Anatomy Test 1, Anatomy test 2, Anatomy test 3, anatomy exam 4, anatomy exam 5, A&P 2 Exam 1, A&P 2 Exam 2, A&P 2 exam 3, a&p 2 exam 4
Phenotype
the set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.
what role do gap junctions play in compact bone?
they allow small molecules to pass directly from the cytosol of one cell's extension directly into the other cell's cytosol.
what composes myofibrils?
they are composed of the myofilaments actin and mysosin
Classification of epithelial tissue layers: Stratified
two or more layers of cells stacked on top of one another to provide protection in areas of high friction and exposure
zone of proliferating cartilage
Miotic cells -this is the zone where the cartilage cells multiply in numbers *2nd layer
10. vagus
Mixed Transmit impulses to muscles associated with speech, swallowing, the heart, smooth muscles of visceral organs in the thorax, and abdomen.
physical stress
anticipation of or confrontation with a situation that is characterized by physical harm, danger, pain or discomfort thirst, hunger, headaches, upset stomach, etc.
suture
bone directly held together by dense fibrous connective tissue, with no movement. -synarthrotic
syndesmosis
bones directly held together by a ligament, very little movement possible *holds the tibia and fibula together -amphiarthrotic
irregular bones
bones that do not fit into any of the other catagories *the vertebrae
What controls salivation?
both sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
ventral cavity
both the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities
astrocytes
maintains brain homeostasis and neuronal metabolism. - can store glucose as glycogen - responsible for storing energy, transferring glucose, amino acids, and proteins
melatonin function
maintains sleep/wake cycle; high during sleep
midsagittal
median of left and right (middle)
ventilation
movement of air in and out of the lungs
What is facilitated diffusion?
movement of solute across the membrane using a transport protein as a passage way
what is osmosis
movement of water across the membrane to equilibrate imperable solute concentration -requires a barrier
what feature sets apart the large intestine
mucus secreting goblet cells
alimentary canal small intestine: Goblet cells
mucus-secreting glands found mostly in large intestine, but some are also found here
tympanic reflex
muffles the transfer of vibrations from the tympanic membrane to the oval window, causes the sound to decrease in volume
how does pH affect breathing?
second in importance recognized by central chemoreceptors
what do sabaceous glands do?
secret sebum oil to coat hair -classified as holocrine glands *entire gland is lost upon secretion
hydrochloric acid (HCl; from parietal cells)
secreted in the stomach to start the digestive process
carrier-mediated transport
selective and saturable - glucose, amino acids, nucleotides, and small peptides can be transported across the BBB - compounds can be transported across by an active transporter, like amino acids thorugh the Na+ cotransporter
Why are mammary glands considered a sweat gland?
due to having a structure similar in nature
small in intestine regions
duodenum, jejunum, ileum
Homeostasis
dynamic state in which body's internal environment is maintained with normal range
what does the endoneurim cover?
each cell individually
what do cerminous glands produce?
ear wax
what do adrenergic fibers secrete?
epinephrine and norepinephrine
what type of tissue are glands?
epithelial tissues
what layer does the endomysium surround?
every layer
fibrocartilage (articular) disks
ex: menisci -little disks of fibriocartilage, add additional cusioning and shock absorption
external respiration
exchange of gases between lungs and blood
What is the somatic nervous system's Response?
excitation of skeletal muscle contraction
hepatic vein
exits the liver and ultimately empties into the inferior vena cava
what is sacrase found in?
sugar
what is the function of the papillary layer?
supports the epidermis and regulates body temp by regulating blood flow through the vessels in this layer.
Location of ganglia in sympathetic branches
sympathetic chain ganglia or collateral ganglia near vertabrae
what allows the muscle to contract?
the binding of Actin and Myosin, which is controlled by the troponin
neuroplasticity
the brains ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life
what is the sarcolemma?
the cell membrane of a muscle cell
why is a lack of having canals not a problem for spongy bone?
the cells can obtain oxygen and nutrients from blood vessels supplying the marrow
iris
the colored part of the eye that we commonly associate with "eye color."
what makes up the composition of CSF?
the composition of CFS is different than plasma, with far less portein and different levels of several ions
Codominate
the condition in which both alleles in an organism are expressed
epineurium
the connective tissue sheath that covers the spinal nerves, which is contiguous with pia mater covering the spinal cord - bundles all the cells together
anatomy of lungs
-Main organs of respiration. -Extend from the base of the diaphragm to the apex above the first rib. -The right lung has three lobes; the left lung has two. -The lungs are composed of elastic tissue (alveoli, surfactant, pleura).
hyaline cartilage
-Most common type of cartilage -Flexible firm gel matrix secreted by chondroblasts which become embedded in lacunae (chondrocytes) -Cushions, supports and reinforces other tissue and organs.
general structure of synovial joints
-articular (hyaline) cartilage -joint capsule -extracapsular ligaments -synovial membrane -synovial fluid
whatare apocrine glands?
-associated with hair follicles that are gained from puberty -secretes pharimones (sexual atraction odors) -secrets product as well as piece of the cytoplasm
what do channel protein gates respond to?
-voltage -ligand -mechanical force
action potential: what happens when the threshold is reached?
-voltage-gated Na+ channels open at the threshold of -55mV -Na+ goes in due to the concentration gradient
stratum lucidum characteristics
Fourth layer -transparent, clear, see through layer
auricle (pinna)
Funnels (focuses) sound waves towards the receptors for hearing
what do perforating canals achieve?
allows blood vessels to penetrate compact bone and provide circulation to the inner central canals and thus all of the inner osteons.
what is the function of the reticular formation network?
allows you to sleep or to be alert and awake
taste nerve pathways: gustatory cortex of cerebrum
allows you to taste food
neuron cell body
also called the soma, contains the nucleus, many organelles, and the majority of the cytoplasmic volume of the membrane
anatomy of respiratory membrane
alveolar capillary membrane made entirely of simple squamous epithelium thinnest part of the body MOIST gas particles diffuse back and forth through this membrane
What is chyme?
an acidic fluid containing partially digested food
myoblasts
an embryonic cell that becomes a muscle fiber. These fuse to form myocytes
where are electrical synapses found?
cardiac muscle and in smooth muscle
myocytes
cardiac muscle cells responsible for producing the hearts pumping action
taste nerve pathways: glossopharyngeal
carries info from the posterior third of the tongue
taste nerve pathways: vagus nerves
carries info from the taste buds on the epiglottis and lower pharynx.
taste nerve pathways: facial
carries information from the anterior two thirds of the tongue
cardiovascular system functions
carries oxygen and nutrients
bile ductules
carry bile secretions to hepatic ducts, which eventually join the cystic duct from the gallbladder and form the major bile duct that carries bile to the duodenum
sickle cell disease
caused by the substitution of a single amino acid in the hemoglobin protein; characterized by deformed red blood cells that resemble sickle under a microscope - these cells do not flow very easily
aldosterone function (source: adrenal cortex)
causes kidneys to retain sodium to increase blood pressure, water retention - raise blood Na+, lower blood K+
medullary cavity
cavity within the shaft of the long bones filled with bone marrow
Where is bile made?
liver
Atrioventricular (A-V) node
located in the lower aspect of the atrial septum receives electrical impulses from the sa node if the SA node failks the AV node can initiate and sustain a heart rate of 40 to 60 beats per min
bone classification
long, short, flat, irregular, sesamoid
synovial membrane
loose connective tissue that lines the joint capsule
trabeculae
loosely gathered meshwork of extensively branched bone tissue. -blood vessels weave through the openings
conduction
loss or gain of heat by physical contact. *i.e losing heat by sitting on a cold bleacher.
Why are A&P interdependent?
one relies on the other for basic life systems
capillary beds
organized branching network of vessels, not random
Formed elements of blood
red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets
synovial fluid
reduces friction, also acts as a shock absorber
psychological stress
refers to the emotional and physiological reactions experienced when an individual confronts a situation in which the demands go beyond their coping resources. Examples of stressful situations are marital problems, death of a loved one, abuse, health problems, and financial crises
what does hydrophobic mean?
repels water
receptor-mediated transport
requires the specific interaction of a ligand with a receptor. - molecules that can enter the bbb through this include horemones, growth factors, enzymes, and small plasma proteins
what are interoceptors?
respond to changes in the body's internal environment.
Exteroceptors
respond to stimuli originating in the external environment. * skin
what is the purpose of the hypodermis or subcutaneous layer?
responsible for connecting the skin to the underlying tissue. Also serves as an energy reserve by storing fat.
medullary rythmicity center*ventral respiratory group*
responsible for nerves that make the muscles contract when nerves stop firing the muscles will relax this is the basic rhythm of breathing
medullary rhthmicity center *dorsal respiratory group*
responsible for the rate and depth of breathing
synaptic potentials: Polarized
rest membrane is polarized, meaning it has a charge difference across the membrane (-70)
dynamic equilibrium
rotational or angular acceleration
exocrine gland's role in secretion
saliva is secreted in your mouth - consistency of the saliva depends a little bit on what your eating - i.e. if you are eating bacon, which does not have very many carbohydrates in it, your salivary glands secrete less amylase
which process causes the internodes to dramatically increase the speed of the action potential propagation?
saltatory conduction
lateral sulcus
same as lateral fissure, separates the lobes of the cerebrum
can non-polar substances (gases, lipids) go through a cell membrane?
yes
is the somatic nervous system myelinated?
yes
keep going! 11-14-18
you are doing great! 11-14-19
what is dual (reciprocal) innervation?
- The sympathetic division works systemically on the entire body, while the parasympathetic effects are often localized to a specific organ. - Tissues may be innervated by the parasympathetic division, sympathetic division, or by both - This is similar to driving a car, where there is a gas pedal that causes acceleration, and a brake that causes deceleration
how do different frequencies affect different regions?
The mechanical properties of the basilar membrane are such that high frequency sounds produce standing waves close to the oval window, while low frequency sounds produce standing waves near the apex of the cochlea
Nucleases
Enzymes that break down nucleic acids
referred pain
Pain originating from visceral organs that is often felt elsewhere in the body
alimentary canal small intestine: submucosa
best developed due to it needing to do a ton of secretion
presbyopia
decrease in power of accommodation that occurs with aging
what are gastric secretions?
gastric secretions from gastric glands, called gastric juices.
conductive deafness
- A problem with conduction or relaying the information into the receptors - Outer or middle ear issue - Causes: damage to eardrum, loss of pinna, buildup of earwax, arthritic ossicles - Treated by a device that amplifies
partial pressure
the contribution each gas in a mixture of gases makes to the total pressure
pancreatic somatostatin regulation
- Pancreatic polypeptide inhibits secretion. - used to inhibit secretion of insulin and glucagon
what are voltage-gated channel proteins sensitive to?
A change in ions -change in charge distribution open and closes the gate
What is a stimulus?
A change in the environment that affects the internal environment
transverse
(horizontal)
carboxypeptidase (inactive form = procarboxypeptidase)
(an exopeptidase), can break peptides into individual amino acids. However, the final digestion of peptides into amino acids is largely due to peptidases found on the brush border.
frontal
(coronal)
olfactory tract originates in olfactory build, becomes olfactory nerves
(cranial nerve I) carries information from the olfactory bulb to the olfactory cortex and the limbic system. In addition, there are also projections from the olfactory cortex into other associated areas of the cortex. (Figure 13.38).
capillary exchange: filtration
*Smaller molecules pass through pores* - Capillaries are small, delicate structures that would easily rupture under higher pressure, but the permeability of most capillaries is enough to allow this low pressure to drive adequate filtration of fluid and solutes. - Pressure differences between the blood and the interstitial fluids drive the bulk flow of fluids. At the arterial end of capillary beds, the gradient forces fluid out of the blood and into the interstitial space.
duodenum
- (4% total length) - where all the enzyme secretions from the pancreas, bicarbonate ions, and the bile come into this - fairly short section
spiral organ (organ of corti)'s receptor hair cells
- (~16,000) - anchored at top and bottom - hair cells anchor themselves to the organ on the corti
capillary exchange: blood colloid osmotic pressure (BCOP)
- 26mmHG of pressure opposes filtration and does not significantly change between the arterial and venous ends of the capillary bed.
jejunum
- 40% total length - longest section - where digestion and absorption take place
Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells) basic anatomy
- 95% of all blood cells - 4.2-6.1 million/ul - lifespan 120 days - biconcave shape - composed of hemoglobin molecules
fast pain fibers
- A-alpha fibers - myelinated - acute localized pain - larger in diameter
slow pain fibers
- A-delta fibers - myelinated - burning or aching chronic pain - smaller in diameter
sliding filament model: Between step 4 and 5
- ADP + P leaves each myosin - New molecules of ATP come in and attach to each myosin head
sliding filament model: Step Five
- ATP binds to myosin heads - Myosin lets go of actin binding sites - Energy from ATP is used and converted into ADP + P
dual innervation overview
- Allows for fine control of physiological processes - In general, effects of sympathetics and parasympathetics are opposite - Many organs lack parasympathetic influence (lack of stimulation = opposite of sympathetics)
pituitary gland components
- Anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) - Posterior lobe (neurohypophysis) - Infundibulum (pituitary stalk)
how does the sliding filament model decide to end or continue?
- As long as calcium is present to hold the tropomyosin protein out of the way of binding sites the cycle will continue - Myosin heads can only slide the actin so far with every round, in order to get the z-lines as close as they can be, you must repeat the process a number of times until there's no more room to pull closer
Frequency tuning of cochlea (human range = 20-20,000 Hz
- Basilar membrane vibrates - Hair cells bent - Specific to certain frequencies 20-20,000 Hz - Frequency of impulses = volume
very slow pain fibers
- C fibers - unmyelinated
hormones that regulate pancreatic secretions
- CCK -Secretin *both happen at same time because the secretin needs to secrete bicarbonate to control the pH so that the enzymes can even work *parasympathetic nervous system promotes all the secretory activity, responds to stretching
bicarbonate ion formation
- CO2 + H2O <-> H2CO3 <-> H+ + HCO3- - Enzyme = carbonic anhydrase - chloride shift - important in regulation of pH - many metabolic processes make acidic by-products
sliding filament model: Step Two
- Calcium released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum by diffusion and binds to the troponin on actin - Troponin signals regulatory proteins to move - Tropomyosin shifts on the actin to expose binding sites
extrinsic regulation
- Cardioaccelerator reflex - Cardioinhibitor reflex *the two control different parts of the heart, both go to the nodes
regulation and phases of gastric secretions
- Cephalic phase (30-50% of activity) - Gastric phase (40-50% of activity) - Intestinal phase (5% of activity)
auditory nerve pathways
- Cochlear branch of vestibulocochlear nerve - Auditory cortex of temporal lobes
12. Hypoglossal Nerve
- Controls muscles of tongue - some proprioceptor input when swallowing
Lamellated (Pacinian) corpuscles
- Encapsulated nerve endings - ring like structure creates the nerve - responds to pressure therefore it is found deeper beneath skin surface, also found in internal organs like the pancreas - responds to vibrations as well.
ampulla containing crista amullaris
- Enlargement at the end on the semicircular canals - Where receptor cells are located - In the ampulla there is a cupula (dome shaped) that shifts when a person's head moves. That shift will bend the hair cells.
Classification of sensory receptors by location
- Exteroceptors - Interceptors
Vestibular membrane
- Forms the border between the cochlear duct and the scala vestibuli - Has no hair cells
Pattern of organization for senses
- General senses - special senses - Sensation, Perception and Projection
pancreatic somatostatin function
- Inhibits both insulin and glucagon release from neighboring beta and alpha cells - released by delta cells - Hypothalamic somatostatin inhibits the secretion of hGH - helps regulate carbohydrates
spiral organ (organ of corti)'s tectorial membrane
- Inside the cochlear duct, om the top of the hair cells - Uses "shear force" to cause movement of the hair cells - On the hair cells there are ion gated channels that react to force. - When hair cells are bent in one direction the potassium mechanosensitive channels are open, and when hair cells are bent the opposite direction the channels will be closed - Calcium enters hair cells by voltage gated channels
What is the thalamus?
- Largest part of the diecephalon that receives info from many different brain areas. - acts as a relay station; determines whether or not information should be passed on, and if so, what descending track it should take to get there.
hepatic lobules (liver)
- Liver hepatocytes are organized as lobules and have direct access to venous blood collected from the digestive tract. - Hepatocytes are responsible for bile production, nutrient metabolism and interconversion, detoxification of harmful substances, and synthesis of blood components. Hepatocytes are adjoined polygonal-shaped cells, with borders that face either the sinusoids or adjacent hepatocytes
resistance vessels
- arterioles can adjust resistance to blood flow, these arterioles are often called resistance vessels
sliding filament model: Step Three
- Myosin attaches to the actin and binding sites - Myosin was previously charged and ready so it gravitates towards binding sites
sliding filament model: Step Four
- Myosin heads are contracting Z-lines are coming together in a larger scale - Myosin doesn't move location but actin is pulled (slid) towards the center - Myosin is originally in a curved position, when it is pulled back straight it is energized, the Power Stroke is the the releasing of energy. - Spent molecule of ADP + P leaves and is no longer useful
sliding filament model: Step Six
- Myosin heads are pulled back "cocked" and are energized ready to bind to actin again - Same as step two
bicarbonate ions
- Not an enzyme - Neutralizes stomach acid will not digest or breakdown anything - Raises pH so amylase and lipase can work - pH is now too high for pepsin
things effected by static equilibrium
- Organs (utricle and saccule) within vestibule - Macula
Components of ECG (electrocardiogram)
- P wave - QRS Complex - T wave
Nociceptors (pain receptors)
- Pain occurs when tissue damage activates this subtype of free nerve endings - can not adapt *they are concentrated in areas more prone to injury, such as fingers and toes
muscle spindles
- Proprioceptors found in tendons of skeletal muscles - Muscle spindles are receptors, the stimulus for reflex is the stretch - When stretched beyond the comfort zone, the response is contraction *Can be trained to adjust to a higher degree of stretching
peripheral sensory adaption
- rapidly (phasic) adapting - slowly (tonic) adapting
sensorineural deafness
- Research suggests that turning off a gene will allow receptor cells to regenerate - Any problem affecting a nerve pathway - Causes: stroke that affects part of auditory cortex, TBI
tactile (meissner's) corpucles
- Right beneath the epidermis - creates a raised area called the dermal papillae - responsible for really fine touch on fingertips and on the face - encapsulated nerve endings
General Senses
- Somatic - Visceral *can be tissue only
what are the motor neurons of the peripheral nervous system?
- Somatic Nervous System - Autonomic nervous system
Frontal lobe: Olfactory bulbs
- raw odor perception - does not interpret what the smell actually is
how else can transient receptor potential cation channels detect heat or coldness?
- TRP activated by chemical stimuli if concentration high enough * Things like mint will trigger a cold sensation, and things like chili will trigger heat ones
Temporal Lobe: Primary Auditory Cortex
- raw sound, just hears noises - something else has to interpret what they mean
transient receptor potential (TRP) cation (Ca2+) chanels
- The receptors are stimulated from varying degrees of heat - Generally your skin has more cold receptors than warm ones, but everyone is different
General Senses: somatic sensory receptors
- They make up the conscious perception of how the body interacts with the environment - these are interoceptors that are not associated with visceral organs and are found as part of musculoskeletal structures
Types of proteolytic enzymes
- Trypsin (inactive form = trypsinogen) - Chymotrypsin (inactive form = chymotrypsinogen) - Carboxypeptidase (inactive form = procarboxypeptidase)
composition of bile
- water - bile salts (metalic elements that ionize) and pigments ( comes from broken down red blood cells) - cholesterol - electrolytes
effects of olfactory receptors being exposed to the environment
- When you have a cold there is a layer of mucous covering receptors making it harder to smell. Smell has a huge role in taste, making things taste differently when sick. - Because smell diminishes as you age, the elderly may not like the taste of food as much anymore. They may not want to eat any more
what are the neurotransmitters of the autonomic nervous system?
