5alpha reductase, converts some of the testosterone into another androgen enhances the masculinizing effects and causes the formation of the prostate gland and facilitates the differentiation of the external organs male external organs are formed in response to androgens (dihydrotestosterone). In the absence of DHT, the female external organs develop

Aromatization hypothesis

In primates the -fetoproteins bind BOTH estrogen and testosterone. So...either the male testes makes a lot of testosterone and it overwhelms the alpha-fetoproteins OR androgens for the adrenal are causing the masculinization of the brain you can masculinize a female rhesus monkey brain during development by giving testosterone - which can be aromatized. BUT, you can also masculinarize the female rhesus monkey brain by giving the nonaromatizable androgen 5α-dihydrotestosterone.

Hypothalamus: Anterior Pituitary (adenohypophysis)

Indirect AND direct control secretion of regulating hormones into the local portal plexus, which drains into the blood vessels (hypothalamic- pituitary portal system- hypophyseal portal system) of the anterior pituitary still have hypothalamic neurons that cell signals out into the blood (direct) but also have cells that go down and talk to cells that are in the anterior pituitary and those cells release chemicals into blood supply (indirect) hormone secretion by thyroid, adrenal cortex, and gonads have cells in the hypothalamus that are endocrine cells that are releasing chemicals into blood (growth, lactation, etc) and release hormones that cause those cells to also release more hormones (working indirectly) through the anterior pituitary that the hypothalamus interacts with the other glandular organs of the body and the gonads and controls growth

Neural control of emotion: Papez Circuit

James Papez (1937) proposed a neural circuit of emotion that included Broca's limbic lobe circuit included the mammillary bodies of he hypothalamus, anterior nucleus of the thalamus, cingulate cortex, parahippocampal gyrus, hippocampus, and fornix circuit was based on a number of brain autopsies he had performed on human with emotional disorders Papez proposed that b/c higher cognitive processes could affect emotions, and that the physiological effects of emotion were tied to the ANS and the neuroendocrine system, that the hypothalamus must somehow be involved neocortex (6 layers) give emotional coloring and enhances or decreases perception of emotional state cingulate cortex give emotional experience or behaviors you get hypothalamus give emotional expression (goes to endocrine or ANS)

Molecular clock

Much of the molecular machinery for the biological clock has been worked out in the fruit fly (Drosophilia melanogaster) and in mice glutamatergic input from the retina to the SCN leads to the increase in the transcription (DNA -> mRNA) of the per gene- which synchronizes or entrains the molecular clock to the day-night cycle

Hormones the modulate monogamy

Oxytocin: shown in animals and humans to sustain pair bonds in males and females through its release in the brain during sex, touch, and nearly any positive social signal Arginine vasopressin: motivates mate- and offspring-guarding in male socially monogamous mammals, an important aspect of pair-bonding Testosterone: associated with libido and many of the male characteristics, like musculature and drive, that are attractive to females when they are seeking high-quality male genes

Molecular mechanisms of sleep/wake regulated by PGD2, adenosine and histamine

PGD2 is produced by the action of L-PCDS in arachnoid trabecular cells of the leptomeninges, choroid plexus, and oligodendrocytes, and circulates in the CSF activates the DP1R on these trabecular cells to promotes sleep by stimulating them to release a paracrine signaling molecule, adenosine released adenosine activates A2AR- expressing neurons located in the ventral region of the basal forebrain, the activation of which subsequently excites the VLPO VLPO neurons then send inhibitory signals to downregulate histaminergic tuberomammilary nucleus (TMN), which contributes to arousal through histamine H1Rs wakefulness is promoted by activation of the TMN through either PGE2 or orexin

Neural control of emotion: Limbic Lob

Paul Broca (1878) noticed that the medial surface of the brain all mammals possess cortical areas that are diff from the surrounding cortex noted these areas formed a ring around the thalamus and brainstem and termed this area the limbic lobe which included (to him) the cingulate gyrus, the parahippocampal gyrus, and the hippocampus

Limbic system: MacLean (1949)

Paul MacLean added the amygdala, the olfactory bulb, and basal forebrain nuclei to Papez circuit

Homeostatic Behavior Comparisons

Respiration: must have right amount in our blood so it can get out to all our cells that need oxygen Gastrointestinal: set point of fluids that are going to be released Cardiovascular: must have right amount of blood pumping Thermoregulation: NS takes care of it up to a point but also homeostatic endocrine system to maintain body system (half and half)

Measure personality: Projective Techniques

Rorschach Inkblot Test - a standard series of ambiguous stimuli designed to elicit unique responses that reveal inner aspects of an individual's personality Thematic Appreciation Test (TAT) - respondents describe an ambiguous scene, and reveal underlying motives, concerns, and the way they see the world through the stories they make up about ambiguous people.

Biological Clock: suprachiasmatic nucleus in a rat

SCN can be influnced via 3 major input pathways: the retinohypothalamic tract (RHT), the geniculohypothalamic tract (GHT), and serotonergic (5HT) input from the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN), noradrenergic that gives info to SCN about activity that the animal is doing (exersion, excersice) and median nucleus (MRN) RHT- visual GHT (GABA) and DRN- nonvisual

Ventral and dorsal subparaventricular zones (vSPZ and dSPZ)

SCN serves as a biological clock, but has few outputs to sleep-regulatory systems: most of its output goes into the region in light brown, which includes the ventral (vSPZ) and dorsal (dSPZ) subparaventricular zone, and the dorsomedial nucleus of the hypothalamus (DMH) neurons in the vSPZ relay info necessary for organizing daily cycles of wake=sleep, whereas dSPZ neurons are crucial for rhythms of body temperature outputs from the SPZ are integrated in the DMH with other inputs, and DMH neurons drive circadian cycles of sleep, activity, feeding and corticosteroid secretion cycles of body temp are maintained by dSPZ projections back to the medial preoptic area (MPO), whereas the DMN is the origin of projections to the ventral lateal preoptic area (VLPO) for sleep cycles, to the corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) neurons of the paraventricular nucleus (PVH) for corticosteroid cycles, and to the lateral hypothalamic (LHA) orexin and melanin-concentrating hormone neurons for wakefulness and feeding cycles hypothalamic --> pituitary --> hormones that act on other endocrine glands that produce behaviors

Measure personality: personality inventories

Self Report - this is a series of answers to a questionnaire that asks people to indicate the extent to which sets of statements or adjectives accurately describe their own behavior or mental state Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2) - consists of more than 500 descriptive statements used to assess personality and psychological problems - answers are "true" or "false" or "cannot say"

3 general categories of sex organs: gonads (endocrine organs)

Testes, in males, and ovaries, in females, are the first to develop. The gonads have a dual function. They produce ova or sperm, and they secrete hormones.

Sexual differentation: gonad sex

Through the sixth week of prenatal development, male and female fetuses are identical (undifferentiated gonads) and both have 2 different sets of internal structures - wolffian and mullerian ducts SRY (Sex determining Region on Y chromosome)- a single gene on the Y chromosome that controls the differentiation of the gonads and produces a protein called testis determining factor (your book calls it the SRY protein), which binds to the DNA of cells in the undifferentiated gonads and causes them to become testes Without a Y chromosome, the undifferentiated gonad forms an ovary

Clock and Bmal1

Transcription factors Clock and Bmal1 interact and bind to the DNA and transcribe some RNA and when they are transcribed they are translated into proteins and activate PER and CRY expression by binding to an E box in their promoter regions; in turn, Per and Cry heterodimerize (posttranslational processing of phosphorylizing these proteins), translocate to the nucleus, and inhibit Clock/Bmal-induced gene expression (and TIMELESS) and stop production Both CLOCK (or NPAS2) and BMAL1 are basic helix-loop-helix PAS-domain containing transcription factors that activate transcription of the Per and Cry genes After the Per/Cry complex is degraded, the cycle starts again Post translational (Translation = mRNA -> protein) modification (mainly by phosphorylation) is fundamental for regulating translocation, dimerization and/or degradation of clock proteins the cycle of gene transcription, protein complex formation, and protein complex degradation takes about 24 hours

key brain areas that are responsible for sustaining and switching between the different phases of the pleasure cycle and can lead to changes in behaviour

VSS paradigms are likely to elicit sexual motivation and wanting. Genital stimulation is usually required to enter the consummatory plateau. The brain regions involved in mediating changes in the sexual response cycle are shown on only one side of the brain but most regions are involved bilaterally. Some regions have multiple roles at different points in the sexual response cycle, for example activity in the amygdala is involved in encoding sexual salience, sexual arousal, orgasm, and poststimulation.

Sex differences: Brain & Behavior

We know that ♂ (males) have a 9-12% larger brain size, but that ♀ (females) have more gyrification (bumps)

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)

XX individual has adrenal glands that produce excess androgens mullerian system predominates (gonad becomes ovaries not testes), but the external genitalia is both. There is a scrotum, but no testes

5α-reductase deficiency

XY individual is born without the enzyme that converts testosterone into DHT - which is used for external genitalia. Internal genitalia, including testicles and Wolffian structures are present, but external genitalia look female.

