Anatomy and Physiology Exam 1

25. Fats are made up of two basic structural units; what are they? What are triglycerides? What is their purpose?

- 1) A glycerol which is the "backbone" of the molecule -2) Fatty acids which are attached to the backbone - Each glycerol binds with three fatty acids molecules and form a triglyceride. -Triglycerides are found in adipose tissue, triglycerides are fats that produce a lot of ATP for the body to use as energy (cellular). It also has the capacity to store energy for the long term.

32. What is meant by primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure of proteins?

- 1. Primary: refers to the unique sequence of amino acids in the protein. All proteins have a special sequence of amino acids, this sequence is derived from the cell's DNA. 2. Secondary : the coiling or bending of the polypeptide into sheets is referred to the proteins secondary structure. alpha helix or a beta pleated sheet are the basic forms of this level. They can exist separately or jointly in a protein. 3. Tertiary: The folding back of a molecule upon itself and held together by disulfide bridges and hydrogen bonds. This adds to the proteins stability. 4. Quaternary: Complex structure formed by the interaction of 2 or more polypeptide chains. Quarternary structure is the structure present between multiple polypeptide chains. Tertiary structure is the final three-dimensional shape of a completed polypeptide chain.

21. What is the net energy transfer in glycolysis?

- 2 ATP [2 consumed and 4 made]

21. What is the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen atoms in carbohydrates?

- 2:1, this means for each carbon atom in a carbohydrate molecule, there are 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom.

1. What is a chemical element? How many naturally-occurring elements are there?

- A chemical element, or an element, is a material which cannot be broken down or changed into another substance using chemical means. - Elements 1 through 92 (except for elements 43 and 61) occur naturally on Earth, although some are only present in extremely small quantities.

12. What are covalent bonds? How are they formed?

- A covalent bond is formed when atoms share electrons -Occurs when both atoms require electrons -Occurs with atoms that have four to seven electrons in their outer shell

25. What product enters the kreb cycle?

- Acetyl-CoA enters the Krebs cycle by combining with a four-carbon acid called oxaloacetic acid

16. What do inorganic acids, bases, and salts have in common? How do they differ?

- Acids, Bases, and Salts: are grouped together in a category called electrolytes( dissolve in water), which means that a solution of a given substance will conduct electricity. - For acids: 1) produces H ions 2) taste sour 3) has a pH level of less than 7 4) it destroys chemical properties of bases For Bases: 1) produces OH ions 2) taste bitter 3) has pH level of greater than 7 4) it destroys chemical properties of acids

34. What is a substrate?

- An enzyme substrate is the material upon which an enzyme acts. - A substance or layer that underlies something, or on which some process occurs, in particular.

13. What is a hydrogen bond? What causes the "polarity" of the polar molecules involved in the hydrogen bond?

- Attraction between partially positive hydrogen atom and a partially negative atom individually weak, (usually oxygen) collectively strong. - Bond polarity is measured by its dipole moment. One atom being more electronegative than the other.

13. Is there an optimal pH for enzymes? How does it affect the reaction?

- Between pH of 6 and 8 for most enzymes - Changes in H+ disrupting electrostatic interactions Enzyme loss of shape, denaturation.

5. Is decomposition catabolic or anabolic? Synthesis ?

- Catabolic, Decomposition reaction-Initial large molecule broken down into smaller structures -Synthesis= A+B=C -Anabolic changes molecules into product of a higher energy state, (endogenic)

8. An ionic bond? What causes the charge on an ion?

- Cations and anions may bind together in ionic bonds - Atoms with one, two, or three electrons in valence shell become cations. - Atoms with five, six, or seven electrons become anions.

4. The levels of organization are ( in correct order):

- Chemical level-Involves atoms and molecules -Cellular level- Consists of cells, the smallest living structures -Tissue level- Consists of tissues, groups of similar cells performing common functions -Organ level- Consists of organs, two or more tissue types performing specific functions -Organ system level- Contains related organs that work together to achieve a common function -Organismal level- All body functions working interdependently in an organism

3. What is metabolism?

- Chemical process (Glucose broken down through metabolic pathways Forms ATP, the "energy currency" of cells)

11. How are enzymes generally named?

- Enzymes are generally named based on the type of substrate they act upon, followed by the suffix -ase.

