Anatomy and Physiology Chapter 4

Describe the structure of pseudostratified columnar epithelium. What does "pseudo" mean? What is the function of these cells? Where are these cells typically located in the body?

Cells vary in height and appear to be multilayered and stratified, but tissue is in fact single layered simple epithelium. Many cells are ciliated Means false Involved in secretion, particularly of mucus, and also in movement of mucus via ciliary sweeping action. Located mostly in upper respiratory tract, ducts of large glands, and tubules in testes.

All epithelial sheets are supported by __________ ___________ The basal surfaces are opposite the apical and are the deepest layer of epithelial. The __________ _________ is made up of both _________ and __________ __________.

connective tissue 1. basement membrane 2. basal 3. reticular lamina

List the different Cell types that make up connective tissue

- Blast cells - Cyte cells - Fat cells - white blood cells - mast cells - macrophages

What are the different components that make up the ground substance?

- Interstitial fluid - Cell adhesion proteins ( "glue" for attachment) - Proteoglycans (sugar proteins), made up of protein core + large polysaccharides ~ ex) chondroitin sulfate and hyaluronic acid - Water also is trapped in varying amounts, affecting viscosity of ground substance.

Blood What is so atypical about blood as a connective tissue. - What does blood consist of? _____ _______ _______ are the most common cell type but also contain?.... Describe how blood clotting works? What are some functions of blood?

- It is a fluid ~ Consists of cells surrounded by matrix (plasma) - Red blood cells - White blood cells and platelets (thrombocytes) Fibers that are soluble proteins precipitate during blood clotting. To transport and carry nutrients, wastes, gases, and other substances

Whats there to know about hyaline cartilage? Where it appears, where its found

- Most abundant; "gristle" - Appears as shiny bluish glass - found at tips of long bones, nose, trachea, larynx, and cartilage of the ribs

Describe Reticular connective tissue. Fibroblast cells are called ________ ________ - What are these cells composed of Reticular fibers form a mesh-like __________ that acts as a support for....

- Resembles areolar tissue, but fibers are thinner reticular fibers 1. Reticular cells - Secrete reticular fibers made up of thin collagen blood cells in lymph nodes, spleen, and bone marrow

Describe Dense Irregular connective tissue, how it differs from dense regular What do these tissue form? Do these tissues resist tension? Where are dense irregular connective tissue found in the body?

- Same elements as dense regular, but bundles of collagen are thicker and irregularly arranged - Form sheets rather than bundles Resists tension from many directions Found in -dermis - Fibrous join capsules - fibrous coverings of some organs

Serous Membranes also known as? What kind of cavities do these membranes line? Serous Membranes have two layers. What are they and where in the body are they found?

- Serosae - Membranes in a closed ventral body cavity 1. Parietal layer- layer attached to and lining the cavity wall 2. Visceral layer- the layer that covers and adheres to the organs within the cavity.

Describe Areolar connective tissue and its function in the body

- The most widely distributed CT - Supports and binds other tissues -Universal packing material between other tissues - Contains fibroblasts that secrete looks arrangement of mostly collagen fibers - Loose fibers allow for increased ground substance, which can act as water reservoir by holding more interstitial fluid. - Macrophages and fat cells are contained in spaces

Describe Collagen Describe Elastic fibers Describe Reticular

- The strongest and most abundant type -tough; provides high tensile strength -Networks of long, thin, elastin fibers that allow for stretch and recoil -Short, fine, highly branched collagenous fibers (different chemistry and form from collagen fibers) - Branching forms networks that offer more "give"

Muscle Tissue is highly __________ Muscle tissue is responsible for? - Muscle cells possess _________ made up of what? What are the three types of muscle tissue?

- Vascularized - Most types of movement ~ myofilmaents, made up of actin and myosin proteins that bring about contraction. 1. Skeletal muscle 2. cardiac muscle 3. smooth muscle

Describe the structure and function of Dense regular connective tissue

- Very high tensile strength; can withstand high tension and stretching - Closely packed bundles of thick collagen fibers run parallel to direction of pull ~ Fibers appear as white structures >> Great resistance to pulling ~ Fibers slightly wavy, so stretch a little - Fibroblasts manufacture collagen fibers and ground substances - Very few cells and ground substance, mostly fibers - Poorly vascularized - Ex) Tendons and ligaments

- Cardiac muscle tissue is found where? - Is it voluntary or involuntary? - What is the histological appearance? What is special about these cells connective ability? - What is the name for the special joints where cardiac cells are joined?

- found only in walls of heart. - Involuntary muscle - Like skeletal muscle, contains striations; but cells have only one/ two nuclei Cells can have many branches that join branches of other cardiac cells - Intercalated discs

Mucous membranes Also known as? What kind of cavities do these membranes line?

