ANTH 235: Midterm 1

Early Horizon Period

(800 BC to 1 BC) (1,000/900 BCE - 200 CE) The first of three periods during which the Central Andes was integrated by the spread of the Chavin religious cult, also reflected in the adoption of the Chavin art style

Emergence of Villages

(8000-6000BP Middle Preceramic) and a transition to sedentary lifestyles

Middle Preceramic

(9000-5000 BP) the transition to modern climates led to the first sedentary communities, the use of domesticated plants, and the growth of a llama-herding economy -people became very well adapted to their local environments and the process of domestication occurred, which does not have to be intentional -huts became more permanent

Metal Objects in Chavin

-most conveyed Chavin religious ideology -most were made of gold alloys for adornment or for ritual use by priests: crowns, ear ornaments pectorals, bangles, beads, snuff spoons, etc -objects were constructed from sheets of metal that were then folded and joined together by welding and soldering

Rise of Chavin

-innovations in art, architecture, and religion -resourceful leaders who were able to control long-distance exchange systems in valued products -possibly a revitalization movement: social/religious movements that emerge during periods of stress

Cupisnique Archaeological Culture

-known best for stirrup-spout vessel -the Caballo Muerto Complex is part of this culture

Huaca de los Reyes

-located at Caballo Muerto Complex -famous for its anthropomorphic adobe friezes in Cupisnique style

Wankarani Culture

-located in Bolivia during the Initial Period -represents village life with an agropastoral economy

Culture Change of the Early Intermediate Period

-major upheavals in life and politics in Peru, along with periods of "darkness" in some regions -Many sites sit on hills for defense since militarism has increased -Paused temple construction and drops in long-distance trade suggests that it was "troubled tmes"

Lima Burials

-no evidence of hierarchy -high infant and child mortality -life span of about 20-30 years -linear hypoplasia (thin tooth enamel) in adults indicates poor nutrition

Establishment of a Modern Climate

During the Late Preceramic 8800-5800 BP

Hall of the Niches

Enigmatic structure located at the Caballo Muerto Complex

Wattle and Daub Houses

a material formerly or traditionally used in building walls, consisting of a network of interwoven sticks and twigs covered with mud or clay.

Guitarerro Cave, Peru

(6100-4000BP) has early guinea pigs

Adobe

a kind of clay used as a building material, typically in the form of sun-dried bricks

Early Intermediate Period

(1 BC to A.D 650) (0-650 CE) The rise of the Moche, Nasca, Tiwanaku, and others produced the finest ceramics, textiles, and metal-work of any period, as well as massive irrigation and public works. This period also saw an increase in militarism.

Initial Period

(1,700-800 BCE) This period saw the introduction of pottery technology, the construction of huge monuments, the spread of irrigation, and the development of new art forms and architectural styles

Early Preceramic

(16/14,000-9,000 BP) This period saw the initial peopling of the Central Andes during the Late Pleistocene, when glacial conditions prevailed. Over the next 4,000 years of fluctuating climate, these first inhabitants developed a series of adaptions to coastal and intermontane valleys, and to the high grasslands

Late Preceramic

(3,000-1,700 BCE) -Also called Cotton Preceramic -During this period, large temple centers were built on the coast and in the Andes, supported by the exploitation of maritime and agricultural products -extensive use of domesticated plants and animals and important features like irrigation and labor organization -origins of the monumental ceremonial architecture

Chinampa

- raised fields constructed along lake shores in Mesoamerica to increase agricultural yields. -referred to as a floating garden but more like islands in swamps

Metallurgy

-first known during the Late Preceramic -gold and greenstone necklace found at Jiskairumoko

"The Encounter at Cajamarca" Felipe Guaman Poma

-1000 page letter to King of Spain -Illustrations included

Gallinazo culture

-Also called Viru -predecessor of the Moche, but may have lasted through the end of the Moche culture

Pampa de la Llamas

-Another Casma Valley Site -Moxeke has two large buildings: The western structure 1) Moxeke, has large anthropomorphic sculptures painted in bright colors. A pilgrimage center 2) Huaca A was a storage facility for food, but this may have also been a pilgrimage center

Gods at Chavin

-Anthropomorphic gods with monster-like features -Oracle -Depicted on the Lanzon, Raimondi stone -Medusa god