- acetycholine - norepinephrine - epinephrine
capillary exchange: colloid osmotic pressure
- acts in opposition to a fluid's hydrostatic pressure - force created by particles that cannot diffuse across the capillary wall, primarily plasma proteins, which "pull" water toward them
Olfactory coding and discrimination
- adapting to and ceasing to notice a smell after being exposed to it - result of the signal transduction cascade "shutting off." The influx of Ca2+ into the cell causes a feedback mechanism whereby the CNG channels close even when odorant is still present.
what is the general anatomy of the autonomic nervous system?
- all fibers motor - preganglionic fibers (myelinated_ - postganglionic fibers (non-myelinated) - ganglion: group of cell bodies
Frontal Lobe: Orbitofrontal Cortex
- all of your critical thinking - problem solving - thinking through the consequences of your actions
gastric lipase
- an acidic lipase secreted by the gastric chief cells in the fundic mucosa in the stomach - they breakdown triglycerides into monoglycerides and fatty acids (digests lipids) - doesn't like hydrochloric acid - pH is very important to effectiveness (will denature in the wrong pH)
prevention methods of coagulation
- anticoagulant pathway - fibrinolytic pathway
posterior pituitary hormones
- antidiuretic hormone (ADH) (also called vasopressin) - Oxytocin (OT)
anticoagulant pathways
- antithrombin - heparin
elastic or conduction arteries (aorta and its branches)
- aorta and its principal branches - blood vessels with the most elastic connective tissue - these are also often called conducting arteries because they have very large lumens which allows them to receive large quantities of blood ejected from the heart and to then conduct that blood to smaller vessels
Types of baroreceptors
- aortic sinuses - carotid sinuses - vena cava and right atrium
what makes up the anatomy of the cerebellum?
- arbor vitae - central vermis - lateral hemispheres
what are sulci?
- areas of shallow depressions of the brain - aren't nearly as prominent as a fissure
alimentary canal specific region differences: large intestine
- ascending, transverse, and descending colon - sigmoid colon - large intestine requires a lot of mucous to control pH - no rugae - large submucosa - tons of goblet cells
what does the basal nuclei's Hippocampus do?
- associated with spatial memory and navigation, verbal memory, and learning of computational information - has been shown to be the site of the formation of new memories
what are the different white matter fibers?
- associational fibers - Commissural fibers - Projection fibers
external ear components
- auricle - external acoustic meatus - tympanic membrane
similarities between extrinsic clotting and intrinsic clotting mechanisms
- both mechanisms ultimately activate the prothrombin activator
mechanical digestion
- breaks down food into smaller pieces - its more efficient to be broken down further by chemical digestion with the smaller parts as they offer more surface area *Ex: chewing; though it isn't the only type of mechanical digestion
how does the muscle relax in the sliding filament model?
- calcium is removed from the troponin, thus causing the troposin to return to covering the binding sites - calcium goes back to the sarcoplasmic reticulum by active transport from ATP - Myosin will sit around in the energized or cocked position with ADP + P bound to the myosin heads (just chilling out until calcium comes back)
optic nerve
- called the 2nd cranial nerve or cranial nerve II - transfers visual information from the retina to the vision centers of the brain via electrical impulses.
commissures
- can be both grey and white matter - connect the two halves of the spinal cord - contain axons that cross from one side of the spinal cord to the other - interneurons go through commissures
venous valves
- cannot be seen under a microscope - very similar to a semilunar valve found in the heart - works to keep the blood going forward - skeletal muscles contract and relax to push blood along in the veins (If you lock your knees you cannot contract skeletal muscles to move the blood and the blood begins to pool and you will become lightheaded
autonomic
- cant be consciously overridden - an effector cant be controlled
formations of plexuses in parasynthetic branches
- cardiac plexus to innervate the heart - pulmonary plexus to innervate the lungs - esophageal to innervate near by tissues - fibers originating in S2 to S4 enter the pelvic nerves, project to the hypogastric plexus, and innervate the transverse colon, rectum, urinary bladder, and reproductive organs.
sympathetic formation of plexuses
- cardiac plexus to supply the heart - pulmonary plexus to supply the lungs and thorax - the celiac plexus to supply the diaphragm, stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, adrenal glands, kidneys, testes, and ovaries - superior mesenteric plexus to supply the pancreas, small intestine, ascending colon, and transverse colon - inferior mesenteric plexus to supply the transverse colon to the rectum - hypogastric plexus to supply the urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and descending colon to the rectum.
sensory (ascending) pathways
- carry sensory information to brain - can cross when it is brought to its section of the spinal cord, or when it reaches the brain stem
free nerve endings
- cause itch, pain
Anatomy of the eye: optic disc
- cavities and humors
scala tympani
- chamber on the bottom filled with perilymph - round window is at the end of the scala tympani to allow some output when fluid vibrates
scala vestibule
- chamber on top filled with perilymph - oval window is at the opening of the scala vestibuli to allow some input when fluid vibrates
autonomic neruotransmitters
- cholinergic fibers - adrenergic fibers
Anatomy of the eye: Middle vascular tunic
- choroid coat - ciliary body and lens - iris
aldosterone (mineralocorticoids) regulation
- cirgulating levels of ions in plasma (right side of graph) - high K+ stronger stimulus (this is because there isnt very much to begin with, little changes will have big impacts
capillary exchange: interstitial fluid colloid osmotic pressure(IFCOP)
- compared to blood, interstitial fluid contains very little protein. Therefore the osmotic pressure is lower (about 1mmHg) - like BCOP, it does not vary across the capillary bed.
cornea
- composed of primarily connective tissue - avascular - it is the transparent fibrous layer through which light can enter
ventral root
- contains only efferent (motor) axons
what is the basal nuclei's role in motor control with the motor cortex?
- controlling all skeletal muscles - inhibits areas of the motor cortex to control smooth muscle contractions - inhibits opposites not in use while lifting something
light refraction
- convex vs. concave surfaces - fluids - accomodation relex and prebyopia
Anatomy of the eye: Outer fibrous tunic
- cornea - sclera - optic nerve
parasympathetic origin of pre-ganglionic fibers
- craniosacral - cranial nerves III, VII, IX, X - sacral s2-s4
parathyroid (PTH or parathormone) regulation
- decreased blood calcium stimulates parathyroid hormone (PTH) secretion - increased blood calcium inhibits PTH secretion
fatigue: high intensity
- depletion of atp, CP - makes lactic acid
identify the steroid hormone based by its chemical composition
- derivatives of cholesterol (e.g. cortisol) - lipid soluble - receptor within cytoplasm or nucleus (hormone-receptor complex formed) - protein synthesis initiated - slight amplification
oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve
- describes when Hb will "hang on" to O2, and when Hb most likely to "give up" O2 - if surrounding tissues need O2 (have low pO2) Hb will give up O2 to the tissues. Otherwise, Hb will hang on to O2 - Hb4(O2) = 100% saturated with O2
General Senses: Visceral sensory receptors
- detect changes within the visceral organs - lack proprioceptors, which is why the location of the internal organs is difficult to pinpoint. - fewer pain, temperature, and touch receptors compared to somatic structures
capillary exchange methods
- diffusion - filtration and capillary hydrostatic pressure - osmosis and osmotic pressure - lipid solubility and particle size - lymphatic capillaries
role of intestinal flora
- digest cellulose - by product of this digestion is some vitamins - synthesize vitamin K, B12, Riboflavin
(Pancreatic secretions) pancreatic lipase
- digests lipids - The major form of dietary fat is triglyceride, which cannot be directly absorbed across the intestinal mucosa, it must first be digested into 2-monoglyceride and two free fatty acids by this - it is delivered into the lumen of the gut as a constituent of pancreatic juice. - here because it didn't work well with the pH in the stomach
three ways carbon dioxide is transported in the blood
- dissolved in plasma (7%) - Carbaminohemoglobin (23%) - bicarbonate ion formation (70%)
middle ear
- either magnifies sounds, or muffles/quiet the sounds - volume adjustment -tiny little baby bones here that have synovial joints
Types of arteries
- elastic or conducting arteries (aorta and its branches) - muscular or distributing arteries - arterioles - resistance vessels
(Pancreatic secretions) Proteolytic enzymes (from acinar cells)
- enzymes that break the long chain like molecules of proteins into shorter fragments (peptides) and eventually into their components, amino acids. - breaks down proteins because pH is wrong for pepsin
taste sensations
- epithelial tissue cannot send an impulse - highly modified epithelial cells are capable of releasing a neurotransmitter -release of neurotransmitters leads to influx of calcium ions
dermatomes (sensory neurons)
- every spinal nerve has except C1 has a specific cutaneous sensory distribution called a dermatome - it is the area of skin supplied with sensory information by a pair of spinal nerves
carotid sinuses
- expanded regions of the internal carotid arteries, and in the walls of many larger arteries in the neck and thoracic cavity. - A mechanoreceptor cell sensitive to cell stretch in response to changes in blood pressure
meningeal partitions
- falx cerebelli - falx cerebri - tentorium cerebelli
pain pathways
- fast pain fibers - slow pain fibers - very slow pain fibers
Projection
- figuring out the origin of sensation
important aspects of the mixing and emptying of the stomach
- formation of chyme - carbohydrates exit first, lipids last - enterogastric reflex
pineal body
- found between the cerebral hemispheres of vertebrates - responsible for producing melatonin and the circadian rhythm
fenestrated capillaries
- found in locations that must preform a large scale exchange of materials with the blood (EX: small intestine, glomeruli of kidney) - endothelial cells are dotted with pores, or fenestrations, that allow with passage of fluid and larger molecules
sensory cell synapsing with neuron
- found in the nose, tongue, ear, eye - a separate cell body receives the sensory input
Cutaneous mechanoreceptors: touch and pressure
- free nerve endings - tactile (meissner's) corpuscles - lamellated (pacinian) corpuscles
Classification of sensory receptors by structure
- free nerve endings -encapsulated nerve ending - sensory cell synapsing with neuron
what components make up the cerebrum?
- frontal lobe - parietal lobe - temporal lobe - occipital lobe
alimentary canal specific region differences: Stomach
- gastric folds (rugae) - muscularis externa has an oblique layer -Lower esophageal (cardiac) and pyloric sphincters
Rh blood group
- group of anitgens (including D antigen) - if you have these antigens, you have Rh positive blood (for example, A+) - if you lack these antigens, you have Rh negative blood (for example, B-) *antibodies do not form naturally, you have to be exposed to them
anterior pituitary hormones
- growth hormone - prolactin
Sinusoid Capillaries (Sinusoids)
- has larger fenestrations and a discontinuous basement membrane, resulting in larger intercellular clefts - found in bone marrow, liver, spleen
encapsulated nerve ending
- has layer of connective tissue
role of mucus secretions
- help control pH, to counteract the bacteria's acidic byproducts - prevents something that is lower pH from coming in contact with our own body cells
how does the hypothalamus regulate the secretion of hormones by negative feedback via tropic hormones?
- hypothalamus communicates to anterior pituitary gland - whatever the endocrine gland does, the hypothalamus knows about it
semicircular canals
- important for balance - oriented in three dimensions (anterior, lateral and posterior, essentially the X, Y and Z axes) which allow you to sense the direction of your head in three-dimensional space.
Occipital Lobe: Visual association Area
- interprets raw visual input - able to identify other people, even if they do things like get a haircut or wear make up. Ex: allows you to follow the plot by seeing the setting and recognizing the actors/characters
Troponin
- is the one that "looks like mickey mouse" - controls whether or not the tropomyosin blocks the myosin
smooth muscles SR characteristics
- it can store calcium - most located by the surface because there are not t-tubules to send a message deeper into the cell
how do the more cross-bridges per actin in smooth muscle affect it compared to skeletal muscle?
- it creates more strength than skeletal - you can stretch a smooth muscle a lot further and continue to creat force - you cant really pull apart myosin from actin becasue of the excess of myosin
capillary exchange: lymphatic capillaries
- it is constantly collecting fluid from the interstitial space, making interstitial fluid hydrostatic pressure's impact negligible - only 85% of the fluid that was filtered out of the blood is reabsorbed, the remaining 15% is picked up by lymphatic capillaries and eventually returned to the subclavian veins via the lymphatic circulation. - they are essential for blood circulation, of it was impaired, it would cause edema
hemispheric lateralization: Dominate Hemisphere
- language skills - analytical skills - left hemisphere for nearly 90% of the population
salivary amylase (from serous cells)
- limited to breaking complex carbohydrates down into two separate compounds - cannot produce individual monosaccharides, can only get to two disaccharides
mechanisms of exchange between blood plasma and CSF
- lipid-mediated - carrier-mediated - receptor-mediated
smooth muscle anatomy differences
- located in the walls if hollow organs - no epimysium, perimysium, fascicle, endomysium
parasympathetic division
- long preganglionic fibers - short postganglionic fibers - innervate almost all the same organs as sympathetic division - effect is very different
cellulose
- long strained of carbohydrates from plants - we don't have an enzyme to digest this - plant fiber, is fiber because we don't have an enzyme to digest it - intestinal flora has the enzymes to digest this
vena cava and right atrium
- low pressure baroreceptors which are specially important in the regulation of blood volume, are found in the walls of the vena cava and the right atrium.
lumbosacral plexus
- lumbar plexus is formed by spinal nerves L1 to L4 - the sacral plexus is formed by spinal nerves L4 to S4 - all of the nerves down your leg - all lumbar and sacral nerves form new combinations
blood vessel anatomy
- lumen - tunica interna (or intima) with endothelium - internal elastic lamina (arteries only) - tunica media - external elastic lamina (arteries only) - tunica externa (or adventitia with vasa vasorum
taste buds and receptors
- made of epithelial tissue (modified) - nerves are not exposed to surface - taste molecules bind to the epithelial cell
pituitary gland: anterior lobe (adrenohypophysis)
- made of glandular tissue (this means that they can manufacture hormones) - hypothalamus makes some hormone like substances that travel through blood vessels and communicate with the anterior part to tell them to do something
large intestine goblet cells
- makes mucus - cells look transparent bc they have soooo much mucus in them - large intestine requires a lot of mucous to control pH to counteract the acidic byproducts of bacteria
auditory ossicles
- malleus - incus - stapes
control of blood pressure: medullary cardiovascular center (MCC)
- manages the homeostatic control mechanisms that are responsible for the short-term, nervous regulation of blood pressure. - These control mechanisms act to change blood distribution based on the metabolic demands of specific organs and tissues, and to keep arterial pressure within a suitable range.
Components of the brain stem include
- midbrain - pons - medulla oblongata - reticular formation network
adrenal cortex hormones
- mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) - glucocorticoids (cortisol) - sex hormones (adrenal androgens and estrogen)
what are the different kinds of cranial nerves?
- mixed - sensory - primarily motor - proprioception
how does changes in composition of the internal environment regulate the secretion of hormones by negative feedback?
- monitors levels of a particular substance in plasma and then acts accordingly *right side of graph
things adsorbed in the small intestine
- monosaccharides - amino acids and small peptides - fatty acids and glycerol - electrolytes - water
continuous capillaries
- most common and widely distributed - the cells do not contain pores and are closely joined by tight junctions, thereby forming a continuous lining *without intercellular clefts, a much more selective barrier is formed (blood brain barrier
what is the anatomy of the somatic nervous system?
- motor cortex - spinal nerves T1 through L2
Chloride Shift
- movement of chloride ions from the blood plasma into red blood cells as bicarbonate ions diffuse out of the red blood cells into the plasma - without the chloride shift, less carbon dioxide would be transformed intobicarbonate
Normal vision and refraction disorders (figures 13.9 and 13.10)
- myopia - hyperopia - astigmatism
what are the receptor subtype of the autonomic nervous system?
- nicotinic - muscarinic - a and B adrenergic
Neuroglia cells of the CNS
- oligodendrocyte precursor cells - oligodendrocytes - astrocytes -ependymal cells - microglia
hemispheric lateralization: Non-dominant Hemisphere
- orientation of motor tasks - recognition of patterns - emotional thought processes
phrenic nerve
- originates form the cervical and brachial plexus - mainly C4 but has some contributions from C3 to C5 - controls the diaphram
cervical plexus
- originates from C2 and C3 - controls muscles in the neck, and some of the upper shoulder
brachial plexus
- originates from C5 to T1 - controls the arm
the two major cells in the myocardial layer of the heart
- pacemaker cells (are autorhythmic) (sets pace for the heart) - contractile myocytes (generate force)
visceral pain
- pain originating from the abdominal organs where there are fewer nociceptors in general. - the sensation of pain is poorly localized.
pancreatic secretions
- pancreatic amylase - pancreatic lipase - proteolytic enzymes
explain how calcitonin and parathyroid hormone work together to regulate blood calcium levels
- parathyroid hormones are released when calcium levels get too low - calcitonin is secreted when the calcium levels in the blood stream get too high
sympathetic division
- paravertebral ganglia - sympathetic trunks - short preganglionic fibers - long postganglionic fibers
pituitary gland: posterior lobe (neurohypophysis)
- part of nervous system - made of neural tissue (can manufacture neurotransmitters, but not hormones) - hypothalamus sends a neural message to tell it what to do
gastric secretions
- pepsin - hydrochloric acid (HCl; from parietal cells) - mucus (from mucous cells) - gastric lipase - intrinsic factor (from parietal cells
enzymes of the small intestine
- peptides - sucrase, maltase, and lactase - intesinal lipase
fibrinolytic pathway types
- plasminogen -> plasmin - tissue plasmino activator
alimentary canal specific region differences: small intestine
- plicae circulares - intesinal villi and microvilli - lacteals - submucosa - goblet cells
oxytocin regulation
- positive regulation - it is a neurohormone that causes mammary glands to secrete milk. the more stimulation the more oxytocin created.
Sympathetic neurotransmitters
- pre-ganglionic neurons are cholinergic - post-ganglionic neurons are adrenergic (epiphrine and norepinephrine are secreted)
parasynthetic myelination
- preganglionic fibers (myelinated) - postganglionic fibers (non-myelinated)
sympathetic myelination
- preganglionic fibers (myelinated) - postganglionic fibers (non-myelinated)
cephalic phase (30-50% of activity)
- prepares stomach to recieve ingested material - directed by CNS via the vagus nerve (parasympathetics) - stimulated by sight smell, taste, or thought of food - accelerates gastric juices - impulses also stimulate the release of the hormone gastrin it goes into the bloodstream but its target is to go into the stomach - inhibited by loss of appetite, depression
sclera
- primarily composed of connective tissue - blood vessels are seen on the surface - often called the "white of the eye"
prolactin (PRL or mammatropin) regulation
- primarily under the regulation of hypothalamic PHIH (dopamine), which suppresses prolactin synthesis and the proliferation of prolactin-producing cells.
what components make up the temporal lobe?
- primary auditory cortex - wernicke's area
Frontal lobe: Primary motor cortex
- primary control of all of the skeletal muscles in the body (not coordination). - controls all the motor neurons that go to all of the skeletal muscles - raw signal, something still has to receive this and make something of it
what components make up the frontal lobe?
- primary motor cortex - broca's area - orbitofrontal cortex - olfactory lobe
what components make up the parietal lobe?
- primary somatosensory cortex - somatosensory association cortex - gustatory cortex
what components form the occipital lobe?
- primary visual cortex - visual association cortex
identify the amines hormone (tyrosine derivatives) based by its chemical composition
- produced from single amino acids such as tryptophan or tyrosine - lipid soluble - receptor within cytoplasm or nucleus (hormone-receptor complex formed) - protein synthesis initiated - slight amplification
Golgi tendon organs
- proprioceptors found in tendons of skeletal muscles. - Responds when the muscles are pulled from their attachments - Monitor the amount of tension not stretch in the tendon attachments - If it becomes excessive it tells the muscle to relax
antibodies
- protein in BLOOD PLASMA - naturally form during infacy - antibody anti-A, Antibody anti-B - will have opposite antibody (-ies) from antigen(s)
capillary exchange: lipid solubility and particle size
- proteins, cells to large to pass
Why Do We Sleep? (Theories)
- pruning trivial neuronal connections - replaying long-term memories - consolidation information - calorie conservation (minimal) - strengthen immune system
gallbladder
- receives products from the liver and stores them and secretes them, these products secreted are called bile - bile is a product the liver makes when the blood goes through the liver and it is detoxified and some wastes are removed, some of those wastes end up in the gallbladder. (gallbladder and the pancreas have a common secretory passageway into the small intestine)
Occipital lobe: Primary Visual Cortex
- receives raw input of visual information
vasomotor center
- reflexively controls the contractile activity of the smooth muscle in the tunica media. - communicates with blood vessels, primarily the arterioles, via sympathetic vasomotor fibers - The vasomotor center is constantly sending impulses to blood vessel smooth muscle, so small arteries and arterioles are typically in a state called vasomotor tone
small intestine control of motility: Gastroileal reflex
- relaxes the ileocecal sphincter - allows chyme to pass into the large intestine
what substances do the capillaries exchange?