Sleep cycle

alternating cycles of REM and SWS every 90-110 min cycles early in the night are characterized by more Stage 3 & 4 SWS later, there are no more episodes of stage 3 & 4 SWS period of stage 2 SWS precedes a REM episode and a refractory period occurs after each occurrence of REM sleep as sleep progresses, the REM episodes get longer in duration (first episode is the shortest of 5-10 min, last REM episode before waking may be as much as 40 min) total sleep time of young adults ranges from 7-8 hrs with 45-50% of sleep time is spent ins SWS and 20% is spend in REM sleep normal waking up throughout the night

Neural control of emotions: Amygdala

amygdala is the portion of the limbic system that is integrating the behavioral, autonomic and hormonal components (note: for the other innate behaviors it was the hypothalamus that does this) receives info from the # of sources including the hippocampus, sensory areas of the thalamus and cortex, and the olfactory bulb some of the outputs go to the thalamus and basal ganglia majority of the outputs go through the central nucleus of the amygdala to many brain regions that control emotional responses represents a convergence of the areas of the brain that are involved in emotions (fear)- all are limbic structures sensory info ascends to the amygdala through the midbrain and thalamus; auditory info also reaches the amygdala via the cortex hippocampus and cortex also send info to the amygdala about what is 'known' about the stimuli conditions and unconditioned fear responses are mediated by projections from the amygdala to an array of brain areas involved in autonomic and somatic defensive responses lots of input and most of output going out through central nucleus

Neural Control of emotion: Cortex

analysis of social situations involves sensory analysis, experiences, memories, inferences, and judgments that obviously involves many areas of the cortex- cingulate, orbitofrontal, insular, prefrontal and entorhinal cortices, which are considered to e part of the limbic cortex

Gender Identity: Pheromonal effects

androgens activate the brains of heterosexual females and homosexual males - but not heterosexual males identification on the X chromosome -at location 28, near the tip of the long (q) arm of chromosome X- that has been shown to be the same in gay brothers linked levels of stress of the mother prenatally with the tendency towards homosexuality in the offspring

Animal emotions

animals exhibit emotional behavior surrounding the 4 Fs: fighting, fleeing, feeding, and fornicating diff area vs us is the neocortex (where emotional coloring, changing of perception, actual perception- FEELINGS in emotion)

Hypothalamic control of eating

arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus responds to at least 4 circulating hormones that are released from cells in different body regions in response to energy needs: 1) Insulin from the pancreas 2) Ghrelin from the stomach 3) Peptide YY (PYY) from the intestine 4) Leptin from the fat cells nodal component of the neural network that contains several nuclei that exert a bidirectional homeostatic control on food intake and metabolism in response to peripheral signals that reflect the absorptive state and energy reserve

4 nuclei controlling release of hormones in anterior pituitary

arcuate, preoptic, periventricular, paraventricular releasing 1) CRH (corticotropin)- releases ACTH(arenocorticotrphic hormone that controls the adrenal gland and the release of steroid hormones), 2) TRH (thyrotropin)- releases TSH (thyroid stimulatin hormone), 3) GnRH (gonadotropin)- releases LH (Luteinizing hormone && TRH that controls release and implantation of eggs and stimulates testes to produce testosterone) AND FSH (follicle stimulating hormone that produce egg & sperm and secretion of estrogen in females and testosterone in males), prolactin releasing peptide, prolactin inhibiting factor, somatocrin (+) and somatostatin (-) (release of growth hormones) play role in homeostatis, reproduction, stress and growth

Fertilization

bringing together of the gametes may take place internally via copulation or externally following fertilization, formation of either zygotes, which develop internally, or eggs, which develop externally

Preoptic area of the anterior hypothalamus (POA) and Sexually dimorphic nucleus (SDN)

area before the optic chiasm and around the 3rd ventricle - plays a role in reproductive behavior and is different in size in male vs. female rats size difference may be due to the organization controlled by hormones size of the SDN is controlled by the amount of androgens present during fetal development SDN in the POA is much larger (5-8x's) in male rats than in female rats In rats, lesions of the POA disrupt the estrous cycles in females and reduce the frequency of copulations in males. Stimulation of the area elicits male copulatory behaviors. SDN appears to be important for psychological arousal and sexual behavior

Reproductive Strategies

basic purpose is the union of gamete (sex cells) to produce offspring in terms of evolution, the function of sexual reproduction is to bring together, in a single individual, the many beneficial gene mutations

Fluid regulation

bathes our cells ability to make our own seawater to surround our cells... interstitial fluid body contains 4 major fluid compartments: one intracellular compartment which si the the fluid portion of the cytoplasm of our cells- makes up 2/3 of the bodies water and 3 compartments are extracellular and includes the intravascular fluid (the blood plasma), the cerebrospinal fluid, and the interstitial fluid (seawater and is between our cells) **liquids in our stomach and bladders are neither

Measuring Brain Activity: Electroencephalogram

behavior along the arousal continuum ae actually defined in terms of EEG activity (electroencephalogram) used to measure the activation state of the cortex in cycles/seconds (ultradian activity) extracellular recording obtained by using macroelectrodes and recording from the cortex under the scalp record of the average fluctuations of the electrical activity of large # of neurons in the brain to record you need two electrodes: the potential diff is measured btwn the active electrode, the place that contains neural activity (all standardized locations), and an indff electrode, placed at some distance from the site or between 2 active

Piaget's stages of cognitive development

believed that children moved through discrete stages of cognitive development. Each stage was marked by specific challenges that the child must overcome in order to progress to the next stage

Freud: stage model of development

believed the personality was formed before the age of 6 years old and that personality is formed as children experience sexual pleasures from specific body areas and caregivers redirect or interfere with those pleasures At each stage there is a general theme of sexual conflicts experienced by the child that must be overcome in order to progress normally. If a child were to be unable to progress out of a certain stage, he would be "stuck" there and develop emotional disturbances

Gonads

body development maintenance of reproductive organs in adults

Thermoregulations

body temp is critical to all biological processes enzyme systems of mammals and birds are efficient within a narrow range around 37 deg C (98.6 deg F) which is therefore the temp that a body must maintain to stay alive low temps- reactions slow down or stop or if low enough, the lipid bilayers that makes up membranes are disrupted by the formation of ice molecules, even when they thaw the layers remain disrupted high temps- protein molecules go through conformational changes (can't bend) and do not function properly (cooking actually causes the amino acids to break apart and then fuse together) all living tissues produce heat at rest, your brain produces one third of your heat (hwich makes sense since it is the most metabolically demanding organ) at work, muscles produce most of the heat, the brain heat production is fairly constant muscles and gasoline engines produce 4-5 times as much heat as mechanical work

Brain development

brain of an infant is teeming with structural activity as neurons grow in size and complexity and trillions of new connections are formed between them development of the cerebral cortex has "sensitive periods" - or developmental stages - during which connections between neurons are more plastic and susceptible to environmental influence sensitive periods for sensory processing areas occur early in development, higher cortical areas mature later, and the prefrontal cortex continues to develop into early adulthood

Phenotypic sex: nervous system

brains and behaviors of males are organized and activated by testosterone only after the local conversion of testosterone to estradiol by the enzyme aromatase occurs (differ by one molecule) estradiol in the brain increases the transcription of some genes and decreases the transcription of other genes, leading to a masculinization of the brain to produce male behaviors

Sleep deprivation

cause difficulty in performing tasks that require concentration, and perceptual distortions and sometimes (rare) mild hallucinations can occur does impair cerebral functioning disorders: insomnia (difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep), narcolepsy (frequency and unexpected periods of sleepiness during the day- 1 in 1000 individuals- appear to run in families), sleep apnea (respiration becomes unreliable during sleep) during recovery from sleep deprivation, tend to payback your REM sleep can die faster from sleep deprivation than food deprivation

Neuroendocrine system/Neuroendocrine integration

cells that receive neuronal input (neurotransmitters released by nerve cells or neurosecretory cells) and release message molecules (hormones) to the blood bring about an integration between the nervous system and the endocrine system, a process known as neuroendocrine integration

Sleep Patterns

change dramatically over time infants: 12-14 hrs, children: 8-10 hrs, adults: 6-8 hrs, older adults: 4-5 hrs decrease in the amount of REM and SWS sleep across age: most of the SWS decrease is due to a decline in Stage 3 SWS and an absence of Stage 4 SWS, which begins at about age 30 and disappears by age 90 infants can go from awake to REM states until about 4 month of age when you see SWS prior to REM

Aquaporins

channels that the water molecule move through

Hormones

chemicals released into the blood by endocrine cells that depending on receptors, and what organs receptors are on will produce behavior (species- specific) either visceromotor or somatic motor response one hormone can have multiple kinds of effects can also slide through the membrane and work on receptors inside of cells can also work directly to bind to DNA

Piaget's stages: concrete operational stage

child learns that the way the world appears is not necessarily the way it is can distinguish between object and mental representations of objects, and that properties about objects can change without changing the object

Leo Vygotsky

children learn through interactions with their surrounding culture socio-cultural perspective, states that the cognitive development of children and adolescents is enhanced when they work in their Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD for short). To reach the ZPD, children need the help of adults or more competent individuals to support or scaffold them ZPD: defines skills and abilities that are in the process of developing , range of tasks that one cannot yet perform independently, but can accomplish with the help of a more competent individual

SDN and Animal Reproductive behaviors

circuitry involving the sexually dimorphic nucleus may explain the interaction of pheromones, genital stimulation, nervous system and hormones on sexual behavior In rats, the SDN (medial preoptic area in males and the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus (VMH) in females) receives input from the vomeronasal organ through connections with the medial amygdala and the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis. The SDN then connects to the motor neurons in the spinal cord via the nucleus paragigantocellularis of the medulla.

