Anatomy 2 test 3
Self-antigen recognition
- Self antigens are marker molecules on the surface of individual cells indicate that cell to be a part of the organism. -NO STRANGER DANGER
small intestine function
Absorbs most nutrients; Main absorption organ of the digestive tract
Which process requires the use of enzymes?
Chemical digestion
VDJ recombination
the process by which T cells and B cells randomly assemble different gene segments - known as variable (V), diversity (D) and joining (J) genes - in order to generate unique receptors (known as antigen receptors) that can collectively recognize many different types of molecule
Functions of the spleen including red vs. white pulp
the red pulp include: Removal of old, damaged and dead red blood cells along with antigens and microorganisms White pulp contains lymphoid aggregations, mostly lymphocytes, and macrophages which are arranged around the arteries. The lymphocytes are both T (mainly T-helper) and B-cells
Taste
the sensation of flavor perceived in the mouth and throat on contact with a substance.
Major locations for lymph nodes
throughout the body, including the neck, armpits, groin, around the gut, and between the lungs
The ____ gland is a bilobed mass of tissue in the mediastinum along the trachea.
thymus
Digestion allows the body's cells to convert food energy into the high-energy ATP molecules that run the cell's machinery.
true
Memory cells are descendants of activated T and B cells produced during an initial immune response.
true
The empty stomach lining has many folds called rugae that allow the stomach to expand and hold large amounts of food.
true
The finger-like projections that increase the surface area for absorption in the jejunum are called:
villi
Antibodies are produced by____.
B lymphocytes
Small intestine regions
• Duodenum: shortest, widest • Jejunum: Proximal • Ileum: Distal
Fatty acids and triglycerides
-- most common lipid form in foods -- principle sources of fat in the US diet are ^fats and oils ^red meats ^poulty ^fish ^dairy products -- body fat is composed mainly of triglycerides -- consists of glycerol backbone and three fatty acid chains attached ^fatty acid chains vary in length and form depending on type of triglyceride
Adaptive immunity characteristics
-specific -systemic-travel continuously through body -has memory -late responders -response due to recognition of a specific antigen
GERD (gastroesophageal reflux disease)
A digestive disease in which stomach acid or bile irritates the food pipe lining.
VDJ antibodies
After exposure of cell-bound IgM to antigen, the antibody genes undergo an affinity maturation process, generating new diversity from which antibodies with higher affinity to the targeted antigen epitope are selected, resulting in more effective binding and elimination of the antigen
Trans fats
An unsaturated fat, formed artificially during hydrogenation of oils, containing one or more trans double bonds.
A component of humoral immunity is a:
B cell
Difference between B and T cells
B cells stay and mature in the bone marrow while T cells go and mature in the thymus
Which primary function do amino acids have in the body?
Being building blocks of structures
Which hormone stimulates the release of bile from the gallbladder?
Cholecystokinin
Which process activates a T cell?
Contact with an antigen combined with an MHC molecule
Function of the lymphatic system
Defense against infection and disease
Energy production from Glucose
During glycolysis, a glucose molecule with six carbon atoms is converted into two molecules of pyruvate, each of which contains three carbon atoms. For each molecule of glucose, two molecules of ATP are hydrolyzed to provide energy to drive the early steps, but four molecules of ATP are produced in the later steps.
Immunoglobulin ____ is associated with allergic reactions, attacking allergy-causing antigens.
E
Negative selection of lymphocytes
Eliminates clones of lymphocytes that react against self-antigens
Despite eating a well-balanced diet, and brushing and flossing regularly, a patient is susceptible to dental cavities. Which part of the tooth first becomes eroded in this condition?
Enamel
Positive selection of lymphocytes
Ensures survival of lymphocytes that react against antigens. These then proliferate and form clones.
Which process does the large intestine take part in?
Expels undigested food and other wastes from the body
The only location for gastric ulcer development is within the stomach.
