Altius Lesson: Biology 4

Myosin filaments contain bead-like arms often called? The default, low-energy position for these heads is? In between contractions, ATP hydrolysis (ATP ADP + Pi) is used to? Regardless of which position the myosin heads are in (straight or bent), they are attracted to, and bind readily with? The only reason they are not bound continuously is? Tropomyosin is "clamped" into position by another protein called? When calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum it binds to? Myosin will then immediately bind to?

- "heads" or "cross-bridges" - bent - provide the energy to straighten-out, or "cock", these myosin heads into the high-energy, straight position - their neighboring actin filaments - a protein molecule called tropomyosin, which covers the myosin binding site on the actin filament - torponin - troponin, releasing the "clamp" and freeing the binding site - actin

Antigen Presentation: definition Macrophages, dendritic cells, and B-cells can all?

- Antigen presentation is the process by which a cell that has engulfed an antigen or microbe, (via receptor-mediated endocytosis or phagocytosis) takes protein portions of that microbe or antigen and "presents" them on MHC (Major Histocompatability Complex) proteins embedded in its own cell membrane for other cells to "see." - "present" antigens (Note: Other cells types can also "present" to a small extent, but they do not play a major role in immune system function)

Skin: Epidermis is?

- Avascular and made up of mostly dead or dying, keratinized cells.

Digestion begins in the mouth with the physical digestion of all food types and the chemical digestion of_______ only (via the enzyme________ ) What is the name of the reaction by which amylase catalyses carbohydrate breakdown? Epiglottis is? During the act of swallowing this flap folds down over the opening to the portion of the larynx that contains?

- Carbohydrates ; alpha‐amylase - via hydrolysis - This u-shaped flap of cartilage and membrane is oriented nearly vertical in its default position. This allows air to proceed past by it and into the trachea. - "voicebox" and trachea, disallowing food down the trachea while only allowing food down the esophagus

How is the pancreas both an endocrine and an exocrine gland? It secretes a bicarbonate rich solution, which? What 6 enzymes does it secrete?

- Exocrine because of the digestive enzymes listed below and endocrine because of insulin and glucagon - neutralizes the stomach acid, decreasing the acidity of the intestine to pH = 6 - trypsin, chymotrypsin, pancreatic amylase, lipase, ribonuclease, and deoxyribonuclease

Proteins in the stomach undergo ________, a reaction catalyzed by the enzyme ________. This enzyme begins as ________, an example of a zymogen Zymogens are ?

- Hydrolysis; pepsin; pepsinogen - inactive enzyme precursors

Stomach Cell Lining types: G-Cells do what? Gastrin is released into? It circulates back to the where to do what? Is gastrin a peptide, a steroid, or a tyrosine derivative? Is gastrin likely to bind at a membrane receptor? Would it need a carrier molecule?

- Make and secrete gastrin - the blood (NOT into the gastric pits/stomach lumen) - parietal and chief cells stimulating them to release HCl and pepsinogen thus further enhancing digestion - a peptide hormone - yes, it would require a membrane receptor because it cannot dissolve through the non‐polar interior of the bi‐layer membrane - we would expect it to be soluble in blood without a carrier molecule

Mucous neck cells do what? The secreted mucous is alkaline, thus providing protection? "Goblet cells" are?

- Make and secrete mucus (into gastric pits, which lead to the stomach lumen) - from corrosion due to the extreme acidity of the stomach - mucous-secreting cells found in the linings of the intestines and respiratory tract. Don't confuse them with mucous cells

Nearly the entire volume of each cell is filled with smaller round tubes called? Myofibrils are? Sarcoplasmic reticulum is? It is the sarcoplasmic reticulum that stores and releases _____ to control the contraction process?

- Myofibrils - long bundles of proteins mainly composed of actin and myosin fibers interconnected in repeating units called sarcomeres - Bundles of myofibrils interwoven among portions of the muscle cell's endoplasmic reticulum - Ca2+

Stomach Cell Lining types: Parietal Cells do what? HCl is responsible for 2 things? In addition to pepsin, what other molecule assists in protein metabolism in the stomach? What prevents the tissues lining the stomach from being digested by pepsin?