- mucosae - Line body cavities open to the exterior

Describe fibrocartilage, form and function

- properties between hyaline and dense regular tissue - strong, so found in areas such as intervertebral discs and knee

Describe Elastic cartilage, its forma and function in body

- similar to hyaline but with more elastic fibers - found in ears and epiglottis

Epithelial Membranes are?.... What are the three principle epithelial membranes in the body?

- the simplest organs in the body, contracted of only epithelium and a little bit of connective tissue. 1. Mucous membrane 2. serous membrane 3. cutaneous membrane

There are three characteristics that make connective tissue different from other primary tissue. What are they?

1. All have common embryonic origin: arise form mesenchyme tissue as their tissue of origin 2. Have varying degrees of vascularity (cartilage is avascular, bone is highly vascularized) 3. Cells are suspended/embedded in extracellular matrix (ECM) (protein-sugar mesh)

Under connective tissue fibers there are three types that provide support. What are they?

1. Collagen 2. Elastic fibers 3. Reticular

Name the four basic tissue types

1. Epithelial 2. connective 3. muscle 4. nervous tissue

List the three elements of connective tissue? Where and how is connective tissue used?

1. Ground Substance 2. Fibers 3. Cells Composition and arrangement of these three elements vary considerably in different types of connective tissue.

There are three types of cartilage. What are they?

1. Hyaline 2. Elastic 3. Fibro

List the steps of Tissue repair and describe each step

1. Inflammation - Release of inflammatory chemicals - Dilation of blood vessels - Increase in vessel permeability - clotting occurs 2. Organization and restored blood supply - Clot replaced with tissue - Epithelium begins to regenerate - Fibroblasts produce collagen fibers to bridge the gap - Debris is phagocytized 3. Regeneration and fibrosis - The scab detaches - Fibrous tissue matures - epithelium thickens ~ begins to resemble adjacent tissue - Fully regenerated epithelium with underlying scar tissue

Multicellular exocrine glands Mode of secretion 1. Merocrine 2. Holocrine 3. Apocrine

1. Most secrete products by exocytosis as secretions are produced (sweat, pancreas) 2. accumulate products within, then rupture (sebaceous oil glands) 3. Accumulate products within, but only apex ruptures; whether this type exists in humans is controversial (maybe mammary cells?)

Epithelial tissue has five distinguishing characteristics. What are they?

1. Polarity 2. Specialized contacts 3. Supported by connective tissues 4. Avascular, but innervated 5. Regeneration

Multicellular exocrine glands Structure of 1. simple 2. compund 3. tubular 4. alveolar

1. Simple exocrine glands have unbranched ducts. 2. Compound glands have branched ducts 3. Tubular gland, secretory cells form a duct 4. Alveolar glands, secretory cells form sacs

Aging and Tissues 1. How does the healing process change with age? 2. Are there scars when surgery on a fetus is done? 3. Young tissue have better?.... ( three things 4. Do extracellular components change with age? 5. Changes in the body's use of what three things contribute to the agin process?

1. Tissue heals faster in young adults 2. no 3. 1) nutritional state 2) blood supply 3) higher metabolic rate 4. yes 5. 1) use of glucose 2) collagen 3) elastic fibers

Define Cyte cell

A mature, less active form of "blast" cell that now becomes part of and helps maintain health matrix

Bone Also known as... Function is to? Structure includes? ___________ produce matrix ___________ maintain the matrix - where do these cells reside? What are osteons?

Also called osseous tissue Function is to support and protect body structures, stores fat and synthesizes blood cells in cavities Has more collagen compared to cartilage, has inorganic calcium salts Osteoblasts Osteocytes - Reside in cavities in matrix called lacunae are individual structural units

Polarity, Cells have polarity (top and bottom) - Apical surface - Basal surface

Apical surface= upper free side, is exposed to surface or cavity - Most apical surfaces are smooth, but some have specialized finlike projections called microvilli basal surface= lower attached side, faces inwards toward body - attaches to basal lamina, an adhesive sheet that holds basal surface of epithelial cells to underlying tissues.

What are multicellular exocrine glands composed of? What other structured usually surround these glands? - How does connective tissue support structure and function? What are multicellular exocrine glands classified by?

Composed of a duct and a secretory unit. usually surrounded by supportive connective tissue that supplies blood and nerve fibers to gland. - Connective tissue can form capsule around gland, and also extend into gland, dividing it into lobes. 1. Structure 2. mode of secretion

Describe Endocrine glands (structure) how is secretion completed?