6. Is the atomic number different in isotopes of an element? The atomic weight? Why?

- Have same number of protons and electrons but different mass, Have different numbers of neutrons. Weighted average of atomic mass for all isotopes is the average atomic mass. -Isotopes of an element all have the same chemical behavior, but the unstable isotopes undergo spontaneous decay during which they emit radiation and achieve a stable state. This property of radioisotopes is useful in food preservation, archaeological dating of artifacts and medical diagnosis and treatment.

30. If no oxygen is present where does the breakdown of glucose stop?

- If no oxygen is present, then NADH builds up and the cell can run completely out of NAD. Without NAD glycolysis stops. NAD becomes a "limiting reagent" - If there is no oxygen to accept electrons, then the electron transport chain stops working and the high energy molecules NADH+H and FADH2 cannot be converted back into NAD and FAD. Without these molecules, the glucose biochemical pathway stops.

14. What type of membrane covers and lines the organs and body cavities? What is the purpose?

- Lined with serous membranes, continuous layer of cells. 1) Parietal layer lines the internal surface of the body wall 2) visceral layer covers the external surface of organs (the viscera) within that cavity Between membranes is a potential space, the serous cavity. Parietal Pericardium, Visceral Pericardium pericardial cavity. Parietal Pleural, Visceral Pleura, Pleura cavity. Purpose of Serous membrane: serous fluid, allowing organs to move freely relative to one another.

24. How do lipids compare to carbohydrates as to specific elements involved in their make-up and ratio of hydrogen to oxygen?

- Lipids are organic compounds that contain the same elements as carbohydrates: carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. However, the hydrogen-to-oxygen ratio is always greater than 2:1. More important for biological systems, the carbon-to-hydrogen bonds are nonpolar covalent, which means that lipids are fat soluble and will not dissolve in water. There are four biologically important lipids: Fats Waxes Phospholipids Steroids

12.What happens to an enzyme as the temperature increases?

- Moderate fever-results in more efficient enzyme activity - Severe increases in temperature-cause protein denaturation with loss of function

22. What are the simple sugars that are the monomers, or structural units for the other carbohydrates called?

- Monosaccharides(deoxyribose sugar, amino acids) simple monomers -Disaccharides(table sugar) formed from two monosaccharides -Polysaccharides(in animals) formed from many monosaccharides -Linked by glycosidic bonds

20. What is the overall yield of ATP in glycolysis?

- Net yield: 2 ATP and 2 NADH

30. What other element beside carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen do proteins always contain?

- Nitrogen

20. What is osmolality? Most body fluids have a concentration of _ 270-300__mOsm.

- Osmoles, unit of measurement for number of particles in a solution Reflects whether a substance dissolves, or dissolves and dissociates Can be expressed as osmolality or osmolality.

16. What is the name of the membrane surrounding the cavity wall in the upper ventral body cavity?

- Pericardium — the pericardial cavity is found within the mediastinum of the thoracic cavity. Visceral pericardium is also called epicardium.

15. What is the name of the membrane surrounding the organs in the lower ventral body cavity?

- Peritoneum two-layered serous membrane lining the abdominopelvic cavity - Parietal peritoneum Outer layer which lines the internal walls of the abdominopelvic cavity Visceral peritoneum Inner layer which covers the external surface of most abdominal and pelvic organs, Peritoneal cavity-Potential space between parietal and visceral layers containing serous fluid

14. What is phosphorylation? What is the enzyme that adds the phosphate called?

- Phosphorylation-addition of phosphate group, performed by protein kinases turns on some enzymes; turns off others.

1.What is the difference between potential energy and kinetic energy?

- Potential energy is just like it's name it's energy that is stored and not yet in action.ex. Concentration gradient across the plasma membrane of the cell Sodium ion concentration greater outside the cell .Kinetic energy is energy already in motion. Potential energy could be like a rubber band about to be released it's energy is being stored and increased. An example of Kinetic energy could be like a car moving. It's already in motion.