- Secrete HCl (into gastric pits/stomach lumen) - the extreme acidity (pH = 2) of the stomach and for the conversion of pepsinogen to pepsin, the active form of the enzyme - The acid in the stomach denatures proteins. Recall from the Biology 1 lesson that acid is a protein denaturing agent - The lining cells of the stomach are protected by a thick layer of mucus secreted by the mucus cells that line the gastric pits (one of four cells found there).

Sperm cells are? Where in the testes are they produced? They are nurtured, fully matured, and stored until ejaculation where? The vas deferens is?

- Sperm are male gametes. - the seminiferous tubules of the testes - epididymis - a duct that connects each testicle with the urethra. Beginning at the epididymis, it leads up the inside of the scrotum, into the pelvic cavity, past the seminal vesicles, and prostate gland, and dumps into the urethra before the urethra enters the penis

Gall Bladder does what? Does it produce bile? Bile is produced in? Bile does what? Is bile's action an example of physical or chemical digestion?

- Stores and concentrates bile - does NOT produce bile - the liver - emulsifies fats (i.e., separates fat molecules from each other, increasing the surface area available for enzymatic digestion) - Bile emulsifies fats, but it does not break any bonds—therefore it is an example of physical rather than chemical digestion

Cell-Mediated Immunity (a.k.a. "T-cell Immunity") Involves ? When you see T-cells, THINK of ? T-cells are made in? T-cells have receptor proteins embedded in?

- T-cells (T-Lymphocytes) - cell-mediated immunity - in the bone marrow like B-cells, but mature in the thymus - their cell membrane

The penis is? The testicles serve as? The scrotum is? The optimum temperature for spermatogenesis is?

- The male copulatory organ. It can also be thought of as playing a structural role in excretion and ejaculation because the urethra runs through it - the primary functions of making, nurturing and storing sperm - the thin sack of skin in which the testes are located. The external location of the scrotum allows the testicles to exist at a temperature a few degrees lower than the normal human body temperature of 37°C - 35°C

Provide a conceptual definition for each of the following: villi, microvilli, lacteal and brush border

- The villi are finger‐like projections of the wall of the small intestine. They are hollow and contain both blood vessels and a single lymphatic vessel called a lacteal. Fats are absorbed into the lymph system via the lacteals and carbohydrates and proteins are absorbed into the blood. The villi dramatically increase the surface area available for absorption. - Further, each epithelial cell lining a villus contains fingerlike projections of the cell membrane called microvilli. To be clear, a villus is an undulation of the lining of the small intestine, while a microvillus is an undulation of the cell membrane of a single cell. - The brush border is a name given to the microvilli and the collection of mucus and digestive enzymes intermingled within them. The name was chosen because under a light microscope individual microvilli are not easily discernible and they appear instead as a fuzzy line along the apical surface of the epithelial cells

The Digestive System: Function Monomers are used for? What does saliva do?

- To separate food molecules from each other (physical digestion) and break up those molecules into their monomers for absorption (chemical digestion) - both energy and as a source of carbon chains and amino acids. - provides lubrication & the first example of a digestive enzyme

The long bone has how many epiphyses? What are they cushioned by? The ends are filled with? The shaft is made of? The center is filled with?

- Two epiphyses (bulbous ends). - cartilage. - spongy bone. - compact bone. - yellow bone marrow

Bulbourethral gland produces? What does it do?

- a clear, salty, viscous secretion known as pre-ejaculate. This fluid helps to lubricate the urethra for spermatozoa to pass through, neutralizing traces of acidic urine in the urethra,[2] and helps flush out any residual urine or foreign matter.

Prostate gland secretes what into the semen? It usually constitutes how much of the volume of the semen along with spermatozoa and seminal vesicle fluid? The alkalinization of semen is primarily accomplished through secretion from?