- respiratory gasses - nutrients - metabolic wastes - hormones
Utricle and Saccule of the Vestibular Apparatus
- responsible for determining linear acceleration of the head (for example, bending over to tie your shoes, or better yet, riding an elevator) - receptor cells are hair cells located in the utricle and saccule
cerminous glands
- responsible for making ear wax - ear wax tries to keep foreign items out of the ear
what is the basal nuclei's role in motor control with the cerebellum?
- responsible for the coordination of all of the muscular activity - dopamine has to interact with cerebellum to ensure smooth action and coordination
Anatomy of the eye: Inner nervous tunic or retinal layer
- retina - fovea centralis with macula lutea
Retina
- rods (~100 million) - Cones (~3 million)
(Pancreatic secretions) pancreatic amylase
- same chemical as salivary amylase - need to make again because the stomach would have destroyed salivary amylase - pancreatic amylase will continue to digest carbs into disaccharides
gastrin
- secreted in large amounts by the stomach in response to gastric distention and irritation of the stomach wall. - In addition to stimulating acid secretion by the parietal cell, gastrin stimulates pancreatic acinar cells to secrete digestive enzymes.
Liver: how is the release of bile regulated?
- secretions are controlled by CCK (cholecystokinin)
things effected by dynamic equilibrium (rotational or angular acceleration)
- semicircle canals - ampulla containing crista ampullaris
motor neurons
- sends signals that control the function of body tissues. - they can stimulate muscle, glands, and other cells
endothelium
- simple squamous epithelium that lines the lumen of all blood vessels - creates a smooth surface between the blood vessel wall and blood flowing within
aortic sinuses
- small compartments in the wall of the ascending aorta - A mechanoreceptor cell sensitive to cell stretch in response to changes in blood pressure
what are the target tissues of the autonomic nervous system?
- smooth and cardiac muscle - kidneys - lungs - blood vessels - GI tract - liver - bladder - eyes - salivary and sweat glands
tunica media
- smooth muscle fibers intertwined with bands of elastic connective tissue - the middle layer of the blood vessel wall
how does the regulation of smooth muscle compare to skeletal muscle?
- smooth muscle regulation at level of myosin, not troponin and actin - binding sits are always open so instead of controlling whether or no they are available with troponin and actin, the myosin level is regulated instead
amplification of sound
- sound is magnified because the sound is more and more concentrated the deeper it travels in the ear - Sound can be softened by contraction of muscles in the middle ear. This inhibits transfer of energy, there isn't as much capability to vibrate.
Important features of the stomach
- sphincters - gastric secretions (juices) from gastric glands
arachnoid mater (layer of meninges)
- spider web like (trabeculae) - thin, transparent membrane composed of fibrous tissue - contains large blood vessels that form capillaries
Pepsin (inactive form = pepsinogen; from chief cells)
- starts out as pepsinogen, meaning it is not in an active state - Comes from chief cells that line gastric pits - activated in a very acidic environment, parietal cells make hydrochloric acid and it is secreted in gastric pits as well so pepsin can be activated when it makes it out in the lumen to break down proteins into smaller polypeptide fragments - only secreted when it is needed - like low pH, this means that proteins are the only things getting digested in the stomach due to this
growth hormone (GH) function
- stimulates body cells to multiply and grow
Prolactin (PRL or mammatropin) function
- stimulates mammary glands to produce milk - prevalent in species where males have a role in child care
what is the function of CSF?
- supports the weight of the brain and spinal cord - homeostatic regulation of ions and nutrients in the extracellular environment - chemical and immunilogical buffering of the fluid surrounding the nerurons and glia
What are the divisions of the autonomic nervous system?
- sympathetic division "fight of flight" - parasympathetic division "rest and digest"
What is the diecephalon composed of?
- thalamus - hypothalamus
afterload
- the additional force that must be generated by the ventricle to overcome diastolic pressure - describes how much effort is required for the heart to eject blood
how is volume transmitted as frequency of action potentials?
- the mechanosensitive hair cell stereocilia receive message from environment - the auditory and vestibular hair cells, glutamate release (or lack thereof) at the synapse in initiating it via the nerve. - The cochlear and vestibular nerves converge as the vestibulocochlear nerve and relay information to the brainstem and later on to the cerebral cortex. - All of the sensory information is integrated in the cortex so that the body can function as a whole
tunica external (or adventitia) with vasorum
- the most superficial layer composed of loosely packed connective tissue - functions to stabilize the blood vessel by securing it to neighboring tissue - provides mechanical support protecting the structural integrity of the blood vessel wall - contains lymphatic tissues and nerve fibers
how does the nervous system regulate the secretion of hormones by negative feedback via neural stimulus?
- the nervous system directly tells the endocrine gland to do something - the action has a negative action to the nervous system *middle of graph
what is the epidural space?
- the space between the dura mater and surrounding bone - filled with adipose and larger blood vessels
Classification of sensory receptors by modility
- thermoreceptors - chemoreceptors - mechanoreceptors - nociceptors - photoreceptors
muscular or distributing arteries
- these blood vessels have much larger tunica medias, this decreases their ability to stretch and recoil but increases their ability to vasoconstrict - these arteries branch extensively, delivering blood to the atrials serving the organs and tissues of the body - also known as distributing arteries
Dura mater (layer of meninges)
- thick, strong, and durable connective tissue layer - adjacent to the inner skull and vertebrae and composed of fibroelastic cells
sympathetic origin of pre-ganlionic fibers
- thoracolumbar - T1-L2
intercellular clefts
- tiny gaps left in between the cells - fluid and small solutes can pass in and out of the capillary because of this
Parietal Lobe: Primary Somatosensory cortex
- touch and pressure - pain and temperature
capillary characteristics
- tunica (endothelium) only - incomplete tight junctions form intercellular clefts
growth hormone regulation
- under the regulation of hypothalamic GHRH - somatostatin (turns off growth hormone)
Regulation and awareness of pain: Thalamus
- until the signal gets to this, your can not register the sensation - once the signal arrives, it sends it to the somatosensory cortex
what are pericytes?
- vacular mural cells embedded in the basal lamina, astrocytes and neurons. - these cells integrate, coordinate and process signals from surrounding cells to help regulate the flow of nutrients and waste products in and out of the CNS
three distinct portions of the medullary cardiovascular center
- vasomotor center and vasomotor tone - cardioacceleratory and cardioinhibitory centers - baroreceptors (he activities of the cardiovascular center depend on input from baroreceptors, chemoreceptors, and from higher brain centers.) *all found in medulla oblongata
identify the proteins/glycoproteins/peptides hormone based by its chemical composition
- water soluble - adenylate cyclase activation - "second messenger" system used (cAMP, DAG, IP3, cGMP) - protein kinases activated - message greatly amplified
Sensation
- when the brain receives info about the internal and external environment - Receptor potential, in order to achieve sensation a nerve must reach threshold to generate an impulse
perception
- when we become aware of sensation info and assign meaning to it - there is no perception of a sensation until it reaches the cerebral cortex *(the signal can be blocked, ex. anesthetics)
basilar membrane
- where the hairs are attached to - always the scala tympani
differences between neurons and neuroglial cells in the BBB
- while the weight is the same, neuroglial cells greatly outnumber neuron cells - neuroglial cells help neurons do their job
What causes rigor mortis?
- without O2, skeletal fibers deplete ATP. - without ATP, they are unable to pump Ca2+ out of the sarcoplasm - this continuous supply of Ca2+ either leaking out from the SR or extracellular fluid maintains a constant muscle contraction - This is compounded by the fact that ATP is also necessary for breaking cross-bridges
rod characteristics
- ~100 millions - photopigment = rhodopsin (opsin + retinal) - converging nerve pathways - light-adapted vs dark-adapted
Cones characteristics
- ~3 million - Photopigments = iodopsins (chlorolabe, cyanolabe, erythrolabe) - unique nerve pathways - fovea centralis
troponin
-"looks like mickey mouse" -determines the position of the tropomyosin. -determines whether or not the actin can bind with the myosin by making the tropomyosin stand in its way
what are lamellae?
-4 to 20 circular layers of very thin bone tissue where cells are present
Hyperthermia
-Abnormally high body temperature -causes membranes to become too fluid in the digestive tract, allowing bacteria to exit and cause sepsis.
the basics of blood flow
-Blood flow occurs in a single direction (due to valves, covered later). -Blood flow is a continuous circuit. -The right side of the heart handles deoxygenated blood. -The left side of the heart handles oxygenated blood. -Blood comes into the heart through the atria. -Blood is pumped out of the heart by the ventricles.
voltage-gated calcium channels in chemical synapses
-Ca higher outside cell than in -The Ca concentration gradient allows for Ca to move in passively. -Ca enters through voltage-gated channels -Ca is what allows the vesicles to release their neurotransmitters
heart skeleton
-Consists of plate of fibrous connective tissue between atria and ventricles -Fibrous rings around valves to support -Serves as electrical insulation between atria and ventricles -Provides site for muscle attachment
how does filtration work?
-Hydrostatic forces force molecules through a porous membrane. -concentration gradient differences don't matter, only the size of the molecules do
Na+ and K+ leak channels
-K+ is more permeable than Na+
Body covering- integumentary system: Functions
-Protects against disease/ the elements -prevents dehydration -regulates body temp
what cavities are in the abdominopelvic cavity?
-abdominal cavity -pelvic cavity
Digestive system
-absorbs and adds nutrients (sugars, nutrients)
transmembrane (integral) proteins
-can transport things from one side of the cell to the other. -can transport ions (charged things) or things that are too large to pass through the cell membrane
Respiratory system
-adds oxygen to the body -takes away carbon dioxide
what is cholesterol's role in the body
-adds stability to cell membrane -all cell membranes have it -produced in the liver
Peripheral proteins
-cant transport substances -can be a receptor or enzyme
neuron cell Axon Hillock
-also known as the "trigger zone" -it is where the cell body meets the axon. -the site where the action potential is generated
body heat regulation methods
-alteration of blood flow -radiation -conduction -convection -evaporation -muscular activities -sweat glads, hairs
what is hyalin cartilage composed of?
-an arrangement of collagen fibers and a chodroitin sulfate matrix. -few cells and more matrix -chondrocytes arranged within rounded lacunae, and through cytoplasmic extensions, crosstalk among cells responsible for the maintenance of the tissue architecture.
striations
-are a result of overlap in actin and myosin -dark bands are the overlap -lighter bands are the areas with no overlap
I-band
-area that contains only actin -does not have overlap -light shines through
what are a few connective tissue examples?
-areolar connective tissue (or loose connective tissue) -adipose tissue -dense connective tissue
graded potential
-begin in dendrites and cell body -happen below threshold
saddle joint
-biaxial Ex: joint in thumb
condyloid (ellipsoid) joint
-biaxial -flexion/extension and adduction/abduction
terminal cisternae
-big "holding containers" that hold a bunch of ions -active transports are on the membranes to help gather ions -voltage gated structure -ions being held and released are calcium, which influence troponin and tropomysosin
how are ions like K+ and Na+ attracted in or out of the cell?
-by electrostatic forces (like a magnate) -or by concentration gradients
carbon monoxide poisoning
-carbon monoxide binds with hemoglobin and reduces oxygen supply to tissues -cannot be seen. smelled, or tasted -s/s include: nausea, vomiting, headache, weakness, and unconsciousness -death may occur with prolonged exposure -prevention by ensuring proper ventilation when using fuel-burning devices -gas-burning devices should be inspected annually -flues and chimneys should be unobstructed -carbon monoxide detectors should be installed and inspected regularly
transport systems in the body
-cardiovascular system -lymphatic system
neuron cell dendrites
-carry information towards the cell body -have lingand/voltage gated ion channels
what are some connective tissue distinguishing characteristics?
-cells widely spread -invercellular material (matrix) fluid to solid (contains water and protein fibers) -protein fibers may be present in matrix *protein fibers outside of cell
what two specialized transport proteins are required to carry out Facilitated diffusion?
-channel proteins -carrier proteins
loose connective tissue
-collagen fibers (strength) and elastin fibers (stretch) present -widely spaced, loosely packed -ground substance fills space *gel like substance that provides cusioning
biaxial FLECION/EXTENSION, ADDUCTION/ABSUCTION
-condylar -saddle joint
perimysium anatomy
-connective tissue sheath surrounding several muscle fibers (surrounds each fascicle)
tansverse tubules (T tubles)
-continuous with cell membrane, impulse runs down transverse tubule, gives us a way of communicating deep inside the cell.
radiation
-cools off by dilating dermal bloods vessels, thus bringing blood closer to the surface of the skin. -body radiates off heat when sitting in a colder environment, or can raise heat by siting next to something warmer than your body such as a fire.
what cavities does the dorsal cavity contain?
-cranial cavity -vertebral canal
joint capsule enclosing cavity
-dense fibrous connective tissue, holds synovial fluid in. -stabilizes joint by limiting movement
what are the three major layers of the dermis?
-dermal papillae -papillary layer -reticular layer
features of the dermis
-dermal papillae -papillary layer -reticular layer -arrector pili muscle (smooth muscle) -some skeletal muscle attachments -blood vessels (papillary) -nerves (sensary and motor) -various accessory organs
characteristics of dense connective tissue
-dermis of skin -tightly packed -not very flexible -strong *this tissue serves as an anchor or attachment such as with tendons and ligaments
alteration of blood flow
-dilation of dermal blood vessels bring blood towards the surface of skin allowing heat to radiate off heat or -constriction of dermal blood vessels act to maintain heat
what are a few factors that can influence the rate (or flux) of simple diffusion?
-distance of membrane thickness -size of concentration gradient -temperature
what are the different types of sudoiferous (sweat) glands?
-eccrine or merocrine glands -apocrine glands -ceruminous glands -mammary glands
what is the dermal papillae
-epidermal ridges that separate the epidermis from the dermis
layers of the skind
-epidermis -dermis *Note: the subcutaneous layer is not a layer of the skin. it is the tissues beneath the skin
special features of some synovial joints
-fibrocartilage (articular discs -bursae (singular= bursa)
joint classification by anatomy
-fibrous joints -cartilaginous joints -synovial joints
skeletal system functions
-gives us a frame work -protects the brain/heart - produces blood cells -helps with movement and stabilitysc
active transport
-goes against concentration gradient -using either a carrier or channel transport protein, ATP will be hydrolyzed. This will induce a confrontational change within the protein that permits the passage of the solute. *sodium-potassium pump is an example of a carrier protein that preforms active transport
muscular system functions
-helps with stability and movement - generates heat
what gradient does the sodium-potassium pump try to maintain?
-higher NA+ outside cell -higher K+ inside cell
how do sebaceous glands secret their product?
-holocrine secretion -entire cell is lost upon secretion
types of osmotic pressures
-hypertonic -hyptonic -isotonic
temporal summation
-if stimulants are close together they will add up -axon terminal could send signal after signal and they will add together, allowing them to reach threshold.
When would hemoglobin give up more O2?
-increase in body temp -decrease in blood pH -increase in blood pCO2 these all occur during exercise
triaxial/multiaxial
-less stable -ball and socket joint (hip) -plane joint
electrostatic forces in your cells
-ions are charger particles -the cell membrane react to opposite charges similar to a magnate -the electrostatic force is highly localized (very powerful, bu need to be close) -energy is required to separate charges (ATP)
what is the reticular layer?
-irregular dense connective tissue (no set pattern/orientation of the proteins) -composed of densely packed collagen fibers, with some elastin fibers interspersed throughout -toughest layer of skin
A-band
-is the entire length of the myosin -has overlap -dark as the light is blocked by the myosin
what role does canaliculi achieve?
-it allows for oxygen and nutrient-rich blood to reach every osteocyte in all of the osteons, despite the dense nature of compact bones. -cytoplasmic extensions from an osteocyte contact and communicate with neighboring osteocytes through these canals
what purpose does the sarcolemma fulfill?
-it is able to carry out an impulse -is contiguous with the endomysium and surrounds the sarcoplasm -contains myofibrils, which are bundles of contractible proteins
sarcoplasmic reticulum features
-it is like the skeletal endoplasmic reticulum -membranous structure inside a cell -fills in the space between myofibril -can isolate something
muscle tissue distinguishing characteristics
-keratin protein inside cell (same as with skin) -cells tightly packed -muscle tissue= muscle fibers -many protein filaments in cytoplasm -capable of cantraction -not all require neutral input
hyaline cartilage basic characteristics
-lacuna -chondrocytes in the lacuna -some collagen to give it strength -ground substance is mostly water, creates a gel like cushioning
what does the reticular layer contain?
-larger blood vessels -lymphatic vessels -nuerons -accessory structures such as hair follicles, nails, and glands
what are some distinguishing characteristics of epithelial tissues?
-layers of tightly packed cells -cell shapes: squamus, cuboidal, or columnar -cover/line body cavities -form protective barriers -attached to basement membrane -lack blood vessels -produce rapidly *protein fibers inside cell
endosteum
-lines the medullary cavity -thin vascularized membrane of connective tissue
myocytes
-long tubular cells that develop from myoblasts -these are skeletal muscle fibers
fibrocartilage
-lots of collagen fibers in matrix, more organized -nuclei in a lacuna -much stronger, resistant to forces -found in places that bear a lot of weight (intervertebral disk)
vesicles
-made of phospholipids (same material as the cell membrane) -the phospholipids make up compartments filled with neurotransmitters (aka ligand)
cell membrane general characteristics
-maintains integrity of cell -controls what enters and exits the cell -compartmentalizes different parts within the cell
what cavities does the thoracic cavity contain?
-mediastinum -pleural cavities (left and right)
what some are areolar connective tissue (or loose connective tissue) characteristics?
-mixture of collagen and elastin fibers in a loose arrangement -elastic and flexible *primary function is to cushion organs
plane (gliding) joint
-multi axial -triaxial -freely moving Ex: all short bones in wrist
ball-and-socket
-multiaxial or triaxial -flex and extend -adduction/abduction -not as stable as something like a hinge joint
Homeostatic feedback mechanisms
-negative feedback -positive feedback
body systems that integrate and coordinate
-nervous system -endocrine system
muscular activities
-older people lack the muscle mass younger people do -they also are lacking in their reflexes for dilating blood vessels, as well as being as efficient when shivering.
neuron cell axon
-only one -goes away from the cell -action potential travels down the axon
uniaxial
-only one axis of movement possible -hinge joints (elbow) -joints that pivot, rotation only (cervical vertebrae that allow the head to turn)
how do eccrine or merocrine glands secrete their product?
-only secrets product, no loss of cytoplasm -secretes product directly onto surface of skin
active potential
-originate on axon -happen before or on threshold
Hemidesmosomes
-point of attachment to basal lamina of the ECM; anchors cell to proper location -one half of a full desmosome if put together
M-line
-point where the myosin protein is attached -located in the middle of the A-band
evaporation
-process of water becoming steam -only way to cool yourself if the air is warmer than your body's
Homeostatic mechanisms
-receptors -control center -effectors -Responce
extracapsular ligaments
-reinforces joint capsule, but is separate from it -made of dense connective tissue -the abundant collagen in these tissues provides the strength to prevent stretching forces from separating the bones
Urinary system
-removes waste products
Z-line
-represents a protein where the actin is attached -it is in the middle of the Iband
how do apocrine glands sectret their product?