Art of Chavin

-Anthropomorphic themes and motifs -representative images of animals and plants from many different parts of Peru -Suggests widespread influence on Peruvian culture, including Amazon

Chavin Religion

-Chavin iconography through carving stone monuments, rearranging sacred spaces. adopting ceramic, metalworking, and other artifact style -the spread of the religion can be seen through the geographic distribution of ritual high-status luxury goods like gold jewelry, stone spoons and mortars, shell ornaments

Key Concepts/Issues of the Early Horizon Period

-Chavin influence on much of Peru; considered a major pilgrimage site -Reasons for Chavin's decline? Perhaps due to El Nino events and their increased frequency? -Yaya-mama motifs

The Chavin Horizon

-Chavin is called a horizon (normally widespread but relatively short lived). Early Horizon is long at 800 years, which makes it an unusually long horizon -Early Phase: Urabarriu -Final Phase: Janabarriu -Support staff lived in adjacent town -Growth due to wealth contributed by temple pilgrims

Paracas Peninsula

-Early Horizon Period -noted for mummy bundles and intricate textiles -people lived simple lives based on agriculture in a very difficult (dry and windy) environment -similarities to Chavin iconography -two sites: Paracas Cavernas and Paracas Necropolis -people here had short, hard lives and skeletons show evidence of that trauma

Chronology of MesoAmerica

-Early Hunters -Archaic Period (incipient agriculture) -Preclassic Period (pottery and village life) -Classic Period (cities, monumentality, writing) -Epiclassic Period (abandonment of the city-state Teoihuacan) -PostClassic Period (Toltecs and Aztecs)

Urabarriu

-Early Phase of the Chavin Horizon -Small settlement north of the temple with a population of about 500 people

Janabarriu

-Final Phase of the Chavin Horizon -Peak of 10,000 people -Expanded terraced land, camelid pastoralists incorporated

Recuay

-Huaras society represents the first phases of this tradition -relatively egalitarian; small communities and farmsteads -composed of chiefdoms, some allied and some fought -increased political complexity -ceramics used white kaolin clay -begins a tradition of showing humans involved in everyday affairs -stone sculpture appears to represent ancestors or warriors -they built large masonry, multi-purpose complexes on hilltops and other defensible positions -fine stonework was sometimes pastered -tenoned heads (stuck in wall) of felines -culture seems violent -single-handed mace -exploited the suni and puna life zones

Funerary bundle

-In the center was a mummy in fetal position so that the deceased could travel to the afterlife in the same form in which he was born -Interior layers made of elaporated embroidered textiles -Exterior textiles made of rough cotton -Utensils and offerings like collars, feathered scepters, clothes, ceramics, food, gold, spoons, weaving tools -Position: fetal in a basket -Head was abnormally elongated from intentional cranial deformation -Body was dressed in fine clothes and jewels

Heddle Loom

-Introduced in the Initial Period -Earlier weaving techniques involved knotting and twining -But the Heddle is made of cord or wire is used to separate the warp threads for the passage of the weft -Creates a grid -Geometric designs are common -Huge variety of weaving techniques

Gramalote

-Key (small) Site in Peru during the Initial Period -Located in the Moche Valley on the North coast -rare known example of a small community entirely separated from a large ceremonial complex -small village near the Cupisnique sites but seemingly independent with Shamanistic religious system -50 houses at its peak -inhabitants constructed their own ceremonial structure -very little art or pottery -made red ochre paint for body decorations and/or trade -grew variety of crops including cotton and hunted for sharks

Las Vegas

-Key Site in Ecuador during the Early Preceramic -Dates 13,000-11,400 BP -Located on the Santa Elena Peninsula -coastal culture is better known for later, Middle Preceramic sites -more than 30 sites are known -no points or biface tools -subsistence economy in a tropical maritime environment -exploited wild cucurbits (gourds) and likely domesticated them

Cotocollao

-Key Site in Ecuador during the Initial Period -Dated 1,800-500 BCE -Located in the northern highlands -Large early village --> farming community -Destroyed by volcano -Simple rectangular wattle and daub houses -No public or ceremonial architecture but a cemetery -Diverse pottery and artifacts (obsidian) -obsidian flaked tools -Fully agricultural: maize, potatoes, archira, oca, quinoa, beans -not really unique to its neighboring sites -Pululahua volcano erupted, one of the greatest volcanic explosions in the