Personality: Behavioral approaches

claim that the individual's personality is determined based on social forces and influences in the environment. effects are said to occur through classical and operant conditioning, where the child learns to behave in a way that causes others to provide them with the most reinforcement and avoids punishment socialization plays a big role in the way that children act

Ultradian clock

clock modified by second to second types of rhythms

Volumetric/Hypovolemia physiological responses

constricts blood vessels- increase blood pressure by causing the muscles in the arterioles to contract stimulating the posterior pituitary supraoptic and paraventricular) to secret vasporessin (Antidiuretic Hormone)- initiates drinking behavior AND instructs the kidneys to produce higher concentrated and lower volume urine stimulates the adrenal gland to secret the mineralocorticoid- aldosterone (conserves salt)

Arcuate nucleus (ARC)

contains anorexigenic neurons that synthesize pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) derivative such as alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormones (MSH) that act via melanocortin 4 receptors (MC4R) and orexinergic neurons synthesizing neuropeptive Y(NPY), Agouti-related peptide (AgRP), and delta-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

Slow wave sleep: Stage 4

deepest stage of sleep only loud noises will cause a person to awaken person feels groggy and confused when awoken (30 min naps are good, so you dont reach stage 4) contains >50% delta activity night terrors (fear and ANS activation) and bedwetting occurs during stage 3 & 4 SWS

Sources of energy: Brain

dependent on glucose alone for its energy stored by the liver in the form of glycogen

Sexual differentation: genetic sex

determines at the time of fertilization Females have (XX) and males have (XY) When a sperm penetrates the egg, it contributes either a Y chromosome or an X chromosome to the newly produced offspring Y chromosome~ 50 genes while the X chromosome ~1500 genes

Wolfiann system

develops in response to 2 hormones released by the testes: A peptide hormone called anti-Mullerian hormone (also known as the MIF - mullerian inhibiting factor), prevents the Mullerian system from developing. has a defeminizing effect. AND androgens, which stimulate the development of the wolffian ducts into the epididymis, vas deferens, and seminal vesicles. has a masculinizing effect

Mullerian system

develops without any hormonal stimulus. This means that all fetuses inherently become female without the presence of other stimuli. The mullerian duct develops into the Fallopian tube, uterus and inner 2/3 of the vagina.

Sex determination pathway

directs the differentiation of the undifferentiated gonad into ovaries or testes. Gonadal sex steroids and their cognate receptors control the sexual differentiation of the nervous system and the expression of sex-typical behaviors in the adult During development, the ovary does not produce hormones. There is estrogen present due to the mother - but this is bound by the alpha-fetoproteins in the periphery, so it can not reach the brain There is testosterone present in males - which can be converted into estrogen - so males have estrogen converting their brains into "male-typical" brains all the places in the brain that have estrogen receptors (organizational effect)

William James

discusses the components of Self as "I " and "Me." and explores the 3Ds of the Me as the material, social and spiritual constituents in relation to the pure ego and articulated a theory of self esteem as the ratio of an individual's actual behavior relative to pretensions

Asexually

division of the gamete (fission or parthenogenesis)

Circannual behaviors

do not appear to be just counting 365 circadian rhythms occur once per year like many seasonal behaviors, such as autumn deer mating, winter chipmunk hibernation, and the instinct that drives the swallows back to Capistrano, CA on Mar 19

Reward System

dopaminergic mesolimbic system that is activated by primary reinforcers behavior that help us to get primary reinforcers activate this system, also known as pleasure center these behaviors make us happy so we tend to do them when the need arises primary reinforcers activate the VTA which then activates the nucleus accumbens --> produces behaviors

Memory consolidation in SWS vs REM

during SWS, active system consolidation involved the repeated reactivation of memories newly encoded in the temporary store, which drives concurrent reactivation of respective representations in the long term store together with similar associated representations. this process promotes the reorganization and integration of the new memories in the network of pre-existing long-term memories during REM , sleep synaptic consolidation occurs, which strengthen the memory representations that underwent system consolidation (reorganization) during prior SWS (thicker lines) in general, memory benefits optimally from the sequence of SWS and REM sleep but declarative memory, b/c of its integrative nature (binds features from diff memories to diff memory systems), benefits more from SWS associated system consolidation, whereas procedural memories, b/c of their specificity and discrete nature, might benefit more from REM sleep associated synaptic consolidation in localized brain circuits

Addiction

dysregulate of reward mechanism, decision making, and induces stress

Food and Energy regulation

eat so that we can get food that we need for energy and also nutrients that our body needs for growth, maintenance, and repair of body structure digestive systems break down the food we eat into simpler substances that our bodies can use nutritional requirements: >20 amino acid (9 of which we don't make- essential) and 15 vitamins and minerals all of the energy that we need is released as chemical bonds of complex molecules are broken down into smaller, simpler compounds 55% we need is used for our basal metabolism (maintenance of our homeostatic processes (temps, fluids) and other resting processes (neural potential)- changes with circumstances [decrease when energy stores are not readily available]

Cognitive development

emergence of the ability to think and understand Immaturity comes at a tremendous cost, both to the newborn, whose brain consumes 60% of its entire energy budget, and to the parents Delaying the maturation and growth of brain circuits allows initial learning to influence the developing neural architecture in ways that support later, more complex learning

Adrenal glands: Adrenal medulla

emotional arousal

4 basic aspects of emotion: Motivational programs

emotions that are 'pleasurable' and elicit positive feelings or 'unpleasant' and elicit negative feelings are tied into Dopaminergic reward pathways

Ghrelin and PYY

exert minute to minute control on appetite Ghrelin- stimulated AgRP/NPY neurons to stimulate eating PYY- inhibits AgRP/NPY neurons to inhibit neating

3 basic aspects of self: First person perspective

experience from where I perceive the world - egocentric center of your own multimodal experiential space is upon your own body two types of self-experience: 1) The 'Me' or self-related processing (as self-recognition and reflective thinking about oneself). Its neural substrates are thought to be restricted to a subset of midline cortical regions (mPFC and Precuneus/PCC) & compete for cognitive resources when some aspect of the world demands attention 2) The 'I' as embodied agent, which arises from the integration of efferent and reafferent processes, notably sensorimotor integration and homeostatic regulation, as well as possible higher level efferent-reafferent regulatory loops such as the one instantiated by cognitive control processes. Such regulatory loops implement a functional self/non-self distinction that implicitly specifies the self as agent. This type of self-experience implicitly occurs during attention-demanding interactions with the environment. organism constantly integrates efferent and afferent signals in a way that distinguishes fundamentally between reafference - afferent signals arising as a result of the organism's own efferent processes (self) - and exafference - afferent signals arising as a result of environmental events (non-self)

3 basic aspects of self: Self Location

experience of where I am in space depend on visuotactile signals and their integration with vestibular signals

Objective or OVERT indicators of emotion

facial expressions, temper tantrums, tears, changes in heart rate, blood pressure, etc.

Sleep neurochemical control

firing of the VLPO neurons inhibits the monoaminergic cell groups, thereby relieving their own inhibition allows it to inhibit the orexin neurons, further preventing monoaminergic activation that might interrupt sleep increase amount of adenosine --> sleep onset increase in prostaglandins (immune function- needs to recharge immune system) --> sleep onset decrease histamine (maintains arousal) --> sleep onset

Osmosis

fluid compartments are separated by semipermeable membranes given that the membrane is impermeable to the solutes, the fluids move in whatever direction is needed to maintain equal solute concentrations on both sides of a semipermeable membrane (maintain homeostasis) passive movement of the molecules (in this case water molecules) from one place to another

Primary clocks/generators

for circadian rhythms are not astronomical (the sun and the earth), but are biological in the brain controlled by hypothalamus and change on of the clocks, changes that occur in many other behaviors

Biological clock: suprachiasmatic nucleus

for circadian rhythms, the biological clock lies within the hypothalamus and is known as the SCN are two small nuclei located above the optic chiasm and on either side of the 3rd ventricle stimulation of SCN results in a predictable shift in circadian rhythms removal of the SCN and then transplantation of a new SCN can restore circadian function within a 2-4 week period controls circadian and circannual rhythms/biological clock melatonin that is released by the pineal gland increases sleepiness and if given during the day can reset the circadian rhythms external cues from our gastrointestinal system work as zeitgebers for our internal clock. this is done via the connection of the arcuate nucleus to the SCN

Androgen insensitivity syndrome

genetic male (XY) does not have functioning androgen receptors normally formed testes secrete the testosterone and the anti-Mullerian hormone. The testosterone can't bind and cause the formation of the Wolffian system (no epididymis, vas deferens, and seminal vesicles), but the anti-Mullerian hormone can bind so no Mullerian system (no uterus and ovaries and a shallow vagina). The external genitalia is female and at puberty they develop a female body. The gene for the androgen receptor is located on the X chromosome.