- a slightly alkaline fluid, milky or white in appearance - 50-75% of the volume of the semen along with spermatozoa and seminal vesicle fluid. - the seminal vesicles.

Acrosome is what? What is it derived from? Acrosome formation is completed during?

- an organelle that develops over the anterior half of the head in the spermatozoa (sperm cells) of many animals. It is a cap-like structure - derived from the Golgi apparatus. -testicular maturation.

In other words, it is through __________ that a Helper T-cell "helps" (i.e., activates) a B-cell to perform its function? A B-cell can either bind to?

- antigen presentation - a free-floating antigen, or it may have an antigen "presented" to it by a macrophage

Why are the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas included in our study of the digestive system? The liver manufactures? The gall bladder concentrates and stores bile, does it manufacture it? The pancreas secretes _______ into the duodenum to neutralize the acidic chyme coming from the stomach The pancreas also secretes how many pancreatic digestive enzymes?

- because they play vital roles in this process. - bile - no! - bicarbonate. - 6

Trypsin and chymotrypsin are? Pancreatic amylase catalyzes? Lipase catalyzes? Ribonuclease and deoxyribonuclease catalyze?

- both proteases. Each enzyme cuts proteins at its own specific amino acid sequence - the hydrolysis of carbohydrates - the hydrolysis of fats - the hydrolysis of RNA and DNA respectively Some students find this odd, thinking "Who eats DNA and RNA?" While its true we don't think of either as a food group, anything made of living cells—plant, fungi, animal, etc.‐‐will contain both of these polynucleotides

Hydroxyapatite is a compound of what?

- calcium, phosphate, and hydroxide. It is the mineral matrix responsible for a bones strength and is the form in which most all of the body's calcium is stored.

Skin: Thermoregulation 4 Sweating, followed by evaporation of that sweat does what?

- carries away a significant amount of heat due to the high heat of vaporization of water and its high specific heat capacity.

Physical Digestion = Chemical Digestion = Recall that humans are heterotrophs, so they cannot __________

- chewing (mastication), churning in stomach, and breaking of food into smaller pieces, including emulsification of fats by bile - all breakdown of food that involves the breaking of bonds through the use of digestive enzymes. - Fix carbon. The ability to "fix" carbon is the ability to capture carbon dioxide and integrate that carbon into larger macromolecules. Plants, algae and some bacteria can do this, humans and animals generally cannot. We must eat the carbon we need to build macromolecules

Cartilage is a connective tissue composed mostly of? How much perfusion or innervation is there? Where is it found?

- collagen - none - appendages such as the nose and ears, at the ends of long bones, between vertebrae, and at almost any joint or articulation

Stomach 3 functions Without an adequate stomach, food moves too fast through the digestive system, resulting in incomplete digestion and absorption. Four Stomach Lining Cell Types:

- food storage, mixing, and the first site of protein digestion 1) Mucous Neck Cells 2) Chief Cells 3) Parietal Cells 4) G-cells

Unlike B-cells, T Cells never produce ? Instead, they are "tested" in? All T-cells matching a self-protein are? T-cells that pass this test will ? WHEN YOU SEE "CELL-MEDIATED" THINK? WHEN YOU SEE "HUMORAL" THINK?

- free antibodies - the thymus against the host's own membrane proteins (called "self-antigens"). - destroyed, leaving only cells that will recognize invaders - differentiate into one of the T-cell types previously described in this lesson - self-attack of diseased cells - antibodies and primary/secondary response

In response to low blood glucose levels alpha cells in the pancreas secrete ? Glucagon stimulates what where? What is glycogenolysis? Insulin stimulates what in the liver? The liver also makes glucose out of what 4 things

- glucagon - glycogenolysis in the liver - he breakdown of glycogen stored in the liver to form free glucose for release into the blood - glycogenesis in the liver—the synthesis of glycogen for storage in the liver - lactate, glycerol, amino acids, and some TCA cycle intermediates

Absorption: Proteins. Digestion begins and is completed where? They are broken down into what before absorption?