-secrets product as well as a piece of the cytoplasm
Bursae (singular= bursa)
-separate from joint capsule -full of synovial fluid -adds cusioning to joints that see a lot of wear and tear.
sesamoid (round) bones
-sesame seed shaped bones, described as small, flat, and oval shaped. -increase muscle leverage and longevity in tendons *patella or kneecap
roles for both transmembrane and peripheral proteins
-signal transduction -enzymes -cell adhesion molecules
what are some examples of epithelial tissues?
-simple cuboidal epithelium -stratified squamous epithelial
support and movement systems
-skeletal system -muscular system
types of fibrous joints
-suture -sydesmosis -Gomphosis
why are membranes important?
-they help prevent disease -keep lungs inflated along with serous fluid
classification of joints by degree of movement
-synarthrotic -amphiarthotic -diathrotic
types of cartilaginous joints
-synchondrosis -symphysis
what two major factors influence the speed of action potential propagation
-the axon diameter -myelination
what is the papillary layer?
-the superficial connective tissue layer of the epidermis composed of areolar (loose) connective tissue
what cavities does the ventral cavity contain?
-thoracic cavity -abdominopelvic cavity
dense fibrous connective tissue
-tightly packed collagen fibers -flexible (can bend but not stretch) -fibroblasts -not much ground substance
articular (hyaline) cartilage
-translucent bluish-white type of specialized, fibrous connective tissue present on the end of ephiphyses to reduce friction between adjoining bones (joints).
lymphatic system functions
-transports lymph fluid -travels to lymph nodes to then remove infectious agents -lymph fluid transports excess fluid back into bloodstream
hinge joint
-uniaxial -can only flex and extend -only one plane of movement
pivot joint
-uniaxial -one plane of movement - can only rotate
what are some characteristics of adipose tissue?
-very little space between cells -primary cell type is adipocyte (fat cell) *serves to insulate and protect organs
supporting columnar epithelial cells
. secretes mucous that bathes the odorant receptors on the cilia and provides the appropriate ionic environment for odor detection
formation of medullary cavity
1) As the primary ossification center enlarges, osteoclasts break down newly formed spongy bone and opens up a medullary cavity in the center of the diaphysis. 2) The osseous tissue of the outer shaft becomes thicker forming compact bone.
what happens at the nodes of ranvier?
these are the sites where the action potential is recharged.
explain cross-bridge formation and the role of ATP in Cross-bridge formation
1. ATP binds to myosin, hydrolyzes (ATP -> ADP + P) 2. Activated Myosin binds to actin 3. ADP released, myosin head pivots ("Power stroke") 4. New ATP binds, myosin detaches from actin 5. Hydrolysis of new ATP returns myosin to activated position 6. Cross-bridge cycling continues as long as Ca2+ and ATP available
Action potential overview
1. Action potential begins at resting membrane potential -all leak channels stay open, Na+/K+ pump continues working 2. Threshold reached 3. Depolarization phase, voltage-gated Na+ channels of trigger zone open 4. Peak Phase 5. Repolarization phase 6. Hyperpolarization phase 7. After-hyperpolarization phase
general adaption syndrome stages
1. Alarm 2. Resistance 3. Exhaustion
leukocytes providing protection be **antibody production** (v lengthy, my bad)
1. Antibodies are made by lymphocytes (1/2 WBCs) when stimulated by antigens 2. A lymphocyte can only make 1 type of antibody, so a huge number of lymphocyte types is needed. Each one puts some of the antibodies that it can make into its cell surface membrane, with the antigen-combining site projecting outwards 3. When a pathogen enters the body, its antigens bind to the antibodies in the cell surface membrane of 1 type of lymphocyte 4. When they bind, the lymphocyte becomes active and divides by mitosis to produce a clone of many identical cells 5. These cells are plasma cells that produce large quantities of the same antibody. The antibody binds to the antigens on the surface of the pathogen and stimulate its destruction. 6. When the infection is gone, the lymphocytes used to produce the antibodies disappear (though some remain as memory cells that can quickly reproduce to form a clone of plasma cells if a pathogen with the same antigen enters again)
smooth muscle excitation-contraction coupling general overview
1. Ca2+ (from intracellular and extracellular sources) enter sarcoplasm 2. Ca2+ binds to calmodulin 3. Presence of Ca2+ activates (phosphorylates) myosin light-chain kinase (MLCK) 4. Activated MLCK casues cross-bridge formation 5. Contraction not dependent on Ca2+ but on myosin phosphorylation
gross anatomy of connective tissues
1. Epimysium bundles together fasicles 2. Perimysium surrounds each fascicle 3. Endomysium surrounds each muscle cell (fiber) 4. All are contiguous with tendons (or aponeuroses) and with periosteum
anatomy of thyroid gland
1. Follicular cells- the major secretory cells that form a ring around the colloid 2. Colloid- Extracellular storage site of thyroid hormone. Mainly consists of thyroglobulin which hold the lipophilic TH(if TGB didnt hold on to TH it would freely diffuse) 3. Extrafollicular cells: in the interstitial space between the follicular cells that secrete calcitonin.
basic coagulation mechanism
1. Prothrombin must be activated in order to produce thrombin 2. once activated, prothrombin converts prothrombin to thrombin 3. thrombin then converts fibrinogen to fibrin 4. fibrin forms a fibrous mesh that impedes the flow of blood.
Endochondral ossification
1. Masses of hyaline cartilage form models of future bones 2. Cartilage tissue breaks down periosteum develops 3. Blood vessels and differentiating osteoblasts/osteoclasts from the periosteum invade the disintegrating tissue 4. Osteoblasts form spongy bone in the space occupied by cartilage 5. Osteoblasts beneath the periosteum deposit compact bone. 6. Osteoblasts become osteocytes when bony matrix completely surrounds them.
features of a neuromuscular system
1. Motor units 2. Neuromuscular junction -mortor neuron -motor end plate
mechanism of action of protein/glycoprotien/peptide hormones and catecholamines from the adrenal medulla hormones
1. Receptor on cell membrane (- hormone never enters the cell, it stays on the outside surface - nonsteroid hormones bind receptor molecules on the cell membrane) 2. Binding of hormone ("first messenger") activates adenylate cyclase 3. "second messenger" activated (often cAMP; also DAG, IP#, cGMP) 4. Protein kinases activated, metabolic processes altered (cAMP activates existing proteins, causing a series of reactions leading to the cellular changes) 5. Message is greatly amplified (this is due to you not getting a one to one relationship, if the 2nd messenger activated, a bunch of enzymes do as well)
mechanism of action of steroid hormones and thyroid hormones (tyrosine derivatives)
1. Receptor within cytoplasm or nucleus (hormone-receptor complex formed when hormone reaches it) 2. specific gene on DNA activated (Protein synthesis initiated: makes new protein that allows the cell to do something it couldn't before) 3.message slightly amplified (multiple mRNA created)
sliding filament model overview
1. Regulatory proteins tropinin and tropomyosin 2. Calcium binds to troponin, shifts regulatory proteins 3. Actin and Myosin change position relative to one another 4. ATP cross-brindge formation 5. Rigor mortis 6. resets, same as step two
what are the features of skeletal muscle fibers?
1. Sarcolemma and Sarcoplasm 2. Multinucleate (myoblasts fuse to form myocytes) 3. Myofibrils (actin and myosin) 4. Sarcomers and Striations 5. I-band, A-band, Z-lines, M-line, and H-zone 6. Tropomyosin and troponin 7. Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR), Transverse tubules (T tubles) and Terminal cisternae
how does the process of intramembranous ossification work?
1. Sheets of embryonic connective tissue (mesenchyme) appear at the sites of future bone. 2. Mesenchymal cells differentiate into osteoblasts, which deposit bone matrix. 3. Dense networks of blood vessels supply the developing spongy bone. 4. Osteoblasts become osteocytes when bony matrix completely surounds them 5. Mesenchyme on the surface of each developing structure condenses to form periosteum. 6. Osteoblasts on the inside of the periosteum deposit compact bone over the spongy bones.
erythrocyte negative feed back mechanism
1. Starts in the kidney or liver - they monitor the amount of oxygen 2. if O2 is low, they secrete the hormone Erythropoietin - Erythropoietin targets the hematopoietic stem cells and triggers them to increase production of red cells 3. The increased production of red cells increases our ability to transport O2 4. once O2 is increased and you have adequate O2, it inhibits the secretion of erythropoietin
how does mixing via intestinal segmentation work?
1. The entire intestine is divided into isolated sections that are constricted 2. To promote mixing, these constrictions change location in order to trap different contents in their spaces, ultimately causing mixing 3. process is repeated
action potential: Hyperpolarization phase
1. The voltage-gated K+ channels remain open even as they go lower then the resting membrane potential. 2. After the membrane potential is more negative than the resting membrane, the in activation gate of the voltage-gated Na+ channels open. 3. However, because the cell is hyper polarized, it goes into the relative refractory period.
erythrocyte death and recycling
1. They are filtered out in spleen and liver 2. macrophages destroy the cellular debris - worn out red blood cells lysed by these - 10% of red blood cells are lysing and going to be engulfed by phagocytosis - 90% of breakdown takes place in the macrophages 3. iron generally recycled - iron goes back to bone marrow 4. heme proteins broken down - once broken down by the liver, they are secreted into the digestive tract
Rigor Mortis
1. When a person dies, circulation stops and muscles no longer have the nutrients and O2 required to maintain cell life. 2. Within hours, skeletal fibers deplete ATP and, as a result, they are unable to pump Ca2+ out of the sarcoplasm. 3. This continuous supply of Ca2+ leaking out causes a constant muscle contraction. This is compounded by the fact that ATP is also necessary for breaking cross-bridges.
axon of olfactory sensory neurons
1. a single axon projects from each neuron into the olfactory bulb 2. the axons pass through the cribriform plate and enter olfactory bulbs
muscle energetics: energy consumption with higher intensity levels of activity
1. aerobic metabolism is working at its max capacity 2. maximum capacity determined by the availability of oxygen. 3. at peak levels of exertion, aerobic metabolism can only provide 1/3 of of the ATP needed. 4. pyruvic acid can be broken down without oxygen through glycolysis to supply the remainder of the ATP, but lactic acid will accumulate
action potential: How resting membrane reaches threshold.
1. because all leak channels stay open, the Na+/K+ continues working. Thus, it maintains the gradient that allows the resting membrane potential to slowly creep up. 2. once a depolarizing stimulus is received, membrane potential becomes more positive by utilizing temporally and spatially summed synaptic potentials. 3.Threshold is either reached, or not.
muscle energetics: energy consumption with moderate intensity levels of activity
1. more atp is needed at this intensity 2. demands are met by aerobic metabolism vis mitochondrial ATP production. 3. as muscle activity and ATP production increase, so does oxygen consumption 4. at this stage, all ATP produced is used by the muscle fibers, no surplus. 5. The muscle then utilizes aerobic metabolism of pyruvic acid from glucose to produce ATP. *as long as ATP demands can be met by aerobic metabolism through the mitochondria, the contribution from glycosis remains low.
excitation-contraction coupling general overview
1. motor neuron releases acetylcholine 2. Ligand-gated channels on sarcolemma open 3. Na+ and K+ channels open (Na+ influx predominates) 4. End-plate potential results, threshold achieved, voltage-gated Na+ channels open 5. Sarcolemma and t-tubules depolorize 6. Voltage-gated channels on sarcoplasmic reticulum open - terminal cisternae of SR store calcium - t-tubule and two terminal cisternae = triad membranes 7. Calcium released into sarcoplasm by diffusion
general alimentary canal wall structure
1. mucosa 2. submucosa 2.5: muscularis interna (some have this, but its an exeption not a rule) 3. muscularis externa 4. serosa
Blood-brain barrier: components of neurovasular unit
1. neurons 2. neuroglial 3. pericytes 4. capillary endothelium with tight junctions
action potential: What happens during the peak phase?
1. once the maximum threshold of +30mV is reached, the Na+ channels are in activated by an inactivation gate. 2. Once the Na+ channels are closed, the Voltage-gated K+ channels opens and the K+ that leaves carriers out the positive charge. 3. This process neuron being in the absolute refractory period
what are the two layers of connective tissue that makes up the dermis
1. papillary layer 2. reticular layer
dendrite of olfactory sensory neurons
1. projects into the nasal cavity 2. terminates in a knob containing 10-20 cilia 3. odorants bind to specific odorant receptors on the cilia 4. initiates a cascade of events 5. generation of AP in sensory axo
antigens
1. proteins on SURFACE of erythrocytes - you will always be able to indentify either your antigens or foreign ones 2. Antigen A, Antigen B 3. Whatever antigen(s) you havee = blood type
Action potential propagation overview
1. starts from trigger zone 2. Ions diffuse away from point of entry 3. Once the ions are diffused to the next segment, the previous segment is inactivated (absolute refraction period) 4. Positive diffusion allows the diffusion of ions to continue down the axon 5. the diameter of the axon has some influence on the ion flow. 6. speed of ion movement is highly influenced by the incorporation of myelin
layers of the epidermis
1. stratum basale 2. stratum spinosum 3. stratum granulosum 4. stratum lucidum 5. stratum corneum
how does compartmentalization help establish a concentration gradient for ions?
1. the cell membranes compartmentalize the ions on the edge of the membrane, not the center. 2. the concentration of the ions within the compartmentalized area, are at a different concentration level than the ions outside of the cell. 3. passive ion movement - some ions are lost from leak channels that allow ions to pass through WITH the gradient (the pump with bring the correct amount back in with ATP) 4.few ions are actually involved in this process.
how do schwann cells and oligodendrocytes porduce myelin sheaths?
1. they extend their cell membrane to wrap tightly around the outside of the axonal membrane. 2. The cytoplasm of both these cells is squezzed out, leaving only layers of lipid bilayer. 3. The cell membrane that now surrounds the axon is known as myelin.
overview on how chemical synapses work
1. voltage-gated calcium channels allows vesicles to release their neurotransmitters (ligand) 2. the vesicles release their ligand by fusing to the cell membrane and allowing the ligand to spill out. 3. the spilled out ligand are received by ligand-gated ion channels and then allow Na+ in
muscle energetics: energy consumption with low intensity levels of activity
1. when ATP demands in skeletal muscle are low, there is enough oxygen available in the muscle to produce ATP, thus there is a surplus of energy. 2. this extra ATP is used to produce CP and glycogen stores
middle ear: tympanic membrane to oval window
1. when sound vibrates the drum, the auditory ossicles vibrate in series 2. the last bone in the chain (the stapes), makes direct contact with the oval window. 3. these ossicles amplifiy and concentrate the vibrations of the tympanic membrane onto the oval window 20x.
bone growth in the epiphyseal plate: cartilaginous layers
1. zone of resting cartilage 2. zone of proliferating cartilage 3. zone of hypertonic cartilage 4. zone of calcified cartilage
Activation of proteolytic enzymes by enterokinase
1.enterokinase converts trypsinogen into trypsin 2. trypsin activates chymotrypsinogen and procarboxypeptidase 3. enterokinase only activates tripsinogen if no tripsinogen it just waits, because this is its only job, it doesn't hurt anything
Trypsin (inactive form = trypsinogen)
1.enterokinase converts trypsinogen into trypsin 2. trypsin activates chymotrypsinogen and procarboxypeptidase 3. enterokinase only activates tripsinogen if no tripsinogen it just waits, because this is its only job, it doesn't hurt anything *** digest proteins and peptides into smaller peptides, but, as endopeptidases, they cannot digest proteins and peptides into single amino acids
what ratio does the sodium-potassium pump exchange/transport Na+ and K+?
3 Na+ out, 2 K+ in -once 3 Na+ molecules load into their binding sites, ATP is used to phosphorylate the carrier protein towards the outside of the cell. This releases the 3 Na+ molecules, while allowing K+ molecules to bond to their respective sites. the inorganic phosphate is removed from the pump and the conformation returns to its normal shape. -for each ATP used 3 Na+ moves out and 2 K+ moves in
how much energy is expended by they cell by using active transport with the sodium-potassium pump?
50%
Blood composition
55% plasma, 45% formed elements
Plasma composition
90% water 9% proteins 1% minerals
Basophils
A circulating leukocyte that produces histamine and heparin -granulocyte -heparin prevents blood from clotting -important in allergic response -less than 1% of leukocytes
serous fluid
A clear, watery fluid secreted by the cells of a serous membrane.
periosteum
A dense fibrous membrane covering the surface of bones (except at their extremities) and serving as an attachment for tendons and muscles. -composed of irregular collagenous tissue
Hypothyroidism
A disorder caused by a thyroid gland that is slower and less productive than normal causes obesity, joint pain, infertility, and heart disease
Granulocytes
A group of leukocytes containing granules in their cytoplasm; neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils. has a lifespan of hours
Agranulocytes
A group of leukocytes without granules in their nuclei; lymphocytes, monocytes. has a lifespan of weeks to years
Cholecystokinin (CCK)
A hormone secreted by the small intestine (duodenum) in response to the presence of fats. It promotes release of bile from the gallbladder and pancreatic juice from the pancreas,and reduces stomach motility.
what composes the cell membrane structure?
A phospholipid bilayeriwth hydrophobic "tails" and hydrophilic "heads" -water from inside the cell, and outside the cell, are separated by an oily layer. This is needed so your body is compatible with water
vascular spasm
A prompt constriction of a broken vessel. Most immediate protection against blood loss
what are epithelial tissues?
A sheet of cells that covers or lines a body surface or cavity. Two forms of epithelium: (1) epithelia that cover and line cavities, walls and surfaces. (2) epithelia that form glands. *provides some form of protection
what are simple cuboidal epithelium tissues?
A single layer of cuboidal shaped cells that are ideal for secretion and absorption *found in glands and kidney tubules ex: sweat glands
Neutrophils
A type of white blood cell that engulfs invading microbes and contributes to the nonspecific defenses of the body against disease. -granulocyte -don't live very long -most common WBC subtype -54-70% of leukocytes
function of cerebellum
A) integrates information about body position B) coordinates muscle activities - fine motor control - planning and learning new movement C) maintains posture and balance
mixing via segmentation
A) parasympathetic nervous system promotes B) all happens in same area - (in stomach) three layers of muscle move in a rhythm - (in intestine) segmentation involves the longitudinal and circular muscles to promote mixing
intrinsic factor (from parietal cells)
A) parietal cells make this B) necessary to absorb vitamin B - pernicious anemia happens when your body isnt able to make enough intrinsic factor due to lack of vitamin B
what is the pineal body relationship with melatonin production?