Persistent Mullerian Duct syndrome

genetic male (XY) has a deficit in the anti-Mullerian hormone receptor or does not produce the hormone born with both sets of internal sex organs

Stages of sexual development

genetic sex assignment: occurs w/ fertilization and is dependent on the chromosome present gonadal sex: dependent on the Y chromosome and the expression of SRY (testis determining factor) phenotypic sex: dependent on the organizational effects of the testicular hormones. sex assignment and early gender identity: dependent on a number of factors, including physical, neural, social, etc

Zeitgebers

german "time givers" external stimuli that help to adjust and SET the biological clocks and to keep them synchronized (hypothalamus) entrain animals to maintain an activity cycle of exactly 24 hours primary zeitgeber for mammals is the light-dark cycle earliest zeitgeber for mammals was probably he maternal hormone levels other zeitgebers that adjust and synchronize behaviors- periodic availability of food or water, social contact, environmental temps, and noise-quiet cycles in bears, when food is not available --> hibernate to lower metabolism and store energy light serves as a zeitgeber for our circadian rhythms it does this through increases in the Glu which comes from ipRGCs

Sources of Energy

get energy we need from food we ingest or nutrients we have stored Glucose, fatty acids, and ketones are all sources of energy for the cells in our body (our brain can only use glucose) Glucose and more complicated molecules (like fatty acids) typically used for energy In all cells of the body, except the brain, glucose needs a transporter (needs insulin to function b/c contains an insulin receptor) body can use fatty acids and can use glucose with insulin for its energy short term storage of energy occurs in cells of the liver and muscle

Ectotherms/poikilotherm

get most of their heat from the environment body temp varies with environment amphibians, reptiles, and most fish some invertebrates in the oceans, that are ectotherms, maintain a constant temp

Gluconeogenesis

glucose can be obtained from the stores in the fat and muscles cells by converting the stored pools via this process biosynthesis of new glucose necessary or use of fuel source by the brain, testes, erythrocytes and kidney medulla since glucose is the sole energy source for these organs during starvation, however, the brain can derive energy from ketone bodies which are converted to acetyl-CoA (ketosis is regarded as a crisis reaction of the body to lack of carbs in the diet)

Hormonal control of sexual development: androgens

gonadal hormones that important for the organizational behaviors Once the gonads have developed, a series of events is set into action that determines the individual's gender 1. During prenatal development these hormones have organizational permanent effects : influence the development of a person's sex organs and brain 2. After the sex organs have developed, the hormones have activational, temporary effects based on sex.

Secondary Sexual Development: Puberty

gonads are stimulated by the hypothalamus to produce hormones, which causes the individual to mature sexually - this is an activational effect of hormones increase in gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)- due to a combination of internal and external cues and a developmental clock. remodeling and activation of neural circuitry involved with the salience of sexual stimuli and sensory associations (girls are no longer yucky), sexual motivation, and sexual performance differentiates the physical changes (puberty) from the behavioral changes (adolescence)- changes occur both by steroid dependent and steroid independent mechanisms.

Thyroid

growth and development; metabolic rate

Body size and shape affect heat production and loss

high skin surface to body volume ratio mean a greater capacity to dissipate heat human form has more surface are than the cuboid form and have the same volume but the cuboid form conserves heat better people in warmer climates tend to be tall and thin to dissipate heat, while people in colder climates tend to be shorter and stockier to conserve heat

Regulation of neuroendocrine system

hormonal system also detect and evaluate the effects of the hormones lots of feedback mechanisms to shut off production of hormones at endocrine cells or hypothalamus or anterior pituitary (negative feedback) hormone acts in an autocrine loop (one where the NT is released onto the same releasing cell in order to evoke changes to the cell) to inhibit the release of the hormone hormone also stimulates the target cells and produces a behavior behavior feeds back onto the hypothalamus to inhibit the stimulation of the endocrine cells

3 independent, interacting and conflicting systems - the id, ego and super ego

id: part of the mind containing the drives present at birth and the source of our bodily needs, wants, desires, and impulses - particularly sexual and aggressive drives. superego: mental system that reflects the internalization of cultural rules, which are mainly learned as parents exercise control over the child ego: component of personality, developed through contact with the external world, that enables us to deal with life's practical demands and balances the desires of the id with the rules set forth by the superego. If the ego became unable to balance the conflicting urges of the id and superego, Freud posited that emotional disturbances would occur

Organization of sex differences in medial preoptic area (POA)

important for the masculinization of behavior

Biological Sensory: retinohypothalamic pathway

in mammals, the sensors (detectors) for the biological clock are in the eye (not photoreceptors) intrinsically photosensitive Retinal Ganglion Cells (ipRGC) or melanopsin containing ganglion cells act as a sensor which appears to involve a protein in specialized retinal ganglion cells of the retina, known as melanopsin- like hormone released by pineal gland (melatonin) retinal ganglion cells, along w/ the photoreceptors, send info directly to the SCN via the retinohypothalamic pathway ipRGC: send the axons back in the retinohypothalamic track, from retina to hypothalamus respond to light energy, main sensors for biological clocks pigments in these cells are known as melanopsin melanopsin and RGC conserved amount many animals and is just like melatonin, which is produced by pineal gland; the skull over pineal gland is really thin in some animals (like frogs- pineal gland is horizontal) so that the light can enter the pineal gland- more focused on long term rhythmic behaviors, around it is the cerebral cortex, seasonal kind of cyclic behaviors but also can play a role in daily rhythmic behavior (sleep cycle) there are other cells in the retina that also contribute to biological rhythms in some vertebrates, the receptors for the biological clock are located in the pineal gland (the thin skull allows the "third eye" in the back of the head to receive light)- for seasonal rhythms, the pineal gland and melatonin are important

Histamine neurons

in the hypothalamus play a role in the maintenance of arousal, which is why antihistamine produce sleep

Oxerin (hypocretin) neurons

in the lateral hypothalamus interact w/ the reticular formation, basal forebrain, and locus coeruleus may be the "switch" in the sleep center (ICC of hypocretin neurons in the lateral hypothalamus) found that people that have narcolepsy have a decrease of hypocretin binding in lateral hypothalamus direct mutual inhibition btwn the VLPO and the monoaminergic cell groups forms a classic flip-flop switch, which produces shart transitions in state, but is relatively unstable- the addition of the orexin neurons stabilizes the switch

3 general categories of sex organs: internal organs

include the Wolffian (male) and Mullerian (female) ducts

Personality

individual's characteristic style of behaving, thinking & feeling

Piaget's second stage: Preoperational stage

infants begin this stage totally egocentric, but eventually realize others also matter child thinking the world is all about them and fails to understand the world appears differently to others. Understanding that other people have minds and may have different perspectives or mental states than the child is called "Theory of Mind" child also doesn't distinguish between the way things look and the way things are Children in this stage will also be afraid of someone in a scary mask - even though they are told it is a friend, or even parent, wearing the mask

Piaget's first stage: Sensorimotor stage (birth - 2 yo)

infants learn about the world around them by using their senses (eyes, mouth and fingers) and their ability to move to explore the world around them infants tend to behave as if objects disappear when they no longer see them during this sensorimotor stage, infants begin to come up with theories about how physical objects behave - eventually developing object permanence (even if an object is hidden out of sight, it still continues to exist). A lack of object permanence allows infants to have fun with peek-a-boo.

Neural control of thermoregulation

info about body temps is obtained from: peripheral temp receptors located throughout the body (skin and body core)- same info that goes to through the anterolateral pathway central temp receptors concentrated in the preoptic are (POA) and anterior hypothalamus- in this are there are warm-sensitive neurons and cold sensitive neurons these receptors sense a "need" and then send out commands to satiate that need temp regulation depends on an integration of autonomic, endocrine and skeletomotor responses which is what the hypothalamus helps to regulate

REM

intense physiological activity 90 min after the onset of sleep (and 45 min after the onset of stage 4 sleep) EEG pattern that resembles the awake individual- beta and theta activity (why it is known as paradoxical sleep) cornea actually produces a bulge in the eyelid that we can actually see the eye moving around eyes dart about rapidly, the <3 rate shows sudden acceleration and decelerations, breathing becomes irregular, and the brain becomes more active loss of muscle tone elsewhere- reflexes, such as the patellar tendon reflex is gone twitching of the extremities and in males, erections may occur during this time- sometimes used to ascertain the cause of impotence...lets us know if the "equipment" is working active inhibitors of both spinal and cranial motor neurons during REM sleep dreams and nightmares that occur in NREM sleep peaks during REM sleep

Males mating behavior

invest very little energy in reproduction produce lots of sperm cells (sperm are small and cheap) Quick copulation and a small dose of sperm is all that the males of many species provide to their mates and offspring male's advantage to disseminate sperm into as many fertile females as possible BUT the competition among males in most species is fierce. in most vertebrates, nearly all the females who reach reproductive age manage to mate, but only a minority of mature males ever persuades anyone to mate with them

Human reproductive beahviors

involve the hypothalamic nuclei the activation of mesolimbic dopamine systems by unconditioned and conditioned sex cues forms the core of an incentive motivational system that critically links sexual wanting to sexual reward. This system is activated in the presence of priming cues, and also by actual sex partners, especially those that bear stimuli predictive of reward. The brain regions discussed are involved in many different behaviours, but they act together as a 'system' for sexual behaviour sexual response cycle involves phases related to excitement, plateau, orgasm, and refraction, which can also be expressed in terms of wanting, liking and inhibition. Sexual liking typically peaks at orgasm Orgasm (especially in men) tends to signal transition to the satiety phase, which can temporally prevent the individual from entering the cycle again sexual response cycle typically occurs over a relatively short time span (from minutes to hours) and may or may not include all of the phases and elements described

Propagational (reproductive) behaviors

involve the interaction btwn the endocrine and NS constitute the most important category of social behaviors social behaviors facilitate the survival behaviors but are not necessary for survival behaviors to take place social behaviors are necessary for propagational behaviors known as sexually dimorphic behaviors b/c they differ in males and females include courting, mating, parental behavior, and most forms of aggressive behaviors vary enormously among species

Beta Activity

irregular, mostly low amplitude waves of 15- 20 Hz occurs when a person is alert and attentive to events in the environment or is actively thinking represents asynchornized neural activity: lots of people talking about different things at the same time, lots of info being passed on

Orbitofrontal Cortex: Phineas Gage Skull

known that orbitofrontal cortex is crucial to emotional behaviors b/c of Phineas Gage Gage was a dynamite worker in the mid 1800s when a steel rod went through his head. He survived the accident, was actually awake, conscious and sitting upright on the ox cart ride to the nearby Hotel but after the accident he was different. Prior he was serious, industrious and energetic but after he was childish, irresponsible and thoughtless of others, swore more than usual, was unable to make or carry out plans, and his actions were whimsical. The steel rod destroyed most of his orbitofrontal cortex and over succeeding years, it was found that damage to the orbitofrontal cortex reduced people's inhibitions and became indifferent to the consequences of their actions

Social interactions & learning

learn about the world around them through seeing what the people around them are focusing on Gaze following is a mechanism that brings adults and infants into perceptual contact with the same objects and events in the world, facilitating word learning and social communication Learning from others depends on the infants' development of 3 fundamental skills: • Joint attention - focus on what another person is focused on. • Social referencing -use another person's reactions as information. • Imitation - do what another person does (or meant to do). Infants are natural mimics -they mimic intentions rather than actions (if action is not completed).