- in the stomach and is complete by the end of the small intestine. Proteins are broken down into small peptides and amino acids BEFORE absorption; they enter the BLOOD STREAM and travel to the liver.

Skin: Thermoregulation 3 Subcutaneous fat provides?

- insulation

A muscle group, such as the bicep, is a bundle of? Each fascicle is a bundle of ? Around each muscle cell is a specialized cell membrane called? Inside each muscle cell are? Nearly the entire volume of each cell is filled with smaller round tubes called?

- many fasciculi - many long, tubular cells called muscle fibers - the sarcolemma - many nuclei (multinucleate) - myofibrils

Skeletal muscle attachments Tendons attach? Ligaments attach? The joints formed by most muscles and bones in the human body are examples of?

- muscle to bone - bone to bone - hinges with a poor lever system that work at a mechanical disadvantage. For example, for the biceps brachii, the resistance is six times farther from the fulcrum than the force—meaning the muscle must create a force equal to six times the weight of the object in the hand

Whenever you see "water absorption" or "vitamin absorption" THINK In addition to absorbing vitamins from food, the large intestine also absorbs some vitamins produced by beneficial symbiotic E. Coli bacteria that live in the large intestine for example? As a review from the Biology 2 Lesson, the relationship between humans and the E. Coli inthe colon is an example of what type of inter-species relationship?

- of the large intestine - vitamin K, thiamin, riboflavin, and B12 - Mutualism ; Recall that mutualism is a form of symbiosis where both participants benefit. The bacteria benefit by consuming the food in our intestines and we benefit because the bacteria produce vitamins that we absorb

The Egg scientific name is? An egg begins meiosis as? It is arrested at what phase? When is meiosis I completed? When is meiosis II completed?An immature egg cell is called?

- ova and the singular form is ovum. - a germ line cell in the ovary of a female fetus - arrested at Prophase I of Meiosis at birth. NOT UNTIL PUBERTY AND MENSTRUATION is Meiosis I completed. Meiosis II is not completed until after the sperm fertilizes the ovum. - an oocyte.

Secretions from the seminal vesicles contain what 8 things?

- proteins, enzymes, fructose, mucus, vitamin C, flavins, phosphorylcholine and prostaglandins. The high fructose concentrations provide nutrient energy for the spermatozoa

Antigen Presentation: B-cells B-cells that bind their specific antigen engulf it via? Helper T-cells recognize and bind this antigen, which causes?

- receptor-mediated endocytosis and present a portion on MCH proteins in their cell membranes - the helper T-cell to release chemicals that stimulate other B and T cells and—most importantly—stimulates the B-cell that presented it with the antigen to divide into a plasma cell and a memory B cell as described above

Primary Response = ? Secondary Response = ?

- the immune system's first exposure and reaction to a pathogen - the immune system's response to that same pathogen during subsequent exposures

The junction between a skeletal muscle and a motor (i.e., somatic) nerve is called? What is the only neurotransmitter used at neuromuscular junctions? When Ach is released from the motor neuron at the neuromusclular junction, what happens? The action potential will then spread along the muscle cell sarcolemma and down specialized invaginations of the sarcolemma called?

- the neuromuscular junction - Acetylcholine (ACh) - an action potential is initiated - T-tubules that dive deep into the muscle cell, causing the release of Ca2+

The majority of all digestion and absorption occurs in? Digestion occurs primarily in what section of the small intestine? Absorption primarily where?

- the small intestine - the duodenum - the jejunum and ileum

All pancreatic secretions empty into? Just before emptying into the duodenum the pancreatic duct is joined by?

- the upper end of the duodenum

Skin: Thermoregulation 2 Arrector pili muscles cause erection of hair follicles (resulting in "goose bumps"), that does what?

- traps an insulating layer of air next to the skin. Contraction of Arrector pili muscles can also generate a small amount of heat

Skin: Thermoregulation 1) Blood vessels closer to the surface of the skin ______when heat needs to be released and ______when heat needs to be retained Blushing is the result of?