A) production varies on length of day B) melatonin is the basis for making a neurotransmitter called serotonin longer days -> more melatonin -> more serotonin -> more happiness
propelling via peristalsis
A) promoted by parasympathetic B) How to get from the beginning to the end of the intestine - constriction begins at the beginning of the intestine and remains contracted as it slides down the intestine. This pushes everything down the intestine towards the end.
basal nuclei's role in memory
A) short-term "working" memory B) long-term memory (consolidation) - long-term (synaptic) potentiation - consolidation in hippocampus - cell adhesion molecules are involved * cells that had no physical connections are now held together
sensory neurons
tranduce sensory information in to forms understandable by the central nervous system
excitation-contraction coupling: Step seven, Calcium released into sarcoplasm by diffusion
A. Ca+ goes through voltage-gated Ca+ channels into the sarcoplasm by diffusion from the extracellular fluid. - t-tubules filled with extracellular fluid that is filled with Ca+ B. Ca+ comes from the SR or the extracellular fluid of the t-tubules
excitation-contraction coupling: Step one, Motor neuron releases acetycholine
A. Calcium channels open (voltage-gated) - enters because of diffusion (goes with gradient) - high extracellular calcium B. Stimulates the movement of vesicles to the membrane to dump out its contents in exocytosis
what is the sympathetics role in salivation?
turns off salivary glands when under stress
ileum
A.) 56% total length B.) no mechanism for digestion and absorption - if you end up here you will end up getting lost - you will go into large intestine, and then be lost to defecation because there are not any mechanisms of digestion to absorb you
large intestine absorption
A.) 90% water than enters is absorbed B.) electrolytes establish gradient - electrolytes are absorbed and the water follows - water can't go anywhere first, it has to follow - these are the only things absorbed in large intestine other than some products that the bacterium make for you, but you don't have any enzymes here of your own to digest anything here
excitation-contraction coupling: Step two, Ligand-gated channels on sarcolemma open
A. acetylcholine attaches to ligand-gated channels on the motor end plate - allows sodium to enter cell
motor (descending) pathways
A. carry impulses away from brain B. two places messages can cross body - in brain stem - or it could go as far down as it is needed, then cross over
Recovery: lactic acid removal
A. lactic acid is formed in the muscles B. lactic acid can be synthesized back into glucose, happens in the liver. - this requires ATP, and doing so will reduce your net gain of ATP
pathways of nerve tracts of spinal cord characteristics
A. located in white matter (columns) - all are mylinated B. many cross over
smooth muscles and t-tubules
A. no t-tubules - instead it has caveoles which are small dimples on the cells surface
excitation-contraction coupling: Step three, Na+ and K+ channels open (Na+ influx predominates)
A. right next to the ligand-gated channels is a sodium voltage-gated channel - potassium leaving (repolarizing) - sodium entering (depolarizing)
Polysynaptic somatic reflex
A. sensory nerve takes the signal up to the CNS, communicates first with an interneuron and then with a motor neuron B. withdrawl reflex, used to protect C. often requires inhibition and stimulation on oppisite sides of the body - cross talk b/w sides of the body to maintain balance
monosynaptic somatic reflex
A. sensory neuron picks up impulse and sends it to the CNS where it communicates with a motor nerve. The motor nerve returns the impulse to the effector muscle B. you can make a conscious effort to override this - Ex. knee tap at docs office
smooth muscles and striations
A. smooth muscles don't have striations - still have actin and myosin, just in random configuration - appears as lines all across the single cell - these lines all contract and squish the cell to create actin-myosin bundles
excitation-contraction coupling: Step six, voltage-gated channels on sarcoplasmic reticulum open
A. the depolariztion causes the voltage-gated channels to open, and the terminal cisternae of the SR store calcium
baroreceptors
A.) A mechanoreceptor cell sensitive to cell stretch in response to changes in blood pressure - bundles of nerves that monitor blood pressure constantly - communicates directly with the medulla oblongata
basic bile facts
A.) Composition - water - bile salts and pigments -electrolytes B.) stored in gall bladder C.) Secretion controlled by CCK D.) bile salts act as emulsifiers
small intestine enzyme: sucrase, maltase, and lactase
A.) Disacharides - still bonded together as a single structure B.) Monosaccharides - individual C.) These are the enzymes embedded into the membranes of the cells of the small intestines that are going to break sucrase, maltase, and lactase into two different monosaccharides
Gastric phase (40-50% of activity)
A.) Enhanced secretion of gastric juices due to the arrival of food in the stomach - homogenize and acidify chyme - production of pepsinogen (digestion of proteins) B.) Stimulated by - stomach distention (activation of stretch receptors) - chemoreceptors detect (peptides, caffeine, and rising pH) C.) Neural - plexus D.) Hormonal - secretion of gastrin E.) Inhibitory events - a pH lower than 2 - emotional upset that overrides the parasympathetic division
Absorption in the small intestine: Monosaccharides
A.) Falicitated diffusion - can absorb 50% this way but then the gradient is gone. Because it has to go down a gradient, you have to switch to active transport which requires atp. - spends atp just by absorbing the food you ate to go against gradient
passive movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide across the respiratory membrane
A.) Gas is being exchanged BY DIFFUSION from alveoli and capillaries (Alveolar-capillary membrane) - these particles are small enough and fat soluble, therefore they can diffuse without carriers or proteins
color effects of hemoglobin being broken down
A.) Heme is what gives blood its red color, but when broken down... - biliverdin (general pigment) *gives off a green pigment* - bilirubin (orange pigment) *orangish tint to it
what composes erythrocytes (red blood cells)?
A.) Hemoglobin molecules - there are four different polypeptide chains that are linked together to form the more complex protein hemoglobin B.) Each molecule contains iron - four molecules of O2 and CO2 bind a polypeptide iron - a red blood cell can carry both due to them being carried in different locations
Intestinal phase (5% of activity)
A.) Intestinal phase - release of hormones controls the rate of gastric emptying B.) Excitatory phase - distention of duodenum, presence of partially digested foods C.) Releases enterogastrones that inhibit gastric secretion: CCK, GIP, secretin D.) Inhibited by low pH, presence of fatty, acidic, or hypertonic chyme, and/or irritants in the duodenum
large intestine requires a lot of mucous to control pH because
A.) Large intestine houses more bacteria cells than there are normal cells in the entire body - these bacteria carry out their metabolisms on things we are unable to digest and then makes acidic byproducts - this means it requires a lot of mucous to control pH to counter act the acidity of the acidic byproducts of bacteria
capillary exchange: diffusion
A.) Only the tunica intima is present in capillaries (the tunica media and tunica externa are absent) - with fewer layers, and a thinner wall, capillaries more readily allows diffusion of substances down their gradients than larger vessels can with their thicker walls B.) tight junctions of the squanmous epithelial cells of the capillary endothelium are incomplete, which leaves gaps between plasma membranes of adjacent cells. - these intercellular clefts make capillaries even more permeable *O2, CO2, fatty acids, glucose, ions*
Absorption in the small intestine: water
A.) Osmosis B.) Gradient established by monosaccharides, amino acids, and electrolytes C.) Follows the solutes - the more solutes you absorb the more water you absorb - if solutes are not absorbed, neither is water.
tissue plasminogen activator
A.) Plasminogen is converted into plasmin by this - healing tissues secrete this while in the process of healing
movements of the small intestine
A.) Segmentation - segments off different sections to mix intestinal contents through contraction B.) Peristalsis - peristaltic contractions propel the chyme through the small intestine
Absorption in the small intestine: electrolytes
A.) Some by active transport - spends the energy absorbing something with a positive charge, and then things with a negative charge follow B.) some follow by simple diffusion - for example Cl- would follow Na+
pulse and pulse pressure
A.) The difference between systolic and diastolic blood pressure - *PP = SBP - DBP* B.) this provides us with some information about stroke volume. - when stroke colume increases, a greater amount of blood is forced into the arteries and systolic blood pressure increases. This then inturn increases pulse pressure.
capillary exchange: capillary hydrostatic pressure
A.) The pressure exerted by the blood onto the capillary wall. - CHP declines as blood moves through the capillary bed - it is 35 mm Hg at the arterial end of the capillary, and 17 to 18 mm Hg at the venous end
why do carbohydrates and proteins exit first, while the lipids exit last out of the stomach?
A.) You cannot get a homogenous mixture because water and fats to not mix, they separate - this means that when stuff starts to exit, the water soluble substances exit first (these are your carbohydrates and proteins) - fats exit last because of the solubility problem
gastrocolic reflex in large intestine
A.) a mass movement in colon that may be associated with the relaxation of the internal anal sphincters - blue line: sensory input (as rectum fills with feces it will stretch) - red line: motor impulses (goes down to smooth muscle of the internal anal sphincters) B.) as this area fills (this is where your sensory nerves are coming from) and the rectal region stretches you get the relaxation of internal anal sphincters - this is the feedback you learn to recognize and control when you get toilet trained - you have conscious control of the external anal sphincters because they are skeletal muscles
Absorption in the small intestine: amino acids and small peptides
A.) active transport B.) additional enzymes necessary - dipeptidases - tripeptidases
How do veins serve as a blood reservoir?
A.) acts as a reservoir to hold blood in case of emergency - called *capacitance vessels* due to the capacity of blood they can hold B.) 2/3 of all blood is in veins, but we must keep the blood in arteries constant - blood in reservoir can be used to maintain the volume and pressure in the arteries, this is important for major blood loss - veins contract to shift blood over to capillaries in order to maintain organ systems and consciousness
how the stomach prepare to mix?
A.) before it mixes both sphincters close - so that they can mix things and not have it regurgitate back into the esophagus - this is because your stomach tissue can handle this but the esophagus cannot
chemical digestion
A.) breakdown of chemical bonds by enzymes to get to the smallest unit possible - when you absorb something, you have to have the smallest component of that chemical possible, and that requires chemical bonds
erythroblastosis fetalis (hemolytic disease of the newborn)
A.) danger to fetus B.) only a problem if mother is Rh- and fetus is Rh+ - wont effect first born child as the antibody that could harm them isnt made until after the fact C.) antibodies can cross the placenta - this is because they are in the plasma, because anigens are in protein, they cannot D.) at birth there is a change that the fetus' Rh+ blood cells can come in contact with the mothers, thus the mother makes an antibody (anti-Rh) - this causes the red blod cells of the unboirn child to clump E.) use of RhoGAM prevents the mother from developing the antibodies
small intestine enzyme: peptidases
A.) dipeptidases and tripeptidases - break apart things like two amino acids that are still bonded together as one structure, and break it into two individual amino acids - absorb it right as it is broken down into two amino acids due to transport proteins being next to that process on the cell membranes *AGAIN, not secreted but is digested directly being broken down into two individual amino acids and absorbed by transport proteins. it is one continuous process
Blood transfusions considerations
A.) do not give someone antigens they do not already have because they have the antibodies to react with those antigens B.) universal recipient = AB+ C.) universal donor = O- - blood can be given to anyone because they do not have any antigens
alimentary canal small intestine: microvilli
A.) each individual cell has microvilli on top of that - like putting mini projections on the villi (folds on top of folds, for EVEN MORE surface area)
ways to initiate coagulation
A.) extrinsic mechanism - damaged tissues release thromboplastin B.) intrinsic mechansim - hageman factor activated *both mechanisms ultimately activate the prothrombin activator
alimentary canal small intestine: intestinal villi
A.) folded structures on top of plicae circulares - form finger like projections (for even more surface area) -only in small intestine
alimentary canal stomach: Muscularis externa
A.) has a thirds layer of muscle - oblique layer
carbaminohemoglobin (HbCO2)
A.) hemoglobin with carbon dioxide bound to it - 23% - binds to different location on HB as O2
general alimentary canal: Mucosa (mucous membrane)
A.) inner most layer B.) some kind of epithelium tissue - type differs between body region C.) contains muscus secreting cells D.) has projections sticking out E.) shape of mucosa is dependent on where it is at - ex: more folds have more surface area so that it can absorb things better
mean arterial pressure
A.) isnt DBP + SBP/2 lke a "normal" math mean - has to be changed because your heart spends more time in diastole than systole.
small intestine enzyme: intestinal lipase
A.) lipids at this point are emulsified into fat droplets composed of long fatty acid chains B.) lipase breaks off long chains of fatty acids - ends up with long chains that are still fat soluble - and glycerol backbone that is water soluble (since it is water soluble it will need a transport mechanisms to get into the cells) - thus, when lipids are digested you get two different substances C.) all of this happens as soon as it is digested, because the enzymes are on the membranes of the cells that are on the surface of the villi - are not secreted, they are on the cell structures and get broken up, and then absorbed by transport proteins
alimentary canal stomach: Lower esophageal (cardiac) and pyloric sphincters
A.) looks like really thick mucosa under a microscope - very thick mucosa, but very thin submucosa B.) simple columnar epithelial cells covers the surface C.) if cardiac relaxes inappropriately and stomach content to go back through it, then you get heartburn - due to stomach acids going into places that they were not designed
alimentary canal specific region differences: Esophagus
A.) lumen - center of tubular structure, white part - food travels down this after you swallow -isn't circular until you swallow because its relaxed (where as the trachea is always perfectly round) B.) mucosa - is skin (stratified squamous epithelial, its just moist)
fibrinolytic pathway
A.) lytic means break down, aka, how we remove the clot - as soon as it is formed, the clot slowly dissolves away because of this - damaged tissues secrete this
feces composition
A.) material not digested or absorbed - water - mucus - bacteria - electrolytes - shed cells from the lining of your digestion tract B.) color from bile pigments C.) odor from bacterial products
general alimentary canal: Serosa
A.) membrane that covers an organ in the peritoneal cavity - is what holds everything in place - when the organ is taking out of the body to prepare it for the microscope slide you will lose this, as it gets torn
altitudes affects on partial pressure and movement of respiratory gases
A.) not linear but exponential B.) higher you go the more pronounced the effect - going from sea level to 3000 ft not as great an impact as going from 3000 ft to 6000 ft - ditto from 6000 ft to 9000 ft
Absorption in the small intestine: fatty acids and glycerol
A.) only way fats go into blood stream is to disguise them by combining them with a protein that makes them more water soluble than they normally would be B.) they then go through the endoplasmic reticulum - the cell organelle that packages the fatty acids in something called the chylomicrons (fat on the inside, protein on the outside; makees it water soluble) C.) ends up in lymph, not blood stream
alimentary canal small intestine: Lacteals
A.) part of the lymphatic system B.) absorb dietary fats that are not water soluble - important because proteins and carbs go into bloodstream because they are water soluble, but fats don't do that because they aren't water soluble so they end up in the lymph
hyperoxia
A.) prolonged exposure to high O2 lethal - 98%-99% O2 usually carried on RBC - increasing O2 means more in plasma - can cause blindness in infants B.) athletes may psychologically need O2 on sidelines, but not physiologically
antithrombin
A.) removes the thrombin that has been formed and limits the production of the new ones being made. - if we don't get thrombin there is not clot, so if you eliminate it, you can stop (and then control) the clot so that it is done correctly
general alimentary canal: muscularis externa (circular and longitudinal layers)
A.) responsible for segmentation and peristalsis B.) smooth muscle, inner circular layer, outer longitudinal layer - inner circular constricts the diameter of the vessel - outer longitudinal changes the length of the vessels - these two necessary for peristalsis as nothing is pushing the substances forward, the muscles most do that them selves
alimentary canal Innervation: sympathetic nervous system
A.) shuts down digestive activity B.) active when you are active - less blood flow goes to digestive organs when you are active
absorption
A.) something goes across cell membranes and enters the cells - you have to have the smallest component of that chemical possible, and that requires chemical bonds
how are small intestine enzymes different than the ones of the stomach and pancreas?
A.) they are not secreted - they are part of the cell membrane - they brake the food stuff into the smallest pieces and are absorbed by transport proteins that are directly next to them
the three capillary types and capillary bed components
A.) three types 1. continuous (most common) 2. fenestrated (Ex: small intestine, glomeruli of kidney) 3. sinusoid (bone marrow, liver, spleen) B.) capillary bed - precapillary sphincters - vascular shunts - true capillaries
Liver: function of bile salts in emulsification
A.) used in mechanical digestion B.) breaks large globules of fat into progressively smaller pieces, does not break down any bonds but makes more surface area - enzymes can be more efficient with greater surface area created by more small globules
alimentary canal stomach: Gastric folds (rugae)
A.) visible with naked eye B.) large, big folds - the muscle is straight, not part of the fold - the mucosa and submucosa make up all of the folds
agglutination
A.) when antigens and antibodies in blood react, the blood agglutinates - cells clump together B.) this is totally different from clotting - clotting = coagulation
general alimentary canal: Submucosa
A.) where secreting glands are found - if the regions job is to secrete, they will have a more developed submucosa - second layer
function of medulla oblongata
All nerve fibers connected to the brain and spine must pass through it. It's covered by white matter. Nuclei in it control vital visceral activities like the cardiac center, vasomotor, and respiratory centers.
Sex hormones (androgens)
Adrenal Cortex - Stimulate sexual drive in the female but have negligible effects in the male - adrenal andorgens, estrogens - supplemental to hormones from gonads
is the somatic nervous system voluntary or involuntary?
voluntary/conscious
Muscle energetics: Creatine phosphate
ATP + C -> ADP + CP (reaction is reversible) - very short-term (maybe 15 seconds) - you can't increase the amount of creatine you can store
Explain how Boyle's Law and the presence of valves allow the heart to operate as a pump.
According to Boyle's law, pressure and volume have an inverse relationship - which means that when the volume of a chamber decreases, the pressure inside of that chamber (e.g., the heart or a blood vessel) increases. In order to produce flow, the pressure created must be greater than resistance, a force which opposes blood flow. Fluids move from areas of higher pressure to areas of lower pressure. In other words, a pressure gradient must exist.
Monocytes
An agranular leukocyte that is able to migrate into tissues and transform into a macrophage. -agranulocyte -largest leokocytes -carries out phagocytosis -4-8% of leukocytes
recessive
An allele that is masked when a dominant allele is present
dominant trait
An allele whose trait always shows up in the organism when the allele is present.
genotype
An organism's genetic makeup, or allele combinations.
heart valves summary
Atrioventricular valves allow flow into the ventricle Semilunar valves allow flow out of the ventricle
intercalated discs
Attachment sites between the transverse lines between cardiac muscle cells - these attachments give force the many cardiac cells to function as a single coordinated unit - has cell to cell junctions called desmosomes, connect myocytes together like stitches in a quilt - has gapjunctions that electrically couple neighboring cells by allowing them to share ions.
short bones
Axis' are around the same size *carpals of hand and tarsals in feet
The enterogastric reflex reacts to
B.) Distension of the duodenal wall and reduced duodenal pH activate the CNS-mediated enterogastric reflex and reduce stomach secretions. A.) Upon initiation of the reflex, the release of gastrin by G-cells in the antrum of the stomach is shut off. This in turn inhibits gastric motility and the secretion of gastric acid (HCI) *** Order of the words is a message, if words are turned around its a totally different reflex - entero = small intestine (this is the start, or where the receptor is) - gastric = stomach (this is the effector)
precapillary sphincters
Bands of smooth muscle that encircle each true capillary (tighten and loosens the capillary to constrict blood flow)
action potential: After-Hyperpolarization phase
Because the voltage-gated Na+ channels are now open, the K+ channels close. This brings membrane potential back to its resting value.
generally, how could the inner ear be described?
Bony (osseous) and membranous labyrinths - "Maze like" - Fluid filled - Osseous portion is on the surfaces - Inside is soft, gooey, membranous - A layer of fluid suspends the membranous inside the osseous cavity
what does the nervous system and endocrine system have in common?
Both -send messages throughout body -coordinate body systems
stratum basale characteristics
Bottom layer - has stem cells that reproduce. Those offspring move to the next layer and specialize into stratrum spinosum
how does excitation-contraction for smooth muscle begin?
Ca2+ (from intracellular and extracellular sources) enters sarcoplasm
what happens after Ca2+ enters the sarcoplasm in smooth muscle contraction?
Ca2+ binds to calmodulin - no troponin or tropomyosin needed to bind - MLCK is not activated until calcium binds to calmodulin
action potential of contractile muscle cells: Repolarization
Calcium channels close - which means that only potassium channels are now open
external acoustic meatus
Canal leading to eardrum and middle ear - contains Ceruminous glands
capillary tunica intima
Capillaries only have tunica intima - this allows for the fusion of substance in and out of the vessels
transportantion of carbon monoxide in the blood
Carbon Monoxide also binds to hemogobin. It binds so tightly that it is hard to get off of the hemoglobin. The CO takes up binding sites for O2.
White matter of the cerebrum: Projection fibers
Connect the cerebrum with other parts of the CNS and spinal cord (also brain stem) - allows the cerebrum to talk to the cerebellum
White matter of the cerebrum: Associational fibers
Connects areas of the cerebral cortex with the same hemisphere - involved in association areas of the frontal lobe - confined to either the right OR left side
White matter of the cerebrum: Commissural fibers
Connects one cerebral hemisphere to the other - allows the left and right hemisphere to talk - connects the two hemispheres through the corpus callosum
what does positive feedback do?
Continues a trend -occurs infrequently, but not abnormal -have very specific, short term functions
What is the hypothalamus?