Egas Moniz (1935)

lesioned off the frontal cortex including the limbic areas (such as the orbitofrontal cortex and the anterior cingulate cortex) that animals had an alteration in emotional responsiveness lesioned animals failed to exhibit rage and anger frontal lobotomies destroy the prefrontal or orbitofrontal cortex but did alleviate emotional disorders such as anxiety, fears, obsessions and compulsion but had many harmful side effects: intellect was intact, but people are not employable; they do not make or execute plans b/c they do not care about rules and have flattened emotions or no emotions

Function of REM sleep and REM deprivation

less certain than SWS may promote vigilance, learning, species typical reprogramming or brain development permit an animal to become more sensitive to its environment and avoid being surprised by predators humans are more sensitive to meaningful stimuli- like the sound of their name memories of the events of the previous day- esp dealing with emotionally related info- are consolidated and integrated with existing memories and may also erase useless info may also help to integrate learned and species typical behaviors according to experiences gained during the day fact that infants spend most of their sleep cycle in REM suggests this stage is important for brain development when subjects undergo REM deprivation, they experience REM rebound (spend a greater than normal percentage of the recovery night in REM sleep)

Hypothalamus: Overview

lies below the thalamus- above the infundibulum (pituitary stalk) diencephalic structure that controls the endocrine system signals the pituitary to release hormones- affect behavior so that the NS controls the hormonally driven behaviors all of innate species-specific behavior revolves around here assess motivational stimuli (things that we NEED to survive) gets signals to sense what the needs are and produces response that talks to pituitary that releases chemicals

Body appendages

like ears have evolved to help with thermoregulations arctic foxes have smaller ears- lower surface to volume ration (less heat loss) fur --> fluffing out is warmer --> we dont have fur, but we have goose bumps small animals also tend to have higher temps- higher metabolic rates- than larger animals

Music & Emotions

listening to or playing music helps to alleviate stress music evoked emotions can modulate activity in virtually all limbic and paralimbic brain structures some music-evoked emotions involve the very core of evolutionarily adaptive neuroaffective mechanism b/c dysfunctions in these structures are related to emotional disorders, a better understanding of music-evoked emotions and their nueral correlates can lead to a more systematic effective use of music in therapy

Emotional behavior: aggression- Hormones

male sex hormones play a major role in aggressive behaviors that are related to reproduction- testosterone primarily affects offensive attacks (in animals, there is a correlation btwn seasonal androgen levels and aggressive behavior)- and also play a role in female aggression- levels of circulating testosterone is positively correlated with aggressive behaviors in both male and female laboratory animals: in this experiment, ovariectomized rats are given estradiol or testosterone testosterone has both an organizational and activational effect on aggression female sex hormone, progesterone, appears to be responsible for maternal aggressiveness (tendency of mother to defend young): prenatal androgenization of all species, including primates, increases aggressive behaviors increased testosterone levels have been observed in criminal with a history of violent behaviors but the primary effect of the androgens may be to increase motivation to achieve dominance and increased aggression may be secondary to the dominance effect cortisol inhibits agression serotonin is also linked with aggression: seratonergic neurons inhibit aggression (more aggression is seen with less serotonin) Destruction of the 5-HT connection to the forebrain enhances aggression. PCPA- parachlorophenylalanine- a drug that inhibits 5-HT synthesis causes aggression in mice administration of drugs that enhance serotonergic neurotransmission reduces aggression 5-HT agonists that target the 5-HT(1a) and the 5-HT (1b) receptors specifically (2/at least 14 known 5-HT receptors) decrease anxiety and aggression. these receptors are found in the amygdala periaqueductal gray area and the basal ganglia

Heat

measured in kilocalories generated when chemical bonds are broken 1 kcal is enough to raise the temp of a liter of water 1 degC

Vasopressin in the ventral pallidum of the prairie vole

mediates monogamy that same area in the meadow vole is not as dense --> not monogamous lab rice can become so if they are genetically engineered to produce vasopressin receptors in the same pattern as the prairie vole

Reciprocal relations btwn hormones and behaviors

messages may be transmitted in the body via neural-neural, neural- endocrine, endocrine- endocrine, and endocrine-neural links

Factors affecting sex assignment

mismatches in genetic sex, gonadal sex, or phenotypic sex (internal organs, external organs, brain) - which cause problems with gender identity Deficits in the SRY gene or in the production of the TDF could cause a mismatch in the genetic sexual identity and the hormonal sexual identity development of the internal and external sex organs is dependent on the release of hormones by the testes

Wake- and sleep- promoting neurons

monoaminergic nuclei inbiti the VLPO during wakefulness also inhibit the REM on and excite the REM off neurons in the REM switch thus making it nearly impossible for normal normal individuals to transition directly from wakefulness to a REM state when there is loss of orexin signaling in narcolepsy, both switches become destabilized and their normal cascading relationships is disrupted sot htat it is possible for individuals with narcolepsy to enter fragmentary components of REM sleep (cataplexy , sleep paralysis, and hypnagogic hallucinations) directly from the waking state the clinical phenomena encountered in narcolepsy when each population of wake-, sleep- or REM-promoting neurons fires at the wrong time is identified above [Belsomra- drug that targets and inhibits orexin]

Wakefulness neurochemical control

monoaminergic nuclei inhibit the VLPO, thereby relieving the inhibition of monoaminergic cells, and that of the orexin neurons, and the cholinergic pedunculopontine (PPT) and the laterodorsal tegmental nuclei (LDT)

Universal facial expression of emotions

most are represented by distinct facial expressions (Ekman- 2000) manifestation is cross cultural but cultures and society can play a role in the INTENSITY of the facial expression- in some cultures or situations, the expression of our emotions is not appropriate based on societal standards (Japanese people are taught to mask their emotions which requires voluntary control of what we will see may be automatic 'reflexive' facial muscles) Facial expressions may be used as an accessory to communication (verbal or sign)- a way of sharing your emotions paralinguistic when using sigh language facial expressions are often exaggerated

Osmotic thirst

most common way to trigger thirst is by the loss of water, through respiration, perspiration, urination or ingestion of a salty meal our body contains specialized cells, osmoreceptors, that respond to changes in solute concentration of the interstitial fluid which occurs by evaporation of water from the body or by ingestion of a salty meal osmoreceptors in the stomach and duodenum which inform the brain when a slaty meal has been eaten, thus stimulating thirst known that there are osmoreceptors int he organum vasculosum of the lamina terminals (OVLT which are known as the circumventrical organs (they go around the 3rd ventricle) the BBB in this area is weak OVLT is anterior to the 3rd ventricle

Early age and emotions

most of these emotions are present at as early as 8-9 months : joy/sadness- 3 months, anger/surprise- 4-6 months, fear- 6 months

Somatic motor response

movements to alleviate the need motor system that helps us do overt behavior to get stimuli that we need to do --> activates the dopaminergic mesolimbic system - starts with tegmental neurons in midbrain and talk to nucleus accumbens (reward pathway- when activated, shut down system and feel pleasure from motivational stimuli)

4 basic aspects of emotion: Behavioral responses (action)

muscular movements appropriate to the situation that elicits them use motor systems (overt responses) allows for the communication of the emotions- words, facial expressions, and gestures overt responses or behaviors that we see and can use to infer the emotions others are experiencing

Control of biological rhythms

need 3 components: a sensor (to adjust and synchronize the zeitgeber), a clock, and an output pathway

Kinds of thirsts

nervous system detects volumetric and osmotic

Reproductive Behaviors: neural control

neural regulation is surprisingly similar btwn male and females Neural control of the sexual response comes in part from the cerebral cortex (appears to be more the case in women and mature men - cognitively and physically) Fantasies: this cognitive aspect undergoes ontogenic changes, which may correlate with changes in the endocrine system Psychologically speaking, we are taught that sex is a primary reinforcer: behavior that is necessary and sufficient for the propagation of your individual genetic material and results in pleasure and can become addictive, which suggest an interaction with the Dopaminergic Mesolimbic reward pathway maternal behavior in rats involves the same pathways as the sexual behaviors, which has been linked to the ventral tegmental area (reward pathway). Lesioning this connection, in rats, causes the cessation of maternal behaviors

gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)-

neuroendocrine cells in the hypothalamus secrete this stimulates the production and secretion of two gonadotropic hormones by the anterior pituitary gland (part of the indirect hormonal control of the hypothalamus) 2 types: follicle-stimulating hormone and lutenizing hormone Stimulate the gonads to secrete their hormones Testes secrete androgens and the ovaries secrete estrogens and progesterone. Both types of glands produce a small amount of the other sex hormone hormones produce an activational effect of maturing the genitals and producing secondary sex characteristics Gonadal hormones (steroids) also initiate closure of portions of the bones and thus halt skeletal growth