1) DILATE and CONSTRICT - the dilation of these superficial blood vessels

The Menstrual cycle, 4 steps

1) FSH stimulates the maturation of ovum and follicle in the ovary (also sperm in males) 2) LH then stimulates ovary cells to secrete estrogen 3) Luteal Surge (surge in LH) signals corpus luteum to develop 4) When no fertilization occurs the corpus luteum degrades and uterian lining is sloughed off.

Bone Types, 4 Joint Types, 3

1) Long Bones (femur, humerus) 2) Short Bones (tarsals, carpals) 3) Flat Bones (skull, sternum) 4) Irregular Bones (hip, vertebrae) 1) Fibrous (skull bones) 2) Cartilaginous (ribs to sternum) 3) Synovial (knee, elbow, etc.)

Cells of the Immune System (14)

1) Macrophages 2) neutrophils 3) eosinophils 4) mast cells 5) dendritic cells 6) natural killer cells 7) T-cells 8) B-cells 9) plasma cells 10) memory B-cells 11) helper T-cells 12) suppressor T-cells (suppresses effect of T and B cells) 13) Killer T-cells 14) memory T-cells

The Musculoskeletal system: 4 Function

1) Movement 2) support and stabilization 3) generation of heat 4) aide to circulation and maintenance of homeostasis.

Important features of Smooth Muscle

1) NO sarcomeres 2) Does NOT contract via sliding filament theory Smooth muscle is NOT arranged in sarcomeres. Smooth muscle does NOT contract via the same sliding filament mechanism described previously for skeletal and cardiac muscle. It is similar—actin and myosin still slide past one another—but several different proteins are involved and the steps are NOT identical. As an example, in skeletal muscle it is calcium binding to troponin that initiates contraction, but in smooth muscle contraction is initiated by the calcium-dependent phosphorylation of the myosin head. Smooth muscle contraction is sometimes referred to as the "calcium-calmodulin cascade." This is not information required for the MCAT, but there's a good chance it could show up in a passage

Bone: 4 Functions

1) Physical support and movement 2) protection of vital structures 3) mineral storage and regulation of blood mineral concentration 4) blood cell formation

Focus on these 5 liver functions

1) Produces Bile (stored and concentrated in gall bladder) 2) Filters the blood to remove toxins, drugs, metabolites, bacteria, etc. 3) Produces blood plasma proteins, including albumin, prothrombin and fibrinogen 4) Regulates amino acid levels in the blood. 5) Produces cholesterol and lipoproteins and packages them for transport (LDL, HDL, etc.)

The Integumentary System: 6 Functions

1) Protection against abrasion 2) physical barrier to pathogens 3) vitamin D synthesis, 4) insulation/cushioning (subcutaneous fat) 5) prevention of water-loss 6) temperature regulation.

Important Features of cardiac muscle 4 things

1) Uses Myoglobin 2) Contains large number of mitochondria to prevent fatigue 3) Fibers are connected by intercalated discs (this allows APs to pass and causes muscle contraction as a single unit) 4) Cardiac cells continue dividing after differentiation

Ejaculation pathway, 4 steps

1) leave the epididymus via the vas deferens 2) vas deferens arches back up into the pelvis and then back down toward the penis 3) Along the way, the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral gland all secrete various lubricants and nutrients into the ejaculate. 4) Vas deferens empties into the urethra at the base of the urinary bladder then travels down to the penis.

The strength of a given contraction depends on...(3)

1) number of motor units being used 2) size of motor units being used 3) frequency of action potentials

1) The vagina serves as? 2)The cervix is? 3)It contains a small opening that allows for? 4) The uterus is? 5) Muscle contractions of the uterine wall, stimulated by what, facilitate the process of childbirth? 6) The fallopian tubes are ducts that utilize what to transport the egg from the ovary to the uterus? 7) Fertilization usually occurs in one of the twofallopian tubes. The ovaries are? 8)The ovaries develop and release ova (i.e., eggs) on a regular 28‐day cycle (on average). They also function as endocrine glands that secrete?