Control center - regulates body temp, hydration, hunger, and stress. - dictates everything the pituitary gland does.
cardioinhibitor reflex
Controlled by parasympathetic nervous system - parasympathetic nerve originates in the cardioinhibitory center and reaches the sino-atrial node and atrio-ventricular node via vagus nerve - causes a decrease in heart rate
cardioaccelerator reflex
Controlled by the sympathetic nervous system - sympathetic fibers go down the spinal cord and leave via the sympathetic accelerator nerves to the sino-atrial node, atrioventricular node, and cardiac muscle - when stimulated there is an increase of heart and force of contractions
general adaption syndrome stages: Resistance
Coping and defense mechanisms begin to develop -Body's resources depleted -Psychophysiological symptoms -Elevated neurotransmitters and hormones
Describe the events of the long-term stages of general adaptiation (stress) response
Coping and defense mechanisms begin to develop -Body's resources depleted -Psychophysiological symptoms -Elevated neurotransmitters and hormones *long-term adjustment or resistance stage
cortisol regulation
Cortisol decreases CRH release from hypothalamus, which decreases ACTH release, which decreases stimulation of zona fasiculata
round window
Covered by a membrane much like the tympanic membrane, the round window allows fluid in the cochlea to move or vibrate, while at the same time keeping the fluid inside of the cochlear ducts.
zone of calcified cartilage
Dead cells, calcified matrix -osteoclasts remove the dead cells in this layer and osteoblast replace them with bone tissue.
Calcitonin function
Decreases blood calcium levels by inhibiting osteoclasts
Blood Flow Diagram
Deoxygenated blood comes from the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava, the vena cava lead into the right atrium From the atrium, the blood flows through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle From the right ventricle, it goes through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary trunk the pulmonary trunk splits into the left pulmonary artery and the right pulmonary artery Both pulmonary arteries lead to the lungs From the lungs, it pick up o2 and returns to the heart in the left and right pulmonary veins The veins carry the blood into the left atrium From the left atrium it goes through the bicuspid (mitral) valve into the left ventricle from the left ventricle, blood is then sent out through the aortic valve into the aorta From the aorta, blood is then delivered to the entire body Repeat continuously
allele
Different forms of a gene
differences between pacemaker cells and contractile myocytes
Different quantities - 99% contractile myocytes - 1% pacemaker cells (but they set the pace of the heart)
vascular shunts
Directly connects the terminal arteriole to the postcapillary venule (bypasses the true capillaries)
Explain the difference between dominant, recessive, and co-dominant inheritance with respect to ABO and Rh blood types.
Dominant traits (A, B, Rh+) are always expressed if the gene is present. Recessive traits (O, Rh-) are expressed only in the absence of any dominant traits. Since A and B are both dominant, both will be expressed if present (AB blood). This is called do-dominance.
how is trabeculae similar to compact bone?
Each "beam" contains.. -concentric lamellae -lacunae housing osteocytes and secretions -canaliculi that allow contact and communication between osteocytes
active transport
Energy-requiring process that moves material across a cell membrane against a concentration difference
Natural Analgesics
Enkephalins and serotonin - inhibit preqynaptic Neurons in dorsal thorn Endorphins - thalamus
zone of hypertonic cartilage
Enlarging, calcified cells -cells increase in size, thus increasing the size of the bone as a whole *3rd layer
what are the two melanin types?
Eumelanim -true melanins (brown to black gradient) Pheomelanin -gives off redish tints and lighter tans
internal respiration
Exchange of gases between cells of the body and the blood
Calcitonin source
Extrafollicular cells (C cells) of thyroid
stratum corneum characteristics
Fifth layer -dead cells -sacks full of keratin provide water proofing properties -easily flake off
atmospheric pressure
Force exerted by the weight of the air around us
plasma
Fluid portion of blood; 55% of your blood. - contains
serous fluid function
Fluid that lubricates the 2 layers and allows organs to move freely within the cavity
development vs growth
Grow -produces more of what you already had Develop -starting with something that is not bone tissue
central integration and modulation
Happens in your brain or spinal cord - painful stimulus (pain receptors dont adapt) - alters synapse by altering the amount of neuro transmitters released in order to alter the message sent to the thalamus
funiculi (or columns) of white matter
Has a mylinated sheath - anything that needs to communicate with the brain needs mylin
lipid-mediated transport
Has to be lipid soluble, restricted to small molecules - carbon dioxide and oxygen can go through - steroid hormones (made of cholesterol) can go through - all other things lipid souble Ex: alcohol can go through
Types of Hyperthermia
Heat exhaustion -can be self treated Heat stroke -medical assistance required, categorized by the inability to sweat.
membrane fluidity
Higher temps -make membranes more fluid/less effective Lower temps -make membranes more effective; less can get through
why is it possible to have two touch points only feel like one?
If the two touch points are in the same receptive field of a touch receptor, you will only feel one.
what are ligand-gated channel proteins sensitive to?
Hormones -if hormones are not present, gate will remain closed
how do baroreceptors handle decreased blood pressure?
If blood pressure were to decrease, the diminished stretch placed on baroreceptors would lead to fewer impulses being sent to the cardiovascular center. The resulting excitation of the vasomotor and cardioacceleratory centers, and inhibition of the cardioinhibitory center, will then increase blood pressure by: 1. Increased cardiac output due to greater heart rate, increased contractility, and increased venous return (and preload) associated with venoconstriction. 2. Increased resistance to flow caused by arterial vasoconstriction.
Functions of the midbrain
Includes masses of gray matter that serve as reflex centers. Responsible for visual reflexes like moving eyes when head turns. Contains the auditory reflex centers like moving head to hear sound better.
glucagon function (source: pancreas)
Increases the blood sugar level by stimualting the liver
general adaption syndrome stages: Alarm
Initial response to stressor -Heightened awareness -Mobilize resources -Fight-or-flight reaction
Describe the events of the short-term stages of general adaptiation (stress) response
Initial response to stressor -Heightened awareness -Mobilize resources -Fight-or-flight reaction *immediate; short-term "flight or flight" or alarm stage
Epinephrine function (source: adrenal medulla)
Involved in energy, and glucose (sugar) metabolism promotes fight or flight *more plentiful
what does somato mean?
It has to do with everything in your body - Ex: touch and pressure can be felt everywhere in your body, where as smell only happens in one place.
Keratinized vs non-keratinized
Keratinized cells/tissues are water proofed by keratin. However some areas like your mouth or throat need to be moist. Thus, they are non-keratinized
how is trabeculae different from compact bone?
Lacks osteons and both central and perforating canals
Anatomy of the heart
Large, muscular organ consisting of mostly cardiac tissue called the myocardium Surrounded by a sac called the pericardium Consists of 2 sides, right and left, separated by a septum Consists of 4 chambers: 2 atria and 2 ventricles 2 sets of valves: semilunar valves and atrioventricular valves (AV valves) Valves produce the "lub" and "dub" sounds of the heartbeat
what are stratified squamous epithelial tissues?
Layers of squamous cells that get their nutrition by the use of diffusion -thick, functions as protection
long bones
Length is significantly longer than its width *humorous, femur and bones in toes
Anatomy of the Pancreas
Lies behind the peritoneum between the greater curvature of the stomach and the duodenum; an elongated structure approximately 15 cm long, weighing approximately 85-100 g; Head lies near the duodenum, body and tail extend toward the spleen; both an exocrine and endocrine gland
equation for when you can not plug in answers to get an answer for mean arterial pressure for, "what if, or prediction" questions
MAP= CO x TRP = HR x SV x TPR mean arterial pressure = cardiac output x total peripheral resistance = heart rate x stroke volume x total peripheral resistance *shortest version is just MAP = CO x TRP
what lobes compose the liver?
Major lobes - left lobe - right lobe Minor lobes - caudate - quadrate
amplitude of sound waves
Measured in decibels (dB), is related to the loudness of a sound.
major difference between mechanical and chemical digestion
Mechanical - doesn't breakdown chemical bonds Chemical - breaks down chemical enzymes to get to the smallest unit possible for absorption
leukocytes providing protection by **phagocytosis**
Monocytes exit circulaiton and transform themselves into macrophages Macrophages engulf bacteria Inflammatory macrophages move towards damaged cells and help to contain the damage by engulfing cellular debris Non-inflammatory macrophages help to prevent pathogens from entering the bloodstream
how does PCO2 affect breathing?
Most impotant facotr in stimulation stimulates breathing
How is oxygen transported in the blood?
Most, but not all, is attached to hemoglobin.
facilitated diffusion
Movement of specific molecules across cell membranes through protein channels
composition of air
Nitrogen 78%, Oxygen 21%, .04% Carbon Dioxide
function of pons
Nuclei in pons relay sensory impulses from peripheral nerves to higher brain centers. Regulate the rate and depth of breathing.
excitation sequence for pacemaker myocytes
Order of exitation SA node => Atrial muscles => AV node => bundle of His => bundle branches => distal purkinje fibers => ventricular muscle
ossification vs calcification
Ossification -process of accumulating bone tissue Calcification -process of accumalating a lot of calcium
what is compact bone composed of?
Osteons
plasminogen -> plasmin
Plasminogen is the precursor protein that is cleaved to form plasmin. Plasmin is the enzyme that degrades fibrin as a part of removing clots
medulla oblongata
Portion of the brain between the pons and the spinal cord.
functions of the integumentary system
Protection and immunity *infectious agents cant get in Exteroception (sensation) *senses hot/cold, presures. Regulation of body temp Vitamin D production *needed for calcium absorption Exretion *some eexceretion of waste products in sweat
cellular respiration
Process that releases energy by breaking down glucose and other food molecules in the presence of oxygen
Exclusive roles for peripheral proteins
Receptors
melatonin regulation
Regulated by Sunlight; Light inhibits production, dark stimulates production
Calcitonin regulation
Regulated by blood calcium ion concentrations, short-lived but rapid
glucagon regulation
Regulated by blood glucose concentration
sliding filament model: Step One
Regulatory proteins are blocking binding sites ADP + ATP are on the myosin heads - ADP +P is ATP that has been "Split" and the energy from that has been used to energize the myosin - ATP orinigally bound to myosin but turns into ADP + P when it finishes
Hypertonic meaning
Relatively higher osmotic pressure -water leaves cell due to high concentration of solutes outside of cell
Hypotonic meaning
Relatively lower osmotic pressure -water enters cell due to fewer solutes outside of cell -cell could lyse (burst)
parasympathetic neurotransmitters
Release acetylcholine - secreted by cholinergic fibers
how does the smooth muscle contraction relax?
Requires two steps: 1. Removal of Ca2+ causes 2. the inactivation (phosphorylation) of MLCK
rapidly (phasic) adapting
Responds initially, but then does not respond after getting used to the stimuli - stimulant is unchanging and constant - impulses are sent very quickly, so that you get used to the stimuli quickly *ex: jumping in the pool and quickly getting used to the water
nociceptors (pain receptors)
Responds to all of the receptors if they get "out of the comfort zone" *ex: bath water is warm until it gets too hot, then thermoreceptors turn off and switch to nociceptors
chemoreceptors
Responds to chemicals - smell/taste, PH, sodium levels, oxidation levels
photoreceptors
Responds to light - for the most part they are located in your eye
mechanoreceptors
Responds to physical force * the ear is a this because it is responding to the force of the sound wave, balance is also affected by this. * other examples include stomach stretches and blood pressure receptors
action potential of contractile muscle cells: Stages
Resting membrane potential: Depolarization: - sodium influx Plateau phase: - slow calcium influx Repolarization: - Potassium efflux Refactory period
What does negative feedback do?
Reverses a trend -very common -considered routine maintenance of homeostasis
stratum spinosum (keratinocytes) characteristics
Second layer -has keratin proteins that water proof skin -spiny or prickly appearance
What does the pituitary gland do?
Secretes hormones to regulate things like growth or reproduction.
How is chyme produced?
Segmentation contractions in the stomach mix the food bolus with stomach secretions to convert the bolus into chyme - the product of stomach mixing
sensory neurons in the peripheral nervous system..
Sensory neurons transduce sensory information in to forms understandable by the central nervous system
proprioceptors
Sensory receptors, located in the muscles and joints, that provide information about body position and movement.
midbrain
Short section of the brain stem between the diancephalon and the pons.
how does the amount of stretching a muscle can undergo, without loss of tension, compare with both smooth and skeletal muscle?
Smooth muscles can be stretched more without loss of tension - this is due to them having a lot more myosin with cross-bridged - cant really pull them apart, or stretch them, because they can just utilize another myosin.
action potential of contractile muscle cells: Depolarization
Sodium channels open causing depolorization
thermoreceptors
Stimulated by Temperature - spicy things stimulate the same thermoreceptors regardless of actual temp heat
gastroenteric reflex
Stimulates intestinal motility and secretion along the entire small intestine
slowly (tonic) adapting
Stimulus is still unchanging and constant - impulses are farther apart, thus your awareness is gradually lessened as time goes on *ex: being in a loud bar where you become less and less aware with how loud the area is
Norepinephrine regulation
Sympathetic Nervous System -Via hypothalamic stimulation from: -Stress -Physical activity -Hypoglycemia -Hypotension
epinepherine regulation
Sympathetic Nervous System -Via hypothalamic stimulation from: -Stress -Physical activity -Hypoglycemia -Hypotension
auditory ossicles characteristics
Synovial joints between three itty bitty bones - diarthrotic/freely moving - gets stiff with aging, age related deafness - involved with the amplification of sound
what gives a bruise its color?
The broke down heme protiens (biliverdin and bilirubin). - a bruise is simply some bleeding underneath the skin - the waste products are secreted into the digestive tract (this is partially how feces gets its color)
ciliary body and lens
The ciliary body is a circular band of muscle that is connected and sits immediately behind the iris. It does two things: 1. Controls lens shape by pulling or relaxing on the lens zonules 2. Produces aqueous humor which fills the posterior and anterior chambers and provides nutrition for avascular tissues in the eye such as the cornea.
hepatic duct
The duct that leads from the liver to the common bile duct; transports bile from liver into the intestines
tympanic membrane
The eardrum. A structure that separates the outer ear from the middle ear and vibrates in response to sound waves. *focuses the vibrations
free nerve endings
The epidermis is held together by desmosomes, which allows for small gaps between cells where (free nerve endings) nerves can intertwine through and be closer to the skin's surface - responsible for itch
chambers separated by 2 septa
The left and right atria are separated by the interatrial septum and the left and right ventricle are separated by the interventricular septum.
stroke volume
The volume of blood pumped from a ventricle of the heart in one beat
diastolic blood pressure (DBP)
The pressure in the arteries during the relaxation phase (diastole) of the cardiac cycle - during ventricular diastole, BP doesnt fall to 0mmHG. the aortic semilunar valve closes to prevent backflow of blood, and arteries recoild after having been stretched during systole. - the average pressure is 80mmHg
what are connective tissues?
The primary role of connective tissue is to provide a structural support network for the different tissue layers within a given organ.
Erythropoiesis
The production of red blood cells (erythrocytes) - red blood cells do not need a nucleus, so it is expelled from the cell during formation
carbon dioxides role in regulating blood pH
The respiratory system can reduce blood pH by removing CO2 from the blood. The chemical reactions that regulate the levels of CO2 and carbonic acid occur in the lungs when blood travels through the lung's pulmonary capillaries.
pons
The rounded buldge on the underside of the brain stem, where it seperates the midbrain from the medulla oblongata.
diaphysis
The shaft of a long bone is called
oval window
The stapes makes direct contact with the oval window and pushes it to transmit the force of auditory vibrations to the cochlea in the inner ear. It is within the cochlea that the vibrations are turned into electrical signals, which are transmitted to the brain by the cochlear nerve.
Lymphocytes
The two types of white blood cells that are part of the body's immune system: B lymphocytes form in the bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections; T lymphocytes form in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances. -agranulocyte -smallest leukocyte -25-40% of leukocytes
what is the fate of the neurotransmitters?
They can be enzymatically destroyed or Re-uptake into axon terminal by transport proteins -some are taken back up to the presynaptic cell called "endocytosis"
how do carrier proteins transfer solutes?
They change their shape in order to transport a molecule -saturation is possible (can become full)
flat bones
Thin, broad, and commonly curved
stratum granulosum characteristics
Third layer -these cells are starting to die and thus shrivel -these cells start to die due to being too far away to receive nutrients through diffusion.
what is the purpose of serous fluid?
To provide lubrication between the two membranes
anatomical position
To stand erect with arms at the sides and palms of the hands turned forward
Addison's disease
a condition that occurs when the adrenal glands do not produce enough cortisol or aldosterone Causes weight loss, fatigue, muscle weakness, low blood pressure
Exclusive roles for transmembrane proteins
Transportation -able to transport ions or things too large for the cell membrane Cell-cell recognition -lets the body know what organisms are friend or foe
intrinsic clotting mechanism
Triggered by blood contact with foreign substances in the absence of tissue damage Initiation = Hageman factor (factor XII)
anatomy of adrenal gland
Two glands, one on the top of each kidney embedded in capsul of fat. Each gland has cortex(steroid secreting) and medulla(catecholamine-epinephrine and norepinephrine -secreting)
extrinsic clotting mechanism
Type of clotting mechanism that starts when damage occurs to tissue OUTSIDE of the blood vessel. Initiation = tissue thromboplastin (factor III)
horns of grey matter
Unmylinated - for things that are so simply that we don't need to ask our brain for help, the grey matter can process that
how does referred pain happen?
Using the example of chest pain, visceral sensory fibers converge at the same level of the spinal cord as the somatosensory fibers of the referred pain location. Thus, the visceral sensory fibers from the chest would reach the spinal cord at the same level as the spinal nerves from the shoulder and arm, so the brain now perceives the sensations from the chest area as being from the axillary and brachial regions.
atrioventricular valves
Valves located between the atrial and ventricular chambers on each side of the heart, prevent backflow into the atria when the ventricles are contracting.
Cardiac Cycle: Systole
Ventricles contract Blood pushes against AV valves and they shut Blood pushes through semilunar valves into aorta and pulmonary trunk
Cardiac Cycle: Diastole
Ventricles relaxed Blood entering atria Blood flows through AV valves into ventricles Semilunar valves are closed
types of interoceptors
Visceral - Internal organs Somatic - Anything associated with muscles and skin
vitamins important for bone health
Vitamin A, C, and D
systolic blood pressure
When the heart contracts - during ventricular systole, blood is being ejected into the arteries and pressure is at its highest -the average pressure during this time is 120 mmHg
Regulation and awareness of pain: Somatosensory cortex
Where the sensation of pain is perceived after the information is sent to it from the thalamus
fovea centralis within macula lutea
Within the retina, a special region called the fovea has a high density of cones, specialized cells responsible for responding to light.
who is an amazing person? 11-12-18
YOU ARE! 11-12-18
what is a reflex arc?
a basic functional unit of the nervous system and the smallest, simplest circuit capable of receiving a stimulus and producing a response
bile
a bitter greenish-brown alkaline fluid that aids digestion and is secreted by the liver and stored in the gallbladder.
What is the corpus callosum?
a broad band of commissural nerve fibers joining the two hemispheres of the brain. - myelinated fibers, provide communication from the left cerebral hemisphere to the right cerebral hemisphere.
What are fascicles?
a bundle of nerve cells
platelet plug
a collection of platelets at the site of a damaged blood vessel that helps slow or stop blood loss -usually sufficient to temporarily stop blood loss
Astigmatism
a condition in which the eye does not focus properly because of uneven curvatures of the cornea
Atrioventricular (A-V) bundle (bundle of His) and bundle branches
a continuation of the AV node and located at the interventricular septum it branches into the right bundle branch, which extends down the right side of the interventricular septum, and the left bundle branch, which extends into the left ventricle the right and left bundle branches terminate into purkinje fibers
epimysium
a fibrous connective tissue sheath that surrounds the entire muscle
infundibulum and pituitary gland
a funnel-shaped stalk, extends from the floor of the hypothalamus and provides a connection to the pituitary gland for neural messages.