Diabetus insipidus

no vasopressin production, the kidney retains less water, and they send more urine to the bladder (the urine is pale and dilute- insipid) constant urination causes constant thirst patients are treated with vasopressin

Isotonically balanced

normally, the solutes in the intracellular compartments and the solutes in the extracellular compartments are at an equal concentration water does not move in or out of the compartments

Hypotonic

one compartment gains water and the solutes are less concentrated in that compartment than they are on the other if the cells lose too much water, they do not function properly (chemical reactions) cause the water to flow from the hypotonic solution to the other side of the membrane

Hypertonic

one compartment loses water so the solutes are more concentrated water will flow to hypertonic solutions so if interstitial fluid becomes if the cells gain too much water, they could rupture hypertonic to the cytoplasm, then water flows out of the cells

Monogomous

one female and one male that mate for life found in birds (mainty b/c of the high metabolic rate, where you need 2 parents to feed the young), and in most religious groups of humans

Polyandry

one female with many men found in insects, bees

Turner's syndrome

one genetic sex hormone develop as females, but lack ovaries (2 X chromosomes are needed to produce ovaries)

Polynyny

one man with many women found in 'harems'- gorillas, elephant seals, lions

Erik Erikson

personality develops in a series of stages. Unlike Freud's theory of psychosexual stages, Erikson's theory describes the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan one of the main elements: ego identity- conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction our ego identity is constantly changing due to new experiences and information we acquire in our daily interactions with others sense of competence motivates behaviors and actions Each stage is concerned with becoming competent in an area of life. If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which is sometimes referred to as ego strength or ego quality. If the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point in development these conflicts are centered on either developing a psychological quality or failing to develop that quality. During these times, the potential for personal growth is high, but so is the potential for failure. He called these conflicts "identity crises"

Personality: Trait approach

personality is best captured by 5 traits - which are consistent ways in which people behave traits may be genetically determined - as the more genes you have in common with someone the more similar your personalities

Personality: Nature and nurture

personality is determined based on both social influences and genetic contributions, and the interplay between your genes (nature) and your upbringing (nurture)

Personality: psychodynamic approach

personality is formed by needs, strivings, and desires largely operating outside of awareness, and that these motives can also produce emotional disorders made popular by Sigmund Freud

Theory: Cannon-Bard (1929)

physiological reactions were the same for many emotions (anger, fear, and surprise0 and that they were essentially activation of the sympathetic NS role of the CNS to 'decide' what emotion was an appropriate response to a stimulus and then simultaneously produce the ANS activation and the emotional perception purpose of emotion was to help us deal with a changing environment taking context into account and then perceiving what emotion to have

Melatonin

pineal gland releases this in the presence of dim light or dark abt 2 hrs after the release- you get sleep onset melatonin receptors in the SCN and melatonin agonists (Rozerem) induce sleep

Emotional behavior: aggression- amygdala

plays a role in aggressive behaviors lesions of the temporal lobe, with inclusion of the amygdala, produces Kluver-Bucy syndrome (1938) which produces a taming effect in animals and is associated with this is increased oral behaviors and hypersexuality normally plays a role in maintaining position in the social hierarchy- due to the aggressive behaviors basolateral nuclei of the amygdala produces affective aggression due to its connections in the ventral amygdalofugal pathways to the hypothalamus and brainstem centromedial nuclei of the amygdala normally has an inhibitory effect on predatory aggression through its projection to the hypothalamus via the stria terminalis

Hormonal control of mating strategies (voles)

prairie vole has 'family values' vs the meadow vole is more promiscuous Prairie voles have lots of VP and tend to be monogamous. The meadow vole does not - and it is more promiscuous. When you inject VP into the meadow vole then they become more monogamous.

Slow wave sleep: Stage 1

presence of theta activity (4-7 Hz slower than alpha or beta) and vertex spike high amplitude but low frequency transition btwn sleep and wakefulness and is the easiest stage to be awakened in reduction of muscle tension and a slowing of the heart rate eyelid will slowly open and close, and eyes will roll upward only lasts for a few min

SCN Control of Rhythmic behaviors

principal biological clock appears to be the suprachiasmatic nucleus in the hypothalamus but may not be the only biological clock; in fact, this may only be the coordinator work showing that environmental stimuli (like depletion of food sources) could play a role in circadian rhythms- when food is restricted another area of the hypothalamus may take over control of rhythmic function- like activity levels- to increase the chances that the animal can successfully locate additional food sources the integrative steps in the subparaventricular and dorsal medial hypothalamus allow circadian rhythms to adapt to environmental stimuli, such as food availability) as well as visceral sensory inputs, cognitive influences from the prefrontal cortex and emotional inputs from the limbic system (inset) metabolic signals also regulate the "biological clock" of the SCN- endogenous environments there are a number of output pathways from the SCN feeding behavior: do a lot to modify other circadian behaviors (leptin and ghrelin) that communicate with DMH so when you are hungry, affects on all other behaviors that you have

Threatening stimuli sensory info

processed first by the thalamus and then the amygdala, which initiates fast and influential neurological reactions that are experienced by the individual as 'fear' and which instigate physiological responses (via the hypothalamus and the sympathetic NS) that have been highly selected for survival value by their evolutionary consequences

Insulin

promotes the conversion of glucose into glycogen for storage helps transport glucose into cells (other than the brain) for energy

Leptin and insulin

provides info about current energy stores decrease appetite and increase metabolism by inhibiting neuropeptide Y (NPY)/agouti related protein (AgRP) and stimulating pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) and cocaine and amphetamine regulated transcript (CART) neurons

Volumetric/Hypovolemia thirst

pure volumetric thirst is due to low extracellular fluid volume (intravascular, CSF, interstitial) occurs when there is a loss of volume of blood plasma, vomiting, and diarrhea also occurs when the body loses fluid through evaporation heart and the kidneys contain cells that are able to detect decreases in volume flow (baroreceptors) which, when activated, activate the cells n the medial preoptic area reduction in blood to the kidney causes water and sodium to be retained by the body, helps compensate for loss by reducing the size of the blood vessels, and encourages the animal to find and ingest both water and sale when the baroreceptors in the kidney detect a decrease blood flow caused by hypovolemia, an enzyme, renin, is released into the circulatory system- corresponding decrease in blood flow detected by baroreceptors in the hears which activate NTS (nucleus tractus solitarius)

Sexual preferences

rats, we know that male or female behaviors can be linked to specific brain areas and the presence of specific hormones Whether a mismatch in genetic sex, and either hormonal sex (which correlates directly with the internal and external sex organs) or sexual personality (which may also correlate with hormonal organizational effects on the brain) is responsible for homosexuality is unclear

Neural Control of Emotion: Orbitofrontal Cortex

receives direct input from the dorsomedial thalamus, temporal cortex, ventral tegmental area, olfactory system, and the amygdala about what is happening in the environment and what plans are being made projects to the regions of the frontal cortex, cingulate cortex, hippocampus, temporal cortex, hypothalamus, and amygdala the outputs permit it to affect a variety of behaviors and physiological responses, including those emotional behaviors organized by the amygdala

Alpha Activity

regular, medium amplitude waves of 9-12 Hz (cycles/sec) brain produces alpha activity when a person is resting quietly, not particularly aroused or excited and not engaged in strenuous mental activity (such as problem solving) sometimes occur when a person's eyes are open, much more prevalent when the eyes are closed produced by a regular synchronized pattern of activity in a large # of neurons reflects synchrony- lots of people saying the same word at the same time; not a lot of info is being relayed

Endotherms/Homeotherms

regulate their temp chiefly by internal metabolic processes evolved so that organisms could remain active no matter what the outside temp mainly mammals, birds, and possible dinosaurs mammals who hibernate are endotherms and they vary body temp

Prostaglandins

related to the immune system like adenosine, increase during the day until they provoke sleep work by activating neurons that inhibit the hypothalamic cells that increase arousal

4 basic aspects of emotion: Feelings

related to the physiological reactions and the behaviors your perception- private and subjective components of emotions involves the cortex People who could no longer experience the physiological reactions from their bodies report that they no longer experience intense feelings

Endocrine glands

release hormones within the body, directly into blood (ductless)- pituitary, hypothalamus, pineal, gonads, thyroid, pancreas, stomach, heart where endocrine and neuroendocrine cells are found

Exocrine glands

release their products through ducts to the outside of the body- salivary (digestion), sweat (thermoregulation), and lacrimal (keep eyes moist)

Hermaphrodites

reproduce as males or females occur either simultaneously (like Aplysia) or sequentially (clown fish), which are male first and then become female when they are large enough

Pineal gland

reproductive maturation; body rhytms

Visceromotor

response of organs, controlled by ANS

Arousal

result from sensory stimuli and direct tactile stimulation of the external sex organs, which are densely innervated by mechanoreceptors

Adrenal glands: Adrenal cortex

salt and carbohydrate metabolism; inflammatory reactions

Theory: Damasio

separates the behaviors into emotions and feelings emotions- actions in response to threat or opportunity feelings- mental experiences of body states

Sexual development

sex: biological characteristics that divide the animals into male and female gender: behavioral characteristics associated with being a male or female