False
Food travels from the lips to the external anal sphincter
First food enters the mouth and the oral cavity. The teeth make use of mastication (chewing) to increase the surface area of the food in order to ease digestion. After passing the teeth and the tongue, the food will enter the oropharynx, then the laryngeopharnyx. The first spincther will be right after the pharynx, which is the upper esophageal sphincter. It will travel down the esophagus as a ball of food (bolus) and then enter the lower esophageal sphincter that is opening from pressure of the bolus. The next step is to move into the stomach. The first place in the stomach it enters is the cardia, then pylorus, then the pylorus sphincter in the small intestine. In the small intestine it moves in the following order; duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The ileocecal sphincter will then allow food to enter the large intestine. From here food will go through the ascending colon, to the transverse colon, to the sigmoid colon. To leave the large intestine and to enter the rectum, food must pass the internal anal sphincter. Then it will leave the body through the external anal sphincter.
NK cell function
First line of defense, have cytotoxins to attack viruses and some tumors, secrete cytokines to prevent viral replication and activate T cell-mediated immunity
Which example shows the effect of hormones on appetite and weight
Ghrelin plays a role in signaling hunger and increasing fat absorption
Gastric ulcers are caused by
Helicobacter pylori
Which body responses occur during the gastric phase of digestion?
Hydrochloric acid is released and gastrin is secretedto stimulate stomach secretions.
innate immunity
Immunity that is present before exposure and effective from birth. Responds to a broad range of pathogens.
Which description applies to defecation?
It is stimulated by parasympathetic nerve impulses.
Soonyeung is fighting off a bad viral infection. She has been battling it for a week now. What are her CD4+ cells doing as part of this effort?
Killing body cells that have been infected
general features of lipids
Lipids are an essential component of the cell membrane. The structure is typically made of a glycerol backbone, 2 fatty acid tails (hydrophobic), and a phosphate group (hydrophilic). As such, phospholipids are amphipathic.
function of thymus in lymphatic system
Lobules of thymus house lymphocytes that developed from progenitor cells in bone marrow eventually because T lymphocytes (T cells) provide immunity
gastric ulcer symptoms
Loss of appetite, weight loss, and vomiting
nonessential nutrients
Nutrients required for growth and health that can be produced by the body from other components of the diet.
Which disorder can involve inflammation from long term alcohol abuse?
Pancreatitis
Difference between positive and negative lymphocyte selection
Positive selection involves targeting the desired cell population with an antibody specific to a cell surface marker (CD4, CD8, etc.). Negative selection is when several cell types are removed, leaving the cell type of interest untouched
types of digestive enzymes
Proteases - digests protein Amylases - digests carbohydrates Lipases - digests fats Disaccharidases - digests disaccharides into simple sugars Sucrase - sucrose (cane sugar) Lactase - lactose (milk sugar) Maltase - maltose (grain sugar)
Blood glucose regulation
Regulated by insulin and glucagon, produced in the pancreas. HGH, cortisol, and epinephrine will also increase blood glucose.
Minerals in the body
Sodium (Na+) Potassium (K+) Calcium (Ca++) Phosphorus (P) Sulfur (S) Chloride (Cl-) Magnesium (Mg+) Iron (Fe++) Iodine (I)
Problems with aging on the immune system
The immune system becomes slower to respond. This increases your risk of getting sick.
Role of the microbiome in innate immunity
These cells have the ability to sense microorganisms or their metabolic products and to translate the signals into host physiological responses and the regulation of microbial ecology.
Which feature of the stomach prevents its wall from damage and being broken down by the protein-digesting enzyme it secretes?
Tight epithelial cells and a thick mucus coating
Which substances accomplish the complete digestion of proteins into individual amino acids?
Trypsin and chymotrypsin
autoimmune disease
a condition in which the immune system mistakenly attacks itself, targeting the cells, tissues, and organs of a person's own body
leukopoiesis
a form of hematopoiesis in which white blood cells are formed in bone marrow located in bones in adults and hematopoietic organs in the fetus
dietary guidelines
a set of diet and lifestyle recommendations developed to improve health and reduce nutrition-related disease risk in the U.S. population
The cecum can be described as:
a site for absorption of salt and water.