Intrinsic regulation: Frank-Starling Law of the Heart
a greater end-diastolic volume would increase the contractile strength of the ventricles and will increase stroke volume
Classification by anatomy: Synovial joints
a layer of fluid between bones and bones are covered in cartilage
synovial joints
a layer of fluid between bones and bones are covered in cartilage, all are diarthrotic
elastin
a long, branched fiber that can stretch and recoil. *it is a critical component in connective tissue that allows it to stretch and then return to its original shape.
compliance (in ventilation)
a measure of the ability of the chest wall and lungs to stretch, distend, and expand if the lungs become stiff they will lose compliance and the inhale/exhale processes will be compromised
periosteum
a membrane that covers the outer surface of all bones
vasomotor tone
a moderate state of vasoconstriction in a blood vessel that sets the resting level of systemic vascular resistance
action potential of contractile muscle cells: Refractory period
a period immediately following a stimulus during which further stimulation has no effect.
relative refractory period
a period where a larger than normal stimulus is required to initiate an action potential.
dorsal root ganglion
a peripheral swelling that contains the bodies of pseudo-unipolar sensory neurons
choroid coat
a pigmented, highly vascular membrane of the eye that is continuous with the iris and lies between the sclera and the retina, functioning to nourish the retina and absorb scattered light.
phosphorylate
a process by which a phosphate group is attached to a bio molecule, often times changing the shape and function of the target substrate
prothrombin
a protein present in blood plasma that is converted into active thrombin during coagulation. essential to the clotting process
What is a response?
a reaction to a stimulus
external elastic lamina (arteries only)
a sepparate layer of elastic connective tisssue that layes just outside the tunica media
Classification of epithelial tissue layers: Simple
a single layer of cells found in locations where a thing tissue layer is desired for the functions of absorption, secretion, and filtration.
Classification of epithelial tissue layers: Pseudostratified
a single layer of columnar epithelial cells that appear as two or more layers of cells due to the positioning of nuclei at varying heights creating the appearance of strata
parallel after-discharge circuit
a single neuron can send inhibitory or stimulatory signals to different chains of neurons that all send input into a single cell. this allows the final neuron in the circuit to recieve complex inputs from different circuits of other neurons - used to complete complex mental processing such as mathematical reasoning
CO2 transportation by being dissolved in plasma
a small number of it is transported by dissolving in plasma (7%), so there needs to be other forms to transport it as well.
macula
a small patch of hair cells involved with sense of static equilibrium. The utricle and saccule each contain one of these receptor structures.
what are triad membranes?
a t-tubule and two terminal cisternae
internal elastic lamina (arteries only)
a thin layer of elastic connective tissue between the basement membrane and the tunica media
olfactory epithelium
a thin layer of tissue, within the nasal cavity, that contains the receptors for smell
what are channel proteins?
a transmembrane protein that serves as a pore to permit a flow of solutes to cross the membrane.
hyperthyroidism/ grave's disease
abnormally high secretion of thyroid hormones can lead to serious complications related to the heart (cardiac arrest, congestive heart failure, hypertension)
peritoneal membranes are found within the..
abdominopelvic cavity
accommodation reflex
ability of eye to adjust to variations in distance
hypothermia
abnormally low body temperature -body stops being able to shiver when it cools down past 94 degrees. -diffusion rates slow, thus causing cardiac arrhythmia. *pt feels as they are too hot and takes clothes off, furthering the issue.
what do cholinergic fibers secrete?
acetylcholine
how does the axon diameter affect the speed of action potential propagation?
action potentials travel faster through wider axons than narrow axons *the smaller the diameter, the more resistance is on the ion flow
what is the diecephalon do?
acts as a transfer station for sensory information moving into the brain
capillary exchange: interstitial fluid hydrostatic pressure
acts to oppose filtration, but as lymphatic vessels are constantly collecting fluid from the interstitial space, its impact is negligible - we will assume it to be 0 mm Hg.
action potential: Depolarization phase
after reaching the membrane potential threshold of -55mV, voltage-gated Na+ channels are opened with the activation gate allowing positively charged Na+ to come in. This further depolarizes the membrane potential, causing it to go past the threshold until it peaks.
fibrin
an insoluble protein formed from fibrinogen during the clotting of blood. It forms a fibrous mesh that impedes the flow of blood.
anemia
any condition where the number of red blood cells or iron is low
Parietal Lobe: Gustatory Cortex
anything associated with taste
excitatory post-synaptic potential
anything that goes in the direction of the the threshold, it doesn't have to reach it, just get closer to it.
inhibitory post-synaptic potential
anything that goes in the opposite direction of the threshold, the cell does not respond to the action
analgesics
anything that relieves pain
semilunar valves examples
aortic valve pulmonary valve these valves do not require chordae tendinae
oligodendrocyte progenitor cells
are capable of differentiating into oligodendrocytes, neurons, and astrocytes - different physical things in the environment affect the gene expression that determine whether or not it becomes a oligodendrocyte, or something else. - OPCs are recruited to gro and differentiate by damaged areas of the CNS
convergent circuits
are formed when multiple synaptic junctions are formed between many neurons and a single neuron, like when the axons of two neurons synapse onto the same third neuron. Ex low light vision - vision isnt very clear because your brain cant figure out where the signal came from and it is hard to distinguish where it started out
simple circuits
are formed when one cell communicates solely with another cell, which is uncommon in the CNS Ex: color vision - every neuron in the eye has one nerve pathway to the brain, there's o chance to muddle the image, color vision is very crisp
complex circuits
are formed when there are multiple connections between neurons, common in the CNS
microglia
are the microphages of the CNS - they engulf debris and remove it
recovery: eccentric concraction
are the muscle contraction as the muscle lengthens and cause soreness by: A. forcibly removing the myosin heads from actin which cause the little tears that make you sore. B. our sarcomeres are getting longer which goes against the sliding filament model
recovery: concentric contraction
are the muscle contraction as the muscle shortens, and to not cause delayed-onset muscle soreness
P wave
atrial depolarization
electrostatic forces definition
attraction or repulsion based upon charge. opposite charges attract, like charges repel
presynaptic
axon that sends the message
what carries out synaptic potentials?
axon's send the message, and dendrites receives it.
Posterior (dorsal)
back of body
what is heart rate (HR)
beats per min
how do yo identify the small intestine from the large intestine?
because all of the small intestine regions have villi
Absorption in the small intestine: glycerol
because it is water soluble, it needs to go by active transport.
why is the axon hillock called the "trigger zone?"
because of the high density of voltage-gated Na+ chanels
why does the previous segment inactivate after the charge is carried onto the next segment?
because once it hits the peak (+30mV) the Na+ voltage-gated channels inactivate, thus the action potential can not go backwards. *absolute refraction period
action potential: Repolarization phase
because the Na+ channels are inactivated at +30mV, the voltage-gated K+ channels pump out K+ (which carriers out a positive charge) causing the membrane potential to repolarize. -even though this causes it to go below the +30mV threshold, the K+ channels remain open with the Na+ channels still closed.
how do ions diffuse down the axon in action potential propagation?
because the membrane potential is at +30mV, it charges the next segment allowing it to reach -55mV (which means it hits threshold) allowing it peak once again and thus continue the cycle.
why are scala vesibuli and scala tympani called osseous chambers?
because they are bordered by bone
where is serous fluid located?
between the viseral plueral and partietal plueral if in the thoracic cavity, or between the visceral peritoneum and pariatal pertoneum if in the abdominopelvic cavity
what do eccrine or merocrin glands do?
body temp regulation, excression, and protection -only secretes product, no loss of cytoplasm -secrets product directly onto surface of skin
rami
branches of spinal nerves - nerve plexuses arise from rami
osteoclast
breaks down/removes bone
fascicle
bundle of skeletal muscle that runs the entire length of muscle surrounded by endomysium
how is CFS produced?
by a specialized tissue within each ventricle known as the choroid plexus. the choroid plexuses are formed by invaginations of the pia mater into ventricles
how does mylin act as an electrical insulator?
by increasing electrical resistance by a factor of 5,000, and no current can flow out from a mylinated axon segment.
how do sarcomers contract?
by sliding (or condensing) the Z-lines and H-zones until there is an overlap
how is potential energy created?
by the difference of the charge between the inside and outside of the cell -the membrane separates the charge
Bone hemeostasis: regulation of blood calcium
calcium is necessary for muscle and nerves to work, if calcium is not in the blood, it can be obtained from the bones.
Gastric Absorption
can absorb water, electrolytes, fat soluble vitamins (fats go through cell membranes, same goes for other fat soluble things) - very little is absorbed in the stomach, most of it is absorbed in the small intestine
why is vitamin D needed?
cannot absorb calcium without it.
why is vitamin C needed?
cannot make collagen without it
what are electrical synapses?
cell to cell communication through gap junctions
what are melanocytes?
cells that produce melanin -located in the stratum basale -has an undefined shape in order to branch out and transport melanosomes to surrounding cells
Where are oligodendrocytes found?
central nervous system
what does scala mean?
chambers
coronary circulation
circulation of blood through the coronary blood vessels to deliver oxygen and nutrients to the heart muscle tissue
inferior
closer to the bottom of the feet
Superior
closer to the top of the head
superficial
closer to the top of the skin
proximal
closer to whee the limb attaches
plasma protein *fibrinogens*
clotting factor responsible for preventing blood loss -4% of plasma proteins
what is the matrix of compact (cortical) bone composed of?
collagen (fibers) and inorganic salts (calcium)
abnormal heart sounds
commonly occur due to incomplete closures, murmurs
Classification by anatomy: Fibrous joints
connective tissue, bone against bone ex: face (very little movement if any)
fibrous joints
connective tissue, bone against bone (face), very little movement if any *either synarthrotic or amphiarthrotic
desmosomes
connects a cell to another cell, provides elasticity
auditory (eustachian) tube
connects the middle ear with the nasopharynx, equalizes air pressure
pituitary gland: Infundibulum
connects the pituitary gland to the hypothalamus
H-zone
contains only myosin
dorsal root
contains only sensory neurons that are entering the dorsal horn of the spinal cord - contains dorsal root ganglion
why is the connective tissue contiguous with the periosteum?
contraction of the muscle pulls on the tendon and in turn pulls on the periosteum to which it is attached. This moves the bone to a new position
Secretin hormonal control in the pancreas
controls secretions of the bicarbonate ion in the pancreas
CCK hormonal control in the pancreas
controls secretions of the enzymes in the pancreas
cardioacceleratory center
controls sympathetic neurons that increase the heart rate
cardioinhibitory center
controls the parasympathetic neurons that slow the heart rate
prothrombin activator
converts prothrombin to thrombin
blood platelets
coordinate the formation of blood clots which patch together damaged vessels until they can be reapired -fragments of a vary large cell that has shattered (megakaryocyte) -life span of 7-10 days -150,000-300,000 per microliter of blood
Frontal Lobe: Broca's Area
coordinates all of the muscular movements needed for speech
R wave
corresponds to depolarization of the anterior portion of the ventricle
S wave
corresponds to the depolarization of the inferior portion of the ventricle
Q wave
corresponds to the depolarization of the septal region of the ventricle
Meningeal layers
cover and protect the surface of the spinal cord and brain 1st layer: dura mater 2nd layer: arachnoid matter 3rd layer: pia mater
reproduction system function
creation of an individual
collagen
crosslinked fibrils bundled into thicker rope-like fibers that can resist the tension that would make them disassemble
oblique section
cuts not made in a 90 degree angle
what are osteons (haversian systems)?
cynlindrical structures of concentric lamellae in compact bone that surround a central or haversian canal
insulin function (source: pancreas)
decreases blood glucose levels by transporting glucose into body cells
what is a fissure?
deep grooves, where your meninges tuck in
tunica interna (or intima) with endothelium
deepest layer directly adjacent to the lumen
postsynaptic
dendrite receives the message.
ligaments
dense fibrous connective tissue
fatigue: low intensity
depletion of glycogen
what is a hair follicle?
dermal and epidermal sheath through which hair grows out of
what does a receptor do?
detects stimulus, relays info to control center
blood type test
determine blood type and compatibility
what does the control center do?
determines set point, analyzes information, determines appropriate response *does not have to be your brain all of the time
Inspiration mechanics
diaphragm contracts, rib cage rises, increases size of pleural cavity, intrapulmonary pressure drops lower than atm, air flows into lungs against pressure gradient
expiration mechanics
diaphragm relaxes, rib cage descends due to gravity, thoracic cavity decreases, intrapulmonary P rises, gases flow out of lungs down pressure gradient
concentration gradient
difference in the concentration of a substance from one location to another
Chymotrypsin (inactive form = chymotrypsinogen)
digest proteins and peptides into smaller peptides, but, as endopeptidases, they cannot digest proteins and peptides into single amino acids
alimentary canal
digestive tube that extends from the mouth to the anus includes: - tongue - esophagus - stomach - duodenum - small intestine (colon) - large intestine - anus
divergent circuit
distributes the information from one cell to multiple cells, like when one presynaptic cell synapses on two postsynaptic cells - this is how you recruit
baroreceptor reflexes
effective at responding to acute fluctuations in blood pressure, but they cannot manage the sustained elevation of pressure associated with hypertension. Such prolonged exposure results in receptor adaptation. That is, baroreceptors now have a higher setting, and will act to maintain blood pressure within that inflated range.
what are gyri?
elevated ridges of the brain
preload
end diastolic pressure which is stretching the walls of the ventricles to their greatest geometrical dimensions
ephiphyses
end of long bones
thrombin
enzyme that converts fibrinogen to fibrin during coagulation
layers of tissue in the heart
epicardium, myocardium, endocardium
4. trochlear nerve
eye movement (motor)
hyperopia
farsightedness
distal
farther away from where the limb attaches
deep
farther from the top of the skin
hepatic artery
feeds into the portal vein
where is the location of cerebrospinal fluid (CFS)?
fills and surrounds the brain and spinal cord
Classification of epithelial tissue shapes: Squamous
flat and scale-like
circulation of cerebrospinal fluid
flows all the way down to the tip of the spine (tailbone)
what are peilymph and endolymph fluids?
fluid found in the inner ear labyrinths
where is perilymph fluid found?
fluid in between the osseous and membranous cavities
properties of surfactant
fluid that keeps alveoli wet in order to have gas exchange has a much lower surface tension than water surfactant is developed in late term fetal development
alimentary canal small intestine: plicae circulares
folded structures you can see with your naked eye - done to produce more surface area for absorption
what is the resting membrane potential?
for neurons typically -70mV
goal of upregulation and downregulation
for the effect of the hormone to be the same. You raise or lower the number of receptors so that the effect of hormones on your body does not change.
what are mechanosensitive channel proteins sensitive to?
force/pressure
what do neuron cells do with target cells?
form connections (synapses) with target cells
right atrium and right ventricle
form our pulmonary pump pumps deoxygenated blood
left atrium and left ventricle
form our systemic pump pumps oxygenated blood
common hepatic duct
formed by the convergence of the right hepatic duct and the left hepatic duct. The common hepatic duct then joins the cystic duct coming from the gallbladder to form the common bile duct. The duct is usually 6-8 cm length.
location and sensitivity of peripheral chemoreceptors
found in the aorta and carotid artieries sensors are put here because blood has not yet participated in oxygen exchange and is the most oxygenated it will ever be
location and sensitivity of central chemoreceptors
found in the brainstem responds to chemicals (CO2 and pH) knows when to retain and expel pH
where is endolymph fluid found?
found in the membranous chamber
Classification by joints: Diarthrotic
freely moving
diarthrotic
freely moving
Anterior (ventral)
front of body
Where is bile stored?
gallbladder
smooth muscle actin and myosin ratio compared to skeletal muscles
greater ratio myosin to actin than in skeletal muscle * skeletal ratio was about 1 to 1
what is a mixed cranial nerve?
has both sensory and motor neuroons
what is a sensory cranial nerve?
has only sensory neurons
Classification of epithelial tissue shapes: Cuboidal
height is approximately equal to width; box-like
symphysis
held by fibrocartilage -amphiarthrotic
Classification by anatomy: Cartilaginous tissue
held together by cartilage, very little movement if any
cartilaginous joints
held together by cartilage, very little movement if any *either synarthrotic or amphiarthrotic
norepinephrine function (source: adrenal medulla)
helps control alertness and arousal *more potent
plasma protein *albumin*
helps to control pH and osmotic pressure in cells -highly abundant -large size prevents from leaving bloodstram -when insufficent swelling and decreased blood volume will occur -60% of plasma proteins
lateral hemispheres of cerebellum
helps with planning, practicing, and learning complex movements.
convex
hicker in the middle and allow light to refract and converge at a focal point. In addition, convex lenses cause the actual or real image to be focused upside down and reversed from left to right.
relationship between CO2 and pH
high CO2 means low pH ex: if you hold your breath and hold in carbon dioxide you will produce more hydrogen ions and lower pH low Co2 means high pH ex: hyperventilating exhales excessive amounts of carbon dioxide which will elevate pH
surface tension of water
high surface tension gives water it's skin-like properties, molecules in the middle of a solution are pulled in all directions, molecules on the surface of a solution are pulled downward
hepatic sinusoids
highly permeable blood capillaries receiving oxygenated blood from hepatic artery and deoxygenated nutrient-rich blood from hepatic portal vein
lumen
hollow tube like structure with a central blood containing cavity
what is stroke volume (SV)
how much blood is ejected from the heart
synchondrosis
hyaline cartilage binds first rib to sternum, no movement *ex: epiphyseal disks -synarthrotic
Cushing syndrome
hypersecretion of cortisol (hydrocortisone) by the adrenal gland Causes fatty deposits on face and midsection, weight gain, obesity
definition of upregulation
if hormone numbers go down, receptor numbers go up
definition of downregulation
if number of hormones go up, receptors go down
how does the response change depending on whether or not the stimulates reach the threshold?
if they reach the threshold they will get a response. If they do not reach the threshold, they will not get a response.
excitation-contraction coupling: Step four, End-plate potential results, threshold achieved, voltage-gated Na+ channels open
if threshold is reached, Na+ voltage gated channels open, generate action potential and then go down the t-tublules
location of ganglia in parasympathetic branches
in or close to visceral target (terminal ganglia)
where is action potential generated?
in the axon hillock or "trigger zone"
function of the dermal papillae?
in thick areas of the skin, the dermal papillae and epidermal ridges are more numerous. This helps to maintain the structure of the skin in areas prone to increased pressure and friction *your fingerprints are the outcome of these ridges
axial portion
includes the head neck and trunk, with cavities from the head down starting in this order: -Dorsal cavity -Ventral cavity
capillary tight junctions
incomplete tight junctions in capillaries form intercellular clefts
how do baroreceptors handle increased blood pressure?
increased blood pressure expands the walls of these structures, causing greater stretching of the baroreceptors, and increasing the number of impulses being sent to the cardiovascular center. A larger number of arriving impulses inhibits the vasomotor and cardioacceleratory centers, but excites the cardioinhibitory center. 1. Decreased heart rate and contractility will decrease cardiac output. 2. Vasodilation in veins will decrease venous return; decreased venous return causes decreased cardiac output (because it decreases preload - discussed in the chapter on The Heart). 3. Vasodilation in the arteries decreases resistance to flow.