Gender Identity: Connectivity

sexual dimorphism with respect to hemispheric asymmetry and the functional connections from the right and left amygdala. (Males usually have more cerebral asymmetry) hemispheric ratios, as well as the patterns of amygdala connectivity, were sex-atypical in homosexual subjects, with homosexual males exhibiting more female patterns and homosexual females showing more male-like features Right & Left Hemisphere asymmetry (different sizes) in heterosexual males & homosexual females and Right & Left Hemisphere symmetry (same size) in heterosexual females & homosexual males

Sleep spindles

short bursts of waves at 8-14 Hz, occurs btwn 2-5 times a min during stages 1-4 sleep some believe they represent the activity of a mechanism that decreases the brain's sensitivity to sensory input and keeps the person asleep (differences could define light vs heavy sleepers) sleep of older people contain fewer sleep spindles and older people typically have more awakenings during the night

Irving Zucker experiments (1970s)

showed that lesions of the SCN abolished the circadian rhythmicity of physical activity- feeding and drinking, and adrenal steroid secretion

Humans

socially monogamous brains but sexually promiscuous genitals distribution of oxytocin and arginine vasopressin receptors in the human brain reveals that we are a monogamous species large size of the male testicles and shape of the penis suggest that we evolved when females would have multiple sexual partners and it was a "let the best sperm win" all-out competition

Sleep and waking states

spend 1/3 of our lives asleep sleep is a fundamental behavior ubiquitous in the animal kingdom, necessary for the support of physical health and in humans for the maintenance of cognitive function sleep is actually a set of behaviors that is on one end of the brain arousal continuum sleep is a conscious state b/c when you are unconscious there is no perception going on but when you are asleep and there is a pain signal, you will wake up; this makes sleep conscious activity, which happens to be controlled by the Ascending Reticular Activation System (ARAS) do not sleep b/c our brains are "run down", there are active brain mechanisms that cause us to engage in the behavior of sleep wakefulness, or arousal, is a non-uniform process: there are many times that we are awake and yet we are not alert or attentive (eyes open- zoning out), frightening or surprising stimuli can cause us to become more activated and aware of our surroundings arousal then can be thought of as a continuum... with awake, alert and attentive behavior at one end and sleep in the middle (attentive behaviors are run in 90 min cycles for adults (changes with age- 5, 10, 20, min)

Reproductive beahviors: neural control systems

spinal cord coordinates the cortical activity with the sensory information from the genitals and generates the critical outputs that mediate the sexual response reproductive behaviors, the autonomic nervous system plays a key role parasympathetic system (point) controls the vascular engorgement and erection of the genitals, as well as secreting lubricating fluids and the parasympathetic neurons within the sacral spinal cord are activated either by the mechanoreceptors from the genitals - which can trigger a reflexive response, OR by axons descending from the cortex - which accounts for the arousal from more cognitive stimuli Parasympathetic nerve endings to the genitals release a combination of acetylcholine, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), and nitric oxide (NO) sympathetic system (shoot) controls the muscular contractions that are part of the completion of the sexual behavior in both males and females. Sensory information from the genitals and information from the descending axons are required for the activation of the sympathetic system

Why is there less stage 3 and stage 4 as our sleep cycle progresses?

stage 3 and 4 are needed b/c the longer REM & those stages is just preparing our brain stage 3 & 4 repairs wear and tear of the body and brain so it doesn't need to keep on doing it b/c it does it in the beginning

Homeostasis

state of physiological equilibrium involved in processes that balance our internal environment of the body within a narrow physiological range self regulating process for maintaining body parameters around a set point critical to survival

Gut signals

stimulate vagal afferents projecting to the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS), which, via the parabrachial nucleus (PBN), conveys these signals to the hypothalamus

Emotional behavior: aggression- hypothalamus

stimulation of the medial hypothalamus, which is connected to the periaqueductal gray area (via DLF) evokes affective aggression stimulation of the lateral hypothalamus, which is connected to the VTA (via MFB)- evokes predatory aggression (remember stimulation of the centromedial nuclei of the amygdala normally inhibits this response)

Mating behavior

strategy that ultimately meets the single evolutionary objective: to maximize the survival of offspring and parental genes

Reward circuit

strength of stimulus and response relationships are always tied to primary reinforcers either directly or indirectly compounds are considered to have rewarding effects if they are actively sought out (causes behavior) compounds are considered to have reinforcing effects if they strengthen behaviors all compounds are capable of increasing dopamine release into the nucleus accumbens from VTA neurons which increase in response to administration of all drugs of abuse and fire in response to novelty and their firing patterns may encode a prediction signaling the reward value of a stimulus relative to its expected value

Emotional behavior: Stress and immune system

stress affects the immune system in 2 ways: 1. through the ANS: noradrenergic activation (when the sympathetic NS is activated) decreases the production of antibodies and most of the energy should be going to alleviating the stress and not to make antibodies 2. through the hypothalamic-pituitary-neuroendocrine system: periventricular hypothalamus secretes corticotropin releasing hormone into the hypothalamo-pituitary portal system that triggers the release of the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) into the general circulation that stimulates the release of cortisol from the adrenal medulla cortisol, the steroid hormone released from the adrenal medulla, travels to the brain, and at least initially, it makes the brain better able to cope with stress by 'figuring out a way to avoid it' (increase in Ca++)

Vasopressin

stress behavior and water retention also known as antidiuretic hormone (ADH) b/c inhibits formation of urine- playing role in kidney increase in blood pressure by causing the blood vessels to contract

Emotional behavior: Stress

stress can also involve aggression but it is usually more tied to fear and anxiety defined as being 'any situation in which you perceive that you do not have control' adaptive behavior that activates the ANS and endocrine system and cause u to behave in a manner that helps with our survival brain creates biological stress in response to real or imagines stimuli and is a response of the NS stimuli that may be stressful to some may not be stressful to other and the same stimulus may not be stressful at some times, but under certain circumstances they may be stressful stress becomes damaging when we can find no way to eliminate the stressful event or to navigate through the event to a successful outcome (we have no control over the stressful stimuli) def by Kim and Diamond: a condition in which an individual is aroused by an averse situation. the magnitude of the stress and its physiological consequences are influenced by the individual's perception of its ability to control the presence or intensity of the stimulation

K complexes

sudden, sharp waveforms that are only found during stage 2 sleep spontaneously occur at the rate of approx 1/min but can often be triggered by noises may represent a mechanism that keeps the animal asleep no perception of sleep: if awakened during this time- the person may insist that they were not asleep

Pancrease

sugar metabolism

Neural control of Behavioral Response

superficial muscles of facial expression which connect with the skin are innervated by CN 7 (facial) deep muscles connecting to the skeleton, that move the jaw, are innervated by CN 5 (trigeminal) lower 2/3 of the face receives input from contralateral cortex and the upper 1/3 receives input from both hemispheres neural control of facial expression appears to be diff than neural control of voluntary facial movements voluntary activation of our facial muscles goes through the corticospinal system- PMC is in 'command' of the brainstem cranial nerve nuclei: patients with unilateral lesions of the motor cortex are unable to move one side of their face, but when they are expressing emotions they can move both sides of their face facial movements induced by emotion involve subcortical systems where the brainstem cranial nerves have some autonomy: patients with subcortical lesions, such as Parkinson's disease, can voluntarily move their face, but do express facial emotions (flat affect) feedback from facial movements do influence the feeling or emotion perceived

Effects of Sustained Stress

sustained stress (real or perceived) can have a pronounced suppressant effect on our own immune system one of the result of the cortisol release is a suppression of the immune system, which leads to suppression of swelling (inflammation) - ex: Sapolsky's wounded zebra and lion story is about a zebra wounded by a lion must first escape and hide, only then does the infection of the wound pose a threat, all of the body's resources go to getting out of the situation instead of suppressing the swelling many physiological responses associated with stress are actually helping protect the body and the brain from the dangers that triggered the stress in the first place and help us eliminate the real or perceived stressful stimuli (increased by HR for example) problem is that there is no one physiological response that is exclusive to stress: glucorticoids are released in response to stressful stimuli, but also in response to pleasurable ones chronic stress, however, leads to cell death- excitotoxity- too much of a good thing

Integrated hypothesis of mood disorders

sustained stress has been linked to a # of mental health disorders too much stress or prolonged stress lead to a number of detrimental changes in your brain- as well as in your immune and ANS

Ventromedial hypothalamic neurons

synthesize brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and mediate leptin-induced anorexia, whereas neurons of the dorsal medial hypothalamus may mediate circadian influences on food intake

Lateral hypothalamus neurons

synthesizes orexin of melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH), which stimulate food intake and interact with circuits involved in hedonic control of feeding beavhior, including dopaminergic neurons of the VTA and nucleus accumbens, and influence cortical areas involved in behavioral control of food intake, such as the insular cortex, anterior cinguate cortes, and orbitofrontal cortex

Ascending Reticular Activating System (ARAS)

system that modifies levels of consciousness largely originated from a series of well defined cell groups with identified NT 2 major branches: 1. ascending pathway to the thalamus that activates the thalamic relay neurons that are crucial for transmission of into the cerebral cortex, major source of upper brainstem input to the thalamic-relay nuclei, as well as to the reticular nucleus of the thalamus, is a pair of acetylcholine producing cell groups: the pedunculopontine and laterodorsal tegmental nuclei (PPT/LDT) that has neurons that fire most rapidly during wakefulness and REM sleep 2. ascending arousal system bypasses the thalamus and instead activating neurons in the lateral hypothalamic are and VF, and throughout the cerebral cortex, pathway originates from monoaminergic neurons in the upper brainstem and caudal hypothalamus, including the noradrenergic locus coeruleus (LC), serotoninergic dorsal (DR) and median raphe nuclei, dopaminergic ventral periaqueductal grey matter and histaminergic tuberomammillary neurons, input to the cerebral cortex is augmented by lateral hypothalamic petidergic neurons (containing melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) or oxerin/hypocretin), and BF neurons (containing acetylcholine or GABA)