1) the female copulatory organ, as the birth canal, and as an exit route for menstrual fluid. 2) the conical‐shaped bottom portion of the uterus that projects into the rear, upper wall of the vaginal canal. 3) exchange of fluids, but must dilate significantly during child birth to allow for delivery. 4) an elastic, muscular pouch that receives a fertilized egg via implantation and provides nourishment for the developing fetus. 5) oxytocin. 6) ciliated epithelium. 7) the female gonads, homologous to the testes in males. 8) ova (i.e., eggs) on a regular 28‐day cycle (on average). They also function as endocrine glands that secrete both estrogen and progesterone.

Important features of skeletal muscle 4 things

1)Skeletal muscle store large amounts of glycogen 2) require a lot of oxygen and thus have myoglobin 3) Myoglobin is basically one subunit of a hemoglobin molecule (holds one O2) 4) Mature muscle cells are frozen in Go (like neurons)

Humoral diagram

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Inflammatory response diagram

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Intestinal absorption review

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Acquired Immunity definition

A specific response to one particular virus, bacteria, or other pathogen based upon prior exposure. There are two types; Humoral and Cell Mediated

Tissues of the Immune System: Bone Marrow

All erythrocytes and leukocytes are made in the red bone marrow via HEMATOPOIESIS. Yellow bone marrow is primarily adipose tissue and does NOT produce blood cells. B-lymphocytes mature in the bone marrow, while T-lymphocytes migrate to the thymus to mature.

The motor unit

All of the cells/fibers in a skeletal muscle do not fire simultaneously during a contraction. A group of muscle cells innervated by a single motor neuron is called a motor unit. Motor units come in all different shapes and sizes.

Bone Cell types: Osteoclasts are?

Bone cells that break down and resorb bone matrix releasing the component minerals (Ca2+ and P) back into the blood.

Skin: Dermis

Contains blood vessels, hair follicles, sebaceous glands (oil), sudoriferous glands (sweat), and nerve endings MAJORITY IS CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Absorption: Carbohydrates

Digestion begins in the mouth (salivary amylase), and is complete by the end of the small intestine. Broken down entirely into their monomers (glucos, fructose, sucrose) BEFORE absorption; they enter the BLOOD STREAM and travel to the liver via Hepatic portal.

Absorption: Lipids

Digestion begins in the small intestine (duodenum) and is complete by the end of the small intestine. Digestion of lipids CANNOT begin prior to their reaching the small intestine where the encounter bile and lipase. Triglycerides are broken down to fatty acids, transported across them membrane, then reformed into triglycerides. Enter at the LACTEALS. In order for lipids to travel in blood and lymph, they must 1) bind to a carrier protein (albumin) or 2) be formed into a chylomicron or micelle.

Innate Immunity: Inflammatory response

First, macrophages (mast cells and dendritic cells) are residents of nearly all tissues. When injury/bacteria invasion occurs these cells are activated to release chemicals (histamines, leukotrienes, prostaglandins). These chemicals increase blood flow to the injured site, creating heat and redness. These chemicals also increase the permeability of veins and lymph vessels.

Tissues of the Immune System: Lymph nodes

High concentration of B and T lymphocytes. Filters blood for pathogens.

Humoral continued

If an antigen binds to a B-cell's antibody, the B-cell will undergo differentiation into a plasma cell and a memory B-cell. The plasma cells produce antibodies and release them into the blood. The memory B-cells multiply and remain in the blood, preparing the body for secondary response.

Bone Cell types:Osteoblasts are?

Immature bone cells that secrete collagen, organic compounds, and minerals differentiate into osteocytes.

The Integumentary System: Definition

Includes the hair, nails, skin, and the oil and sweat glands located within the skin.

Smooth Muscle: 3 Characteristics Smooth muscle is what controls?