Ductless glands. Secretions are not released into a duct; are released into surrounding interstitial fluid, which is picked up by circulatory system. Secretion of hormones is completed by exocytosis, messenger chemicals that travel through lymph or blood to their specific target organs.

Because epithelial tissues form boundaries between the body's organs, or between the external environment, they are repeatedly subjected to physical stress and injury. What is the resulting factor to this? What is the stimulation factor? what is required to complete this action?

Epithelial cells having a high regeneration capacities. stimulated by loss of apical-basal polarity and broken lateral contacts adequate nutrients and cell division is required to repair damage or replace.

What are specialized contacts and what purpose do they serve for epithelial tissue?

Epithelial tissues need to fit closely together, many form continuous sheets Specialized contact points bind adjacent epithelial cells together Lateral contacts include Tight junctions and desmosomes.

Describe transitional epithelium What does it form? and where is it found? Basal layers are usually which two shapes? What special ability do these cells have and what bodily functions does it assist with?

Forms lining of hollow urinary organs. Found in urinary bladder, ureters, and urethra Basal layer cells are cuboidal or columnar Ability of cells to change shape when stretched allows for increased flow of urine and, in the case of bladder, more storage space.

Smooth muscle tissue Where is it mainly found? Is it voluntary or involuntary? Describe the histology?

Found mainly in walls of hollow organs (other than heart), including blood vessels - Involuntary - No visible striations, spindle shaped cells with one nucleus

Define Blast cells Where are fibroblasts found? Where are chondroblasts found? where are osteoblasts found? where are hematopoietic stem cells found?

Immature form of cells that actively secretes ground substances and ECM fibers Fibroblasts = connective tissue proper chondroblasts = cartilage osteoblasts = bone Hematopoietic stem cells = bone marrow

Describe stratified epithelial tissues, number of layers, regeneration, durability

Involve two or more layers of cells. New cells regenerate from below - Basal cells divide and migrate toward surface More durable than simple epithelial because protection is the major role

Define epithelial tissue. What are the two main forms? What are the main functions?

Is a sheet of cells that covers body surfaces or cavities 1. Covering and lining epithelial - on external and internal surfaces (example: skin) 2. Glandular epithelia - secretory tissue in glands (example: salivary glands) protection, absorption, filtration, excretion, secretion, and sensory reception.

Skeletal muscle tissue What is the structure and function? Also called?.... and this means what? Muscle cell = ? Contain? how do they appear (histologically) ?

It is attached to and causes movement of bones. Also called voluntary muscle meaning that it can be consciously controlled Muscle cell = muscle fiber - Contain multiple nuclei - Appear striated or banded

Describe the formation of cartilage -Where are chondrocytes found? - What composes cartilage? Cartilage is a ________ yet ________ material that lacks _________ __________

Matrix secreted from chondroblasts (during growth) and chondrocytes (adults) - found in cavities called lacunae - 80% water, with packed collagen fibers and sugar proteins (chondroitin and hyaluronic acid) 1. tough 2. flexible 3. nerve fibers

Describe stratified squamous epithelium Frequency description of structure Location keratinization?

Most widespread of stratified epithelia. Free surface is squamous, with deeper cuboidal or columnar layers. Located in areas of high wear and tear (ex. skin) Keratinized cells found in skin; nonkeratinized cells are found in moist linings.

Define white blood cells. Some examples and their jobs.

Neutrophils, eosinophils, lymphocytes. Tissue response to injury

Define what the function of a gland is. How are glands classified? (2 ways) What are the relative number of cells forming the gland?

One or more cells that makes and secretes an aqueous fluid called a secretion. Classified by site of product release. 1. Endocrine= internally secreting (ex. hormones) 2. exocrine= externally secreting (ex. sweat) Unicellular (ex. goblet cells) or multicellular (ex. salivary)

Describe stratified cuboidal epithelium frequency where it is found thickness of cell layers

Quite rare Found in some sweat and mammary glands typically only two cell layers thick

Exocrine glands How are secretions released? Are they more or less numerous than endocrine glands? where do secretions of products go? What are some examples? What is the cellularity like?

Secretions are released onto body surfaces such as skin, or into body cavities More numerous than exocrine glands secrete products into ducts examples include mucous, sweat, oil, and salivary glands Can be unicellular or multicellular

Describe the structure of simple cuboidal epithelium. Describe the function of simple cuboidal epithelium Where in the body is cuboidal epithelium used?

Single layer of cells Involved in secretion and absorption Forms walls of smallest ducts of glands, many kidney tubules, and thyroid follicular cells.

Describe the structure of simple columnar epithelium What is the function? Where are these cells found?