Gender identitiy

takes into account genetic sex, gonadal sex, and phenotypic sex (internal organs, external organs, brain) Exposure to gonadal hormones during critical periods in development is important for the organization of adult partner preference behavior in the rat These gonadal hormones may change key areas of the brain that affect saliency of sexual stimuli and sexual motivation Adolescent maturation of reproductive behavior requires remodeling and activation of neural circuits involved in salience of sexual stimuli and sensory associations, sexual motivation and sexual performance Structural remodeling of the brain during adolescence occurs through both steroid-dependent and steroid independent mechanisms

Females Mating behavior

tend to be very selective when choosing a mate expend a huge amount of time and energy on their offspring produce relatively few eggs (eggs are large and expensive), and they incubate and nurture only a small number of young during their lifetimes Natural selection processes allows them to choose mates that have the best "sperm", b/c maximizes the chance that their offspring will survive and reproduce (not a cognitive choice) Courtship rituals often provide opportunity for the female to assess the genetic fitness of a potential male

3 basic aspects of self: identification

the ability to recognize one's self (owning a body) - self recognition By 2 years old, half of all human children can recognize themselves. incorporate external objects into our self-identification which is important for being able to rehabilitate patients with prosthetics experiments have identified trimodal neurons and the brain areas associated with this aspect of our sense of self: the premotor cortex, anterior cingulated cortex, intraparietal sulcus, the insula and the cerebellum

Synchronization of Peripheral clocks

the biological clock in the SCN is either controlled by input from the retina- retinohypothalamic tract and from the pineal gland- exogenous environment, but there are also signals going into the SCN from other influences the SCN central pacemaker must establish phase coherence in the body by synchronizing billions of individual cell clocks every day: the SCN uses many routes to establish phase coherency in the periphery; thus, feeding rhythms, driven by rest-activity rhythms, are strong Zeitgebers for many tissues body temp rhythms, influenced directly by the SCN and by activity cycles controlled by the SCN, appear to play a role in the resetting of peripheral timekeeprs SCN also uses more direct timing cues (such as humoral and neuronal signals) to entrain the phases of peripheral clocks daily feeding-fasting cycles appear to be the dominant Zeitgebers for several peripheral organs, including liver, kidney, pancreas, and <3: the timing of food intake influences the expression profile of many circadian genes in these organs; normally the feeding-fasting cycles are in phase with the rest-activity cycles the entrainment pathways from feeding-fasting cycles may include hormones secreted upon feeding and fasting, postprandial temp elevations, and intracellular redox state when a behavior is really important it doesnt rely on one signal but on multiple signals so organs have to releasing signals and when they do so it is in response to needs the organs have

Circadian rhythms

the daily cycles of light and dark that result from the spin of the earth almost all land animals coordinate their behavior to this precise schedules vary among species, but most physiological and biochemical processes in the body rise and fall with daily rhythms (alertness, body temp, growth hormone levels, hair growth, urine production (not excretion), blood flow and metabolic rate all fluctuate daily) when the cycle of daylight and darkness are removed from the animal's environment, circadian rhythms continue on more or less the same schedules circadian clock mechanism involved transcription-translation feedback loops comprised of a set of core clock genes temperature, growth hormones, cortisol level (stress hormones), and ion levels fluctuate on daily cycle

Jet lag and shift work

two different disruptions of circadian rhythmicity imposed by society jet lag- produces phase advances (going east) and phase delays (going west) of the zeitgebers that control the phases of the circadian rhythms shift work- forces individuals to shift their normal sleep-waking cycles, while the zeitgebers stay the same (whenever possible phase delays- go to bed later- work better than phase advances- to go bed earlier) both of these cause disturbances in sleep, fatigue, general malaise, and deficits on tests of physical and cognitive function

Neural control of eating

the insular cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, nucleus accumbens, amygdala, and dopaminergic ventral tegmental area neurons have a key role in control of feeding behavior in response to the reward or hedonic aspects of food hypothalamic network includes mutually interconnected neurons located in the arcuate nucleus (ARC; infundibular nucleus in humans), ventromedial nucleus (VMH), paraventricular nucleus (PVN), dorsomedial nucleus (DMH), and lateral hypothalamic area (LHA) these neurons respond to circulating signals, such as leptin and ghrlin, and to satiety signals from the gut, including cholecystokinin (CCK) and peptide YY (PYY)

Theory: Stanley Schacter (1975)

theory of emotions must emphasize the cognitive mechanisms involved individuals interpret physiological responses in terms of the eliciting stimuli, the surrounding situation (influence of others, their cognitive state (i.e. whether or not they are tired), and past experience physiological state is going to influence perception of the emotion and store information and that changes what our perception of the event it

Primary reinforcers

thins our bodies NEED (survival or propagational) both are regulated by the hypothalamus, both involve the limbic system

Biological Rhythms

ubiquitous in the mammalian CN they range in frequencies from behaviors that are ultradian- which are seconds to minutes to hours cycles

Neural mechanisms of sleep

until 1940s: believed that sleep was a passive process- if you deprived the brain of sensory input, you would fall asleep but when the sensory afferents to the brain are blocked, the animal continues to have cycles of waking and sleep early 1950s: Moruzzi and Magoun's work led to the concept of ARAS which plays a role in the maintenance of cortical arousal and waking- we now know that sleep is an active process that requires the participation of a variety of brain regions 1970s-1980s: clarified nature of ARAS pathways 1980-1990s: examine the inputs to the monoaminergic cell groups that might be responsible for their remarkable, stereotyped and coordinated changes in firing patterns associated with sleep: the ventrolateral preoptic are (VLPO) and the median preoptic nucleus (MnPO) sends outputs to all of the major cell groups in the hypothalamus and brainstem that participate in arousal inhibits ARAS: VLPO (GABA & galanin) --> increase in GABA activity so it shuts down ARAS

Neural Control of emotions: mesolimbic system (Old and Milner- mid 1950s)

used the circuitry described by Papez to identify the 'reward' or pleasure center of the brain (Dopaminergic mesolimbic system) anything that makes us happy activates this circuitry circuitry also plays a role in addictive behaviors circuitry also plays a role in addictive behaviors- any drug or action that is addicting activates this circuitry stronger and longer than the natural reinforcers pleasure causation has been identified in rodents as arising from interlinked subcortical hedonic hotspots, such as in nucleus accumbens and ventral pallidum, where neural activation may increase 'liking' expressions to sweetnes

Metabolism

utilization of stored food in the body, is an example of a chemical reaction used to generate heat

Theory: James Lange (1854)

we experience emotion in response to physiological changes in our body be your conscious perception of the physiological responses that is the emotion emotions ARE the physiological response suppose you are extremely angry about something...your heart rate increases, muscles tense, and face become hot and flushed but if you take these physiological effects then, according to this theory, you would not be angry anymore

Free run period

when all zeitgebers are removed, maintain these periods natural period of humans is between 24.5-25.5 hrs, mics ~23 hrs, hamster ~24 hrs

Lateral hypothalamus (hunger center)

when lesioned you stopped eating/stimulated you ate increases food intake when activated by the AgRP/NPY neurons decreases food intake when activated by leptin

Ventromedial hypothalamus (satiety center)

when lesioned, overate/stimulated you didn't eat increases food intake when activated by the AgRP/NPY neurons

Behavioral disorders: excessive emotions

when our emotions are sustained or not functioning properly, turn into behavioral disorders grief -> depression, ecstasy -> mania, terror -> anxiety, vigilance -> obsessive compulsive behaviors

Emotions: Innate and Imitated (Grossman)

when people see someone expressing an emotion, they tend to imitate the expressions early in development, emotion enhances the sensory processing of faces and voices infants' ability to allocate increased attentional resources to neg emotional info develops earlier in the vocal domain than in the facial domain at least by the age of 7 mos, infants reliably match and recognize emotional info across face and voice

Promiscuity

where both sexes have many mates found in giraffes, orangutans

Hypothalamus: Pituitary Gland

where the direct and indirect control of the endocrine system by the hypothalamus occurs

Midbrain-forebrain-extrapyramidal reward circuit

where the reinforcing effects of all of the drugs that have a potential to become abused appear to be mediated by

Drugs changes in the homeostasis

where you normally have a homeostatic set point, drugs will lower it people who are addicted, it will change their reward pathways system and changes where their 'normal' is b/c the high when they take the drug homeostatic is lower so even when they stop taking the drug, will still be lower than when they started off take drugs to get back to the 'normal'

Oxytocin

women:receptors for this in the uterus that helps with contractions during birth and receptors in brain and makes you forget about the pain associated with child birth and sexual behavior men: play role in sexual behavior of the orgasm synthetic version is pitocin (drug used to induce labor)

Socially monogamous

~3% males and females cohabitate to jointly raise offspring but not sexually monogamous

Sex differences: behaviors

♀ more bilateral activity during tasks ♂ more regional activation during tasks ♀ more sensitive to social cues and stresses, such as perception of rejection