17. What does it mean for organs to be retroperitoneal?

- Primary organs including the kidneys, bladder, ureter, rectum and uterus. - Organs are the organs in the body found behind the membranous structure of the abdominal cavity known as the peritoneum

24. What enzyme catalyzes the reaction of pyruvate?

- Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC) is a complex of three enzymes that convert pyruvate into acetyl-CoA by a process called pyruvate decarboxylation

23. What happens to pyruvate in the intermediate stage?

- Pyruvate is brought into the mitochondria to be oxidized(pyruvate decarboxylation), creating a 2-carbonacetyl group. This 2-carbon acetyl group then binds with coenzyme A, forming acetyl coenzyme A. The acetyl coenzyme A is then brought back into the mitochondria for use in the next step.

26.What are steroids used for in the body?

- Ringed structures including some hormones Composed of hydrocarbons arranged in a multi-ringed structure Steroids are structurally different from the other lipids. The carbon skeleton of steroids is bent to form four fused rings that do not contain fatty acids. The most common steroid, cholesterol, is needed to make both the male (testosterone) and female (estrogen) sex hormones, and it is a component of cell membranes and is needed for the proper function of nerve cells.

14. Hydrogen bonds are used for what purpose?

- Strong intermolecular interaction, Hydrogen bonding is responsible for water's unique solvent capabilities. Hydrogen bonds hold complementary strands of DNA together, and they are responsible for determining the three-dimensional structure of folded proteins including enzymes and antibodies. Matter exists in what forms? - Matter can exist as a solid, liquid or gas.

6. In oxidation and reduction of a molecule which one receives and electron? Which one loses an electron?

- Structure that loses an electron oxidized during oxidation -Structure that gains an electron reduced during reduction

26. What happens to Citric acid?

- The conversions, which involve up to ten chemical reactions, are all brought about by enzymes. In many of the steps, high-energy electrons are released to NAD. The NAD molecule also acquires a hydrogen ion and becomes NADH. In one of the steps, FAD serves as the electron acceptor, and it acquires two hydrogen ions to become FADH2. Also, in one of the reactions, enough energy is released to synthesize a molecule of ATP.

19. How many steps are involved in glycolysis? What molecule did you start with?

- There are ten steps to glycolysis and each step is facilitated by a different enzyme. All reactions occur in the cytoplasm and can take place with or without oxygen. - Glycolysis starts with one molecule of glucose and ends with two pyruvate (pyruvic acid) molecules, a total of four ATP molecules, and two molecules of NADH .

3. Why is the number of electrons in the outer level of an atom important?

- They are the outer layer of the electron layers. The number of electrons in the valance layer, and the number of them missing, determines how that atom will bond. The lower levels of electrons are all filled, so they play no part in bonding.

35. Why are nucleic acids so important in living things?

- They make up your DNA and RNA. It determines which kind of protein cells will make and Proteins regulate cell activities. Nucleic Acid ~ Very large organic molecules made up of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and phosphorus.

22. What is the end product of glycolysis?

- Under anaerobic conditions, the pyruvate is converted into lactic acid. - Glycolysis breaks down glucose and forms pyruvate with the production of two molecules of ATP. The pyruvate end product of glycolysis.

31. How many ATPs are made in anaerobic and aerobic cellular respiration?

- anaerobic cellular respiration, which does not use oxygen and yields only 2 ATP molecules -Aerobic cellular respiration makes 38

17 The 4 steps in cellular respiration are

- glycolysis: cytosol intermediate stage: mitochondria citric acid cycle: mitochondria electron transport system: mitochondria

10. What does it mean for enzymes to be specific?

- it means that the enzyme active site ( where the reaction occurs ) only binds to a substrate or substrates having specific stereochemical forms..for instance natural ( righthanded ) glucose is recognized by enzymes using glucose as a substrate but these same enzymes will NOT recognize the lefthanded form of glucose

36. What are the structural units of nucleic acids?

- nucleotides

8. The body is regulated by pathway consisting of 3 intercomponents they are:

-(stimulus) Receptor, Control Center ( endocrine gland, brain), effector

37. What are the 3 components of a nucleotide?

--deoxyribose sugar, phosphate group and nitrogenous bases.