The passage of digested food from the digestive tract into the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems is called ____.
absorption
Which function of the digestive system is the movement of broken-down food molecules into the bloodstream and the lymph?
absorption
Function of antibodies
agglutination, activate complement, neutralization
A one-way tube extending from the mouth to the anus with sections separated by sphincters describes the:
alimentary canal.
The exocrine portion of the pancreas secretes:
amylase and proteases
Food is formed into a soft mass called a(n) ____________________ by the actions of the tongue, teeth, and saliva.
bolus
Function of the digestive system
break down and absorbs nutrients from food; removes waste; maintains water balance
Which tooth would be most effective for tearing off a piece of chicken from a drumstick?
canine
Categories of nutrients
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, minerals, water
The pouchlike first part of the large intestine is called the ____.
cecum
Lymph node locations
cervical, axillary, thoracic, abdominal, intestinal and mesenteric, inguinal, popliteal
Pepsinogen is secreted by ____ cells.
chief
The elimination of substances that are indigestible and cannot be absorbed is called ____________________.
defecation
The primary function of the liver is:
filtering blood that comes from the digestive tract
function of spleen
filters blood
Adaptive immunity differs from innate immunity by:
having memory for pathogens that have previously entered the body
Virus-invaded body cells and cancerous body cells are targeted by ____ T cells.
killer
Trina has been having a great deal of gas, bloating, and abdominal pain lately. When she undergoes a series of diagnostic tests, they reveal her small intestine is failing to digest fats properly. They are entering her large intestine where bacteria are processing them, resulting in gas production which is causing Trina's symptoms. Which enzyme is she deficient in?
lipase
how does the body use lipids
lipids function as an energy reserve, regulate hormones, transmit nerve impulses, cushion vital organs, and transport fat-soluble nutrients
Which accessory organ produces a substance that assists in fat breakdown?
liver
What is inflammation?
local defensive response to tissue injury of any kind, including trauma and infection
Digestive structures
mouth, throat, esophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas, small and large intestines
Types of Leukocytes
neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, lymphocytes, monocytes
Which food source contains unsaturated fats?
nuts
Role of antigens
on the surface of cells, viruses, fungi, or bacteria. Nonliving substances such as toxins, chemicals, drugs, and foreign particles (such as a splinter) can also be antigens. The immune system recognizes and destroys, or tries to destroy, substances that contain antigens
Hydrochloric acid is secreted into the stomach by ____ cells.
parietal
The ____________________ is a common passageway for food and air.
pharynx
Function of white blood cells
protect body from infection; regulates the function of other immune cells
Digestive enzymes
proteins found in digestive juices that act on food substances, causing them to break down into simpler compounds
What structure is not working properly if a patient has been diagnosed with GERD?
pyloric sphincter
A patient has been losing weight and is fatigued. The healthcare team has been performing diagnostic tests and an MRI finally reveals an abnormality in the patient's sphincter of Oddi. This can be the source of the patient's symptoms because:
secretions from the gallbladder and pancreas are unable to enter the duodenum.
Localized mixing of chyme with digestive secretions describes:
segmentation
lymphatic organs
spleen, thymus, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, tonsils
Protein functions include
structural support, storage, transport, cellular communications, movement, and defense against foreign substances
essential nutrients
substances the body must get from foods because it cannot manufacture them at all or fast enough to meet its needs. These nutrients include proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, and water
Nutrient requirements
the amounts of specific nutrients needed to prevent malnutrition or deficiency; reflected in the DRIs
immune function
the body's normal ability to fight infection and illness with antibodies and lymphocytes
Human leukocyte antigen purpose
the induction, regulation of immune responses and the selection of the T cell repertoire.