Single layer of tall, closely packed cells. -Some cells have microvilli, and some have cilia -Some layers contain mucus-secreting goblet cells. Involved in the absorption and secretion of mucus, enzymes, and other substances - Ciliated cells move mucus found in the digestive tract, gallbladder, ducts of some glands, bronchi, and uterine tubes

Describe Elastic connective tissue Name an example. Where in the body are these tissue found?

Some ligaments are very elastic ligaments connecting adjacent vertebrae must be very elastic Found in walls of many large arteries. Arteries need to stretch when blood enters and recoil to push blood out.

All epithelial tissues have two names. What does the first name indicate and what are they? What does the second name indicate and what are they? There is a special exception concerning stratified epithelia due to the shape carrying in each layer. So how is the cell name determined?

The first name indicated the number of cell layers. 1. Simple epithelia which are a single layer thick 2. stratified epithelia which are two or more layers thick and involved in protection (ex. skin) The second name indicated shape of cells 1. Squamous- flattened and scale-like 2. Cuboidal- box-like, cube 3. columnar- tall, column-like. Cell name is determined according to the shape in apical layer.

Nervous tissue the main components of?... including?... - What is is main functioning? Made up of two specialized cells. What are they and their functions?

The main component of nervous system including the brain, spinal cord, nerves. - Regulates and controls body functions 1. Neurons- specialized nerve cells that generate and conduct nerve impulses 2. Supporting cells that support, insulate, and protect neurons.

What is the function of the ECM? What two elements of connective tissue make up the ECM. Options 1. Ground substance 2. Fibers 3. Cells

To support cells so they can bear weight, withstand tension, endure abuse. Ground substance and fibers

What is ground substance composed of and what is the function?

Unstructured gel-like material that fills space between cells. It serves as the medium through which solutes diffuse between blood capillaries and cells.

Adipose tissue has two different classifications. What are they? Describe them.

White fat - Similar to areolar tissue but greater nutrient storage - Cells are called adipocytes - Scanty matrix -Richly vascularized - Functions in shock absorption, insulation, and energy storage Brown fat - Occurs mainly on the backs of babies and serves as a source of heat production - Scant deposits in adults

Connective tissue is the most... Major functions of connective tissue? What are the four main classes of connective tissue?

abundant and widely distributed of primary tissues - Binding and support - protecting - insulating - storing reserve fuel transporting substances (blood) 1. Connective tissue proper 2. cartilage 3. bone 4. bone

Describe stratified columnar epithelium frequency where it is found in body only ________ ________ is columnar.

also very limited distribution in body. small amounts found in pharynx, in male uretha, and lining some glandular ducts. Usually occurs at transition areas between two other types of epithelia. Apical layer

Remember that no blood vessels are found in epithelial tissue making it........ Because of this how does the tissue become nourished?

avascular Tissues are nourished by diffusion from underlying connective tissues

Synovial Membranes serve what purpose in the body? What are they composed of?

enclose certain joints and are made of connective tissue only.

Define mast cells

initiate local inflammatory responses against foreign microorganisms they detect

Describe the main functions of simple epithelia. - Simple squamous epithelium 1. Describe the histology 2. Describe the function 3. There are two special simple squamous epithelial and are based locations. What are they?

involved in absorption, secretion, or filtration processes 1. Cells are flattened laterally, and cytoplasm is sparse (thinly dispersed or scattered) 2. Function where rapid diffusion is priority (ex. kidney, lungs) 3. a.) Endothelium= lining of lymphatic vessels, blood vessels, and heart b.) Mesothelium= serous membranes in the ventral body cavity

What are the two subclasses of connective tissue proper? Where in the body are these two subclasses found?

loose connective tissues - Areolar - adipose - reticular Dense connective tissues - Dense regular - Dense irregular - Elastic

Unicellular exocrine glands. Which two unicellular glands are the most important? Where are these cells mainly found? What substance do these cells produce? what is its purpose?

mucous cells and goblet cells Found in epithelial linings of intestinal and respiratory tracts All produce mucin, a sugar-protein that can dissolve in water to form mucus, a slimy protective, lubricating coating.

Define macrophages

phagocytic cells that "Eat" dead cells, microorganisms; function in immune system.

What is the function of the basement membrane? The basement membrane consist of both basal and reticular lamina. Where is the reticular lamina in relation to the basal lamina and what does it consist of?

reinforces epithelial sheet, resists stretching and tearing and defines epithelial boundary. It is deep to basal lamina and consists of a network of collagen fibers

Avascular is known for ____________ gives rise to ___________ and ___________

revising nutrients from membrane surrounding it (perichondrium) 1. Perichondrium 2. chondroblasts 3. chondrocytes

What does the cutaneous membrane cover?

skin

Define fat cells

store nutrients