5. How many systems are there in the human body? Which system is a function of one of the system and not really a system?

-11 organ systems, the immune system is our body's defense system against infections and diseases. Organs, tissues, cells, and cell products work together to respond to dangerous organisms

28. What are the structural units of proteins?

-Amino Acids

1.Give a definition for Anatomy, and one for Physiology.

-Anatomy-the study of structure and form .Ex focus on form and structure of the small intestines. -Physiology- the study of function of the body parts. Ex. Focus on the function of the small intestines.

7. What is an ion?

-Are groups of atoms with a positive or a negative charge -Are produced from the loss or gain of an electron or electrons

11. What is cation? An anion?

-Cation is a positively charged ion, Anion is a negatively charged ion.

31. What are peptide bonds?

-Covalent chemical bond between to amino acids

3. Define cytology and histology.

-Cytology-the study of body cells and their internal structure. -Histology-The study of tissue.

18. What is dehydration and hydrolysis? Which process requires water to be added, which one removes water?

-Dehydration synthesis is the removing of the hydroxl(-OH) and the hydrogen atoms from two organic substances which merges them into one(covalent bond). They can be protein (peptide bond), sugars(polysaccharide), whatever. - Hydrolysis of the addition of water to break down the one molecule into the two parts. Such as sucrose into fructose and glucose. Same number rules, 1000 molecules of sucrose would require 999 molecules of water

6. Does each system work independently of each other?

-Each system is composed of interrelated organs that work in concert to perform specific functions.

2.All living things share common basic characteristics, they are:

-Engage in metabolism (chemical reactions) -Growth and Development -Responsiveness (react to stimuli) -Regulation-adjust or direct internal bodily function. -Organization-all organisms have a complex structure.

8. Heat is released in a compound breaking down, is this an endergonic or exergonci reaction?

-Exergonic

7. Define Homeostasis. Is homeostasis static?

-Homeostasis is the body's ability to maintain a relatively stable internal environment in response to external conditions. Homeostatic is dynamic, it ajust to changing conditions.

27. What is the primary function of a phospholipid? How are they organized?

-Membrane hydrophobic bilayer

19. What is a mixture, a solution, a solute, a solvent, suspension, colloid?

-Mixture- A mixture is a substance made by combining two or more different materials in such a way that no chemical reaction occurs -Solution- A solution is a homogeneous mixture of one or more solutes dissolved in a solvent. -Solute- the substance that dissolves in a solvent to produce a homogeneous mixture -Solvent- the substance in which a solute dissolves to produce a homogeneous mixture -Suspension- a heterogeneous mixture, If left still, the solid pieces will separate from the liquid and either fall to the bottom or rise to the top -Colloid-homogeneous, the substances remain dispersed and do not settle to the bottom of the container.

11. Which of the feedback systems is used more frequently in the regulation of the human body?

-Negative Feedback

5. How is the atomic weight (mass) determined?

-Neutron number = atomic mass - atomic number, protons+neutrons=Mass, protons+electrons=neutrons.

17. Describe the concept of pH. What are you measuring in pH? What is considered neutral?

-One easy way that you can measure pH is with a strip of litmus paper. Less than >7 equals acid, greater than <7 equals base,

7. Electron transfer occurs when NAD+ becomes NADH. Is the NAD+ oxidized or reduced?

-Oxidation is loss of hydrogen. -Reduction is gain of hydrogen.

16. What is the overall chemical reaction for cellular respiration?

-Photosynthesis -Glucose+6 oxygen=6Co2(Carbon dioxide)+6H2O+energy(ATP)

2. What is the smallest stable unit of matter? Define proton; neutron, electron. How are these subatomic particles arranged to form an atom?