Triiodothyronine (T3) function
increases metabolism and basal metabolic rate - 5x times more potent than T4
cortisol function (source: adrenal cortex)
increases resistance to stress, increases blood glucose levels, and decreases inflammation - inhibit protein synthesis -increase utilization of fatty acids - promote gluconeogenesis
what is the response of the autonomic nervous system?
inhibition and excitation of smooth and cardiac muscle and glandular secretion
Somatostatin
inhibits gastrin and histamine secretion and appears to also have a direct inhibitory effect on the parietal cell.
visceral pleura
inner layer of pleura lying closer to the lung tissue
tissue layer of heart ENDOCARDIUM
innermost layer of the heart that lines the chambers of the heart this layer is continuous with the blood vessels inside the heart that allow for blood the enter and exit the chambers
where are all the white matter fibers found?
inside the cerebrum
diabetes mellitus
insulin is not secreted adequately or tissues are resistant to its effects a group of metabolic disorders in which there are high blood sugar levels over a prolonged period. Symptoms of high blood sugar include frequent urination, increased thirst, and increased hunger.
what are mylinated axon segments known as?
internodes
Parietal Lobe: Somatosensory Association Cortex
interpretation of sensations - ex: when eating food, your brain figures out how big of a bite you took, and then decides how you should chew/swallow your food - Ex: if you step into an ice water puddle, you'll remove your foot immediately. But, when you sprain your ankle you want to put it in ice water
is the autonomic nervous system voluntary of involuntary?
involuntary/unconscious
pontine respiratory group
involved with switching between inspiration and expiration LOL IT"S NOT ON THE TEST **SIKE**
why are gap junctions important?
it allows for information and resources to be passed inter between cells.
how does positive feedback play a role in action potential propagation?
it because it continues the response to the stimuli down the axon
why is smooth muscle contraction not dependent on Ca2+?
it is instead dependent on myosin phosphorylation - binding sites are always open, instead we regulate when the myosin is available
how does facilitated diffusion move with the concentration gradient?
it moves with the concentration gradient, but that does not mean that things cannot go through the other way
How does saltatory conduction work?
it takes less time for positive charge to diffuse along the inside of the cell membrane than it does to open voltage-gated Na+ channels. *called by its name do ti the action potential appearing to be "jumping" from node to node, even though the current actually just flows through the axon.
what is the basic physiology of the erythrocyte (red blood cell)?
its job is to transfer oxygen to its surroundings and pick up carbon dioxide - this is why it is shaped more like a doughnut for larger surface area to moe easily diffuse oxygen and pick up CO2
Temporal Lobe: Wernicke's area
language comprehension - controls language and word choice
macrophage
large wandering cell that recognizes damaged/dead tissues and removes/clears them out *engulfs and breaks down cell debris and removes it
zone of resting cartilage
layer of cartilage that binds the epiphyseal plate to the secondary ossification center *1st layer
how does pO2 affect breathing?
least of importance recognized by peripheral chemoreceptors
frequency of sound waves
length of sound waves determines pitch
concave
lenses are thinner in the middle than the edges and cause light to be dispersed, making them useless for focusing images onto the retina.
ependymal cells
line cavities of the brain and spinal cord, circulate cerebrospinal fluid - help maintain the BBB and secrete CSF
static equilibrium
linear acceleration
stomach sphincters
lower esophageal (top)/ pyloric (bottom) - circular rings of muscle that constricts a passage or closes a natural opening
synaptic potentials: Hyperpolarization
makes the charge difference across the membrane larger
synaptic potentials: Depolarization
makes the charge difference across the membrane smaller
what is maltase found in?
malt beverages
what does the papillary layer contain?
many blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and sensory nerves that supply the epidermis
what are visceral membranes?
membranes that cover organs within body cavities
what are parietal membranes?
membranes that line body cavities
what is lactase found in?
milk
9. Glossopharyngeal Nerve
mixed taste, sensations of the tongue, swallowing, saliva
5. Trigeminal
mixed chewing, face and mouth touch and pain
7. facial nerve
mixed sensory for taste; motor fibers to the face
energy of molecular motion (Brownian movement)
molecules are always in constant random motion
how does simple diffusion work?
molecules move from high concentration gradients to low concentration gradients until an equilibrium is reached -does not need a barrier
How many nuclei does smooth muscle have?
most are single-unit (visceral)
pia mater (layers of meninges)
most delicate layer of connective tissue attached to the surface of the brain and spinal cord
what is a mixed primarily motor cranial nerve?
mostly motor, but some sensory
11. accessory
motor turning movements of the head, movements of the shoulder and vescera, voice productions
cranial branch of accessory nerve
motor fibers conduct impulses to muscles of the soft palate, pharynx, and larynx
6. Abducens Nerve
motor fibers to eye muscles
3. oculomotor nerve
motor fibers to eye muscles raises eyelids, move eyes, regulate the size of pupils
spinal branch of accessory nerve
motor; transmit impulses to the muscles of the neck and back
myotomes (motor neurons)
muscles that a particular spinal nerve innervates - carries info away from the brain
myopia
nearsightedness
fibrogen
necessary for blood clotting; gets converted into fibrin by thrombin
what is the receptor subtype of the somatic nervous system?
nicotinic
Classification by joints: Synarthortic
no movement in bone junction
synarthrotic
no movement possible (face)
what are nodes of ranvier?
non-myelinated gaps between internodes
where is hyaline cartilage located?
nose, trachea, ribs, ends of long bones, and embroyonic skeleton.
what is the difference between smooth and skeletal muscles when it comes to neural stimulation?
not all smooth muscles require neural stimulation
can polor substances (carbs, proteins, charged ions) go through a cell membrane>
not on their own *the exception is water
what are stem cells?
not yet specialized cells
what does the central canal do?
nueral processes and blood vessels innervate and supply the cells of the osteon.
general adaption syndrome stages: Exhaustion
occurs when client loses ability to cope -Fatigue -Disorganized and illogical thinking -Sensory misperceptions -Physical illness/death
in what pattern are smooth muscles often contracted?
often phasic or rythmic (ex: peristalsis) - this is done by communication through gap junctions
difference between oligodendrocytes and schwann cells?
oligendocrytes cover multiple myelinated axon segments with one cell, schwann cells only cover one segment per cell.
Contralateral
on the opposite side of the body
where is grey matter located in the brain?
on the outside, white is on inside
ipsilateral
on the same side of the body
medullary rhythmicity center
one of the areas that helps to control breathing rate
antidiuretic regulation
osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus sense whether or not you are hydrated, and release this if you are not
why is vitamin A needed?
osteoblasts/osteoclasts cannot operate effectively without it
compact (cortical) bone
outer layer of bone, provides strength and resistance to compression, twisting, and shearing stress that would otherwise break the bone
parietal pleura
outer layer of pleura lying closer to the ribs and chest wall
tissue layers of heart EPICARDIUM
outermost layer of the heart, composed of adipose tissue and loose areolar tissue
What is a plexus?
overlapping spinal nerves that form different combinations of nerves
what are melanozomes?
packages produced by melanocytes that contain pigments that color skin called melanin
parathyroid source
parathyroid gland
pancreatic islets
parts of the pancreas that have endocrine functions
what surrounds CNS capillary endothelial cells?
pericytes
what surrounds several fascicles?
perineurium
gomphosis
periodontal ligaments bind the bone-like teeth into a socket, with no movement -synarthrotic
where are schwann cells found?
peripheral nervous system
melatonin source
pineal gland
parasagital
plane divides body into unequal left and right sections
blood platelets incorectly called thrombocytes
platelets are not cells and thrombocytes suggests that a platelet is a living cell
Central vermis of the cerebellum
play roles in the control of posture, locomotion, and fine motor coordination, helping to produce smooth, flowing movements
what does the basal nuclei's Limbic System do?
plays a central role in memory, reproduction, emotion, mood, and nutrition
difference between smooth and skeletal muscles
skeletal muscles are controlled consciously where as smooth muscles are controlled subconsciously
is the autonomic nervous system myelinated?
preganglionic fibers are, postganglionic fibers are not
intrapleural pressure
pressure in the pleural cavity surrounding the lungs
intra-alveolar pressure (intrapolmonary)
pressure within the lungs or a single alveolus
inflation reflex
prevents overexpansion of the lungs during forced breathing. when stretch of tissues reaches maximum capacity there is inhibition of the motor pathways triggering stretch/inhalation
what are mesenchyme?
primitive tissue of (typically) flat bones that later form into bone tissue
What do effectors do?
produce a response using muscles or glands
what does the basal nuclei do?
produces dopamine and facilitates voluntary movement in coordination with motor cortex, cerebellum and thalamus
alimentary canal Innervation: Parasympathetic nervous system
promotes digestive activity with secretory or muscular activity
antidiuretic hormone function
promotes retention of water by kidneys
what is the parasympathetics role in salivation?
promotes secretion
coagulation
protein fibers precipitate out of a solution and form a clot
Oligodendrocytes
provide support and insulation by mylinating axons
perimysium function
provides anchorage and support to nerves and blood vessels that innervate and supply energy to the muscle fibers
articular (hyaline) cartilage in synovial joints
provides cushioning and stability
semilunar valves
pulmonary and aortic valves located between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery and between the left ventricle and the aorta prevents backflow from major vessels into the ventricle
Purkinje fibers
purkinje fibers are a diffuse network of conducting strands located beneath the ventricular endocardium these fibers spread the wave depolarization through the ventricles purkinje fibers can act as the pacemaker with a rate between 20 and 40 beats /min when higher pacemaker fail
somatic
reflexes you can consciously overide
Sphincters of the alimentary canal
regulate the entry from one area to another, and are found between regions of the alimentary canal - little bands of smooth muscle - regulate how quickly substances move into an area and into the next
insulin regulaiton
regulated by circulating levels of glucose concentration
parathyroid function
regulates calcium by increasing it in blood stream
Thyroxine (T4) function
regulates metabolism - more plentiful in bloodstream
what is the pineal body's circadian rhythm responsible for?
regulates natural day cycle of sleeping and waking, eating etc.
Wiggers Diagram
relates electrical events of heart cycle to the mechanical, pressure, and sound changes that occur during a cardiac cycle
What is proprioception?
sense of body position and movement - the ability to measure the amount of tension or stretch in a muscle
8. Vestibulocochlear
sensory balance or equilibrium, hearing
1. Olfactory Nerve
sensory, smell
2. optic nerve
sensory, vision
tentorium cerebelli
separates cerebellum from cerebrum
lateral fissure
separates lobes of the cerebrum
longitudinal fissure
separates the left and right side of the cerebrum
conformation
shape of proteins is able to change
Isotonic meaning
similar osmotic pressure
cochlea
sits in the inner ear and contains the cells and molecular apparatus responsible for transducing sound into an electrical signal that can be relayed to the brain
what are the target tissues of the somatic nervous system?
skeletal muscle
the multinucleate process in skeletal muscle fibers
skeletal muscle cells have more than one nucleus, due to myoblasts continually fusing together. This adds both mass, and another nucleus everytime they fuse.
Classification by joints: Amphiarthortic
small amount of movement ex: distal connection of tibia and fibia
amphiarthrotic
small amount of movement (distal connection of tibia and fibula)
lacunae
small fluid-filled cavities containing osteocytes
perforating canals (volkmann's canals)
small, perpendicularly oriented channels in bone that allow blood vessels to connect the central canals of neighboring osteons *runs horizontal
arterioles
smallest type of artery
what is an example of a muscle tissue?
smooth muscle -long strands of tightly packed cells with a visible nucleus. *no extracellular matter
does smooth or skeletal muscle contract slower?
smooth muscle contractions slower
arrector pili
smooth muscle that contracts in order to make hair stand up/cause goosebumbs
action potential of contractile muscle cells: Plateau phase
sodium and potassium channels open simultaneously -this is do to some coming in and some going out at same time - this causes a plateau because the two open channels cancel each other out - this is needed so that that you do not have a sustained contraction in your heart (your heart would not be able to pump if you sustained a contraction) - this allows for enough time for the mechanical process to be completed
secretion
something is exiting a cell, digestive hormones and digestive enzymes are secreted
sagittal
something left or right
Normal heart sounds
sounds produced when the valves close; normal heart sounds are S1 (atrioventricular valves) and S2 (semilunar valves) - little cusps of tissue hitting one another when a valve closes (sounds like lub dub)
intestinal somatostatin
source: intestinal wall cells in response to fats; function: inhibits secretion of acid by parietal cells
intervertebral foramina
spaces between the vertebrae
hemispheric lateralization
specialization separation of the hemispheres of the brain
what is myelin produced by?
specialized cells known as Scwann cells and Oligodendrocytes.
What are hematopoietic stem cells?
stem cells that give rise to all formed elements (red, white, or platelets)
mucus (from mucous cells)
sticky substance that binds broken down food to make it easier to swallow
Oxytocin function
stimulates uterine contractions and milk ejection during suckling - found to be important for bonding, that why even males have it
yellow marrow
stores fat
Stress vs. Stressor
stress: the process by which we appraise and cope with (the actual thing) stressor: the event that causes the stressor
how do you find Cardiac output (CO)?
stroke volume (SV) x heart rate (HR)
Stroke volume equation
stroke volume = end diastolic volume - end systolic volume
cancellous (spongy, trabecular) bone
strong, porous, inner layer of bone, that allows the bone to be larger without adding any excessive, unnecessary weight.
what is Anatomy?
study if structure or form (not simply identification by name or location)
What is physiology?
study of function
Heparin
substance obtained from the liver; inhibits blood clotting - released from basophils attracted to the site of damage, and leads to the inactivation of thrombin. - natural anticoagulant
suprathreshold
synaptic potentials that are strong enough to reach threshold -action potential -"all or none" you get a response if you hit the threshold, after you hit the threshold all responses are the same. -if you dont hit the threshold, you dont get a response
sub threshold
synaptic potentials that do not depolarize the membrane potential enough to reach threshold -graded potential -responses very upon for severe the stimuli is
systole and diastole
systole (contraction) and diastole (relaxation)
synaptic potentials: Repolarization
takes the charge difference back to its normal state
Classification of epithelial tissue shapes: Columnar
tall and rectangular-shaped
where is the tropomyosin?
tangled all around the actin
what does passive transport mean?
that the cell doesnt need to expend energy for the transportation
what does the myosin light-chain kinase (MLCK) do after being activated by Ca2+ in smooth muscle contraction?
the MLCK phosphorylates the myosin light chain and induces the formation of myosin-actin cross-bridges
what is energy?
the ability to do work
what is cardiac output (CO)
the amount of blood pumped by a ventricle in a period of time
What is osmotic pressure?
the amount of pressure that is able to raise water against gravity *greater [solutes] = greater osmotic pressure
what is a hair bulb?
the base of the hair follicle where cells divide in order to grow keratin filled hair -only place where cells reproduce -nutrients delivered through diffusion, thus most of the hair is composed of dead cells
what is sarcoplasm?
the cytoplasm of the muscle cell -filled with myofibrils
what divides the spinal cord into lateral sections?
the dorsal media sulcus and ventral medial fissure
power stroke
the forward movement of myosin heads by release of pent up energy. This action propels actin forward and returns myosin heads to their natural position
Falx cerebri (dura mater)
the larger of the two folds of dura mater separating the hemispheres of the brain that lies between the cerebral hemispheres and contains the sagittal sinuses
retina
the light-sensing region of the eye located at the back of the eye, behind the vitreous humor. It is functionally arranged in layers of cells
Sinoatrial (S-A) node (pacemaker)
the main pacemaker that initiates each heart beat located at the junction of the superior vena cava and the right atrium the SA node generates electrical impulses at 60 to 100 times per minute and is controlled by the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system
how does the mobility of a joint effect its stability?
the more mobile it is, the less stable it becomes
reason fro frank-starling law of the heart
the myocardium will be stretched due to greater volume, therefore their increased sarcomere length, results in increased sensitivity to Ca2+ therefore a much stronger contraction
What is the peripheral nervous system?
the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord.
what is the net ion flux for the neuron cell?
the net ion flux is 0
central canal (haversian canal)
the passage way for nerves and blood vessels that maintain compact bone tissue. *runs vertically through osteons
after calcium binds to calmodulin, what does the presense of Ca2+ do in smooth muscle contraction?
the presence of Ca2+ activates (phosphorylates) myosin light-chain kinase (MLCK) - MLCK is an enzyme that activates myosin - cross-bridge formation now possible
myelination
the process by which axons become coated with myelin, a fatty substance that speeds the transmission of nerve impulses from neuron to neuron
hematocrit
the ratio of the volume of red blood cells to the total volume of blood (the packed volume of red blood cells)
Falx cerebelli (dura mater)
the smaller of the two folds of dura mater separating the hemispheres of the brain that lies between the lateral lobes of the cerebellum
what are sarcomeres?
the smallest contractile unit of the skeletal muscle that is capable on contraction
subarachnoid space
the space between the arachnoid and pia mater - is filled with CFS
what are pleural cavities?
the space between the viseral membranes and the partietal membranes. Filled with serous fluid
absolute refractory period
the time when an action potential cannot be fired even if the cell receives a suprathreshold stimulus
hepatic portal vein
the vein that collects blood from the GI tract and conducts it to the liver
How does exocytosis work in chemical synapses?
the vesicles fuse to the cell membrane (due to being made of the same material) and then spill out the ligand so that they can be received by the ligand-gated ion channels to let in Na+
excitation-contraction coupling: Step five, Sarcolemma and t-tubules depolarize
the voltage-gated Na+ channels initiate a wave of depolarization that travels over the cell membrane. This depolarization depolarizes the T-tubules, which carries the depolarization current deep into the muscle fiber where SR connects to the T-tubules.
arbor vitae of cerebellum
the white matter of the cerebellum
hormones role in gastric secretions
they control in part when you secrete these gastric juices and when you dont - gastrin - somatostatin
How large are sarcomeres?
they run Z-line to Z-line
mysosin
thick filament, is going to block more light, will look darker
red marrow
thick, bloodlike material found in flat bones and the ends of long bones; location of blood cell formation
tissue layer of heart MYOCARDIUM
thickest layer of the heart containing myocytes and the cardiac skeleton
actin
thin filament, more light will shine through, will look lighter
what can travel through the membrane with ease?
things that are NOT charged and small enough to fit
Special senses
things that require a specialized organ
how does the greater ratio of myosin compared to actin affect cross-bridges?
this greater ratio leads to more cross-bridge units per actin than skeletal muscle
what is the basal nuclei's role in motor control with the thalamus?
this is going to take the signal from the motor cortex and send it to the correct part of the body using the correct descending tracts
pleural membranes are found within the..
thoracic cavity
what type of junction cement together the endothelial cells in the capillary endothelium?
tight junctions
canaliculi
tiny canals that connect adjacent lacunae conatining osteocytes and their secretions.
Hemostasis
to stop or control bleeding
how does muscle tone differ between smooth and skeletal muscles?
tone is held longer in smooth muscles with less energy requirement
medial
towards the middle of the body
lateral
towards the outside of the body
what are cancellous (spongy, trabecular) bone composed of?
trabeculae
convection
transfer of heat through the use of air or fluids. *wind chills you because it removes the warm air pocket you have created around your body.
what are carrier proteins?
transmembrane proteins with binding sites that chaperones a fixed number of solutes across the membrane
plasma protein *globulins*
transport hormones, cholesterol, and iron -second most abundant -functions as a carrier molecule -35% of plasma proteins
atrioventricular valves examples
tricuspid valve bicuspid valve these valves are "cusps" that are anchored down to the cardiac skeleton by chordae tendinae and papillary muscles
Eosinophils
type of WBC is present in increased numbers during an allergic reaction -granulocyte -less abundant than neutrophils -2-4% of leukocytes
tight junctions
type of cell attachment that prevents paracellular passage by not allowing gaps between cells; nothing can get between cells *e.x. like a zipper
gap junctions
type of cell attachment that provides a direct passage way by which small molecules and ions can pass directly between two cells.
rhythm-generating circuits
underlie activities like breathing, walking, and so on. - the more you use it the better it becomes, you establish a rhythmic pattern
synapse
union between two neurons to communicate
how does the nervous system differ from the nervous system?
uses electricity and neurotransmittors
how does the endocrine system differ from the nervous system?
uses hormones
murmur
valve doesnt close entirely and a small "whoosh" can be heard after the closing of the valve (abnormal heart sound)
QRS complex
ventricular depolarization and atrial repolarization
T wave
ventricular repolarization
synaptic potentials: how widespread are responses?
very localized, things have to be added together in order to reach the threshold
end-diastolic volume
volume of the blood in ventricles before contraction
what does a keratin protein do?
water proofs a cell
what does hydrophilic mean?
water salable; compatible with water
what is a traid?
what contains both the transverse tubules and terminal cisternae
spatial summation
when multiple ion channels in the axon terminal (that are close together), release a stimulant, they add together. This makes it possible to reach the threshold
how does a lung collapses
when the intrapleural pressure exceeds the intra-alveolar pressure the lung will collapse under the pressure
ossification center
where cartilage is replaced with bone to either form bone, or grow it.
what is the mediastinum?
where the heart sits
buffy coat
white blood cells and platelets (platelets are cell fragments critical for clotting)
tropomyosin
wraps around the actin, stands in the way to block binding sites