Involuntary, Not striated, One nucleus - the gut, viscera, and blood vessels

Cardiac Muscle: 3 characteristics

Involuntary, striated, one nucleus

Acquired Immunity: Humoral (B-cell immunity)

Involves B-cells. B-cells develop in the bone marrow and mature either there or in lymph tissues. Each B-cell produces ONLY ONE certain kind of protein receptor on its membrane called an ANTIBODY (immunoglobulin). Each antibody will recognize and bind with only one foreign particle called an ANTIGEN.

Joint types: Synovial

Knee, elbow, etc.

Tissues of the Immune System: Thymus

Location where T-lymphocytes (aka T celss) acquire immunocompetence, differentiate and mature.

Tissues of the Immune System: Other Lymphatic tissue

Lymph tissue similar to the contents of a lymph node is spread throughout the body, being particularly common in the respiratory tracts and gastrointestinal tracts.

Antigen Presentation: Macrophages

Macrophages engulf microbes and present antigens from those microbes on MHC proteins in their cell membranes to be recognized by B-cells and T-cells

Stomach Cell Lining types: Chief Cells do what?

Make and secrete the zymogen pepsinogen (into gastric its/stomach lumen)

Bone Cell types: Osteocytes are?

Mature bone cells surrounded by a mineral matrix.

The Immune System: Function

Protect the body from infection and disease; destroy pathogens invading the body.

Joint types: Fibrous

Skull bones

Tissues of the Immune System: Spleen

Somewhat analogous to a lymph node that filters blood instead of lymph; high concentration of leukocytes (WBC's) and platelets; storage of a considerable amount of blood that can help combat hemorrhagic shock; breaks down and recycles parts of old erythrocytes (RBC's).

Innate Immunity

The NON-SPECIFIC attack of pathogens that a person is born with. Includes skin, stomach acid, enzymes in mucous, digestive enzymes, blood chemicals, fevers, inflammation, and non specific phagocytosis.

If no ATP is present...

The myosin heads cannot detach from actin and the muscle will be stuck in a contracted position called "rigor"

Contraction of Cardiac Muscle

The same Sliding Filament mechanism as skeletal muscle

Antigen Presentation: Dendritic Cells are?

These cells are antigen presentation experts. They are specialized to do so efficiently and are found in the highest concentration near membranes (such as the skin) that interface with the external environment—where they are most likely to encounter antigens.

Liver functions, 6 items

Think of the liver as the "metabolic brain" of the human body. 1) It regulates the blood concentrations of many different solutes 2) plays key roles in the metabolism of proteins, fats and carbohydrates 4) detoxifies chemicals 5) recycles metabolites 6) and manufactures several key biomolecules. The liver has hundreds of specific functions

Inflammatory response continued

This causes plasma and interstitial fluid to flood the infection site, resulting in swelling (edema). This leads to the pain associated with inflammation. Neutrophils are recruited via chemotaxis in very large numbers.

Fertilization occurs where?

Usually occurs in the Fallopian tubes. Sperm and egg traveling toward one another, generally meet here. If implantation occurs here it is called an "ectopic" pregnancy.

If no Ca2+ is present...

We do NOT get rigor, but the inability to contract (flaccidity)

Draw and describe the structure of an antibody. Include the heavy chains, light chains, disulfide bridges, hypervariable region, and location of antigen binding

We like this diagram because it shows the N‐terminus and C‐terminus of each chain—emphasizing that these are protein chains. Antigens bind to the ends of the hypervariable regions. An antigen would contact both the end of the heavy chain and the end of the light chain.

Video of the previous Why do you shiver? What is occurring physiologically during a shiver? What part of the brain receives signals that then initiate shivering?

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KZJ3SCcZdVI Shivering is an involuntary response to cold. At sufficiently low temperatures a specific location within the hypothalamus receives signals from the skin and spinal cord. The hypothalamus sends signals to core muscle groups to undergo rapid contractions that generate heat

Immune response video

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YyCWm8WrZJU

Digestion and Absorption video

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b20VRR9C37Q

Gross movements = ?

larger motor units contractions

Joint types: Cartilaginous

ribs to sternum

Delicate movements = ?

very small motor contractions

Skeletal muscle 3 characteristics

voluntary, striated, and multinucleated