-Protons have a (+) negative charge, electrons have a (-) charge, neutrons are neutral. An atom has shells of electrons surrounding the nucleus -Each shell with a given energy level -Each shell holding a limited number of electrons -Innermost shell two electrons, second shell up to eight -Shells close to the nucleus: must be filled first

10. Describe negative feedback using the above 3 parts and positive feedback using the above 3 parts.

-Sensory-Temperature drops. -Receptor-sensory receptors in skin detect cold. -Control Center- hypothalamus sets body temperature. -Effector-blood vessels in skin constrict.

9. Enzymes do what to a chemical reaction? Do they become part of the product?

-Speed it up -lower activation energy -no dose not become part of product

9. Which of the inter-components monitor the value of a variable? Which one compares the value of the variable against a set point? What does the effector do?

-Stimulus-change in variable -Receptor- monitors value of variable -The Control Center compares the value of the variable against a set point. -Effectors- bring about the change of the stimulus

12. What is located in the ventral body cavity?

-The Thoracic cavity (diaphragm) Mediastinum (Median space in the thoracic cavity)/abdominopelvic cavity (pelvic cavity)

23. If making a disaccharide what chemical reaction occurs? What units make a starch?

-The anabolic process of dehydration synthesis. - Glucose monomer units (polysaccharides) - Three important polysaccharides, starch, glycogen, and cellulose, are composed of glucose

4. What does the atomic number of an element tell us?

-The number of protons

13. What is located in the dorsal body cavity?

-They have no serous membrane -Cranial Cavity (brain) -Vertebral Cavity (spine)

38. What are the 5 different nitrogenous bases?

-Thymine, Guamine, Adenine, cytosine, Uracil

15. One inorganic compound is the most abundant compound in the body, what is it? What properties make it such a useful component of living things?

-Water, Water act as surface tension to avoid collapse of alveoli. Water spontaneously produces positive hydrogen ions (H+) and negative hydroxyl ion (OH-) in equal numbers in small quantities. Because the total charge are equal and opposite, there is no net charge. Substances that release H+ when added with water are acids. (temp regulation, cohesion, excretes waste).

18. Is glycolysis aerobic or anaerobic?

-both

32. What other organic compounds can be oxidized in cellular respiration?

-glucose

28. What is the role of NAD and FAD?

-holding the high energy electrons and keeping them until released in the electron transport.

29. Name 3 basic steps of the Electron Transport System?

-ubiquinone -cytoschrome -cytochrome oxidase

41. Is ATP made from a nucleotide?

-yes, because it has is made up of a 5 carbon sugar (ribose), a phosphate group (3 phosphate molecules bonded together), and a nitrogen base (which is always adenine when it comes to atp.

27. What is formed in the Kreb cycle?

6 NADH's are generated (3 per Acetyl CoA that enters) 2 FADH2 is generated (1 per Acetyl CoA that enters) 2 ATP are generated (1 per Acetyl CoA that enters) 4 CO2's are released (2 per Acetyl CoA that enters)

9. What is a compound?

A molecule is formed when two or more atoms join together chemically. A compound is a molecule that contains at least two different elements. All compounds are molecules but not all molecules are compounds.

40.Why is ATP important?

ATP is the primary source of free energy in all living cells. ATP provides the energy for muscles to contract, nerves to conduct impulses, and all that cells require to build protein, pump in substances they need, permit enzymes to act, and so on. All living organisms require ATP.

Glucose

C6H12O6

29. Describe the make-up of an amino acid.

Carboxyl group -R side chain -Amino group -hydrogen

2.What are the 1st and 2nd laws of thermodynamics?

First law-Energy cannot be created or destroyed, total about energy is constant in the world. -Second law (law of spontaneity)- When energy is transformed, some energy is lost to heat.the amount of usable energy decreased, entropy increase=less energy

42. How is it different from the nucleotides found in DNA?

Note that nucleotides have only one phosphate group, whereas ATP has three, so ATP is not strictly speaking a nucleotide

33. What do we mean when we say that a protein is denatured? How do they become denatured?

denature,inactive can happen by changing the tempature, the ph level, adding chemical denature or denature enzymes. Temp(2,3,4) proteins gain energy and shake apart, Ph(3,4) ionic bond break, chemical(1,2,3,4) h-bonds are broken, structures help stabilize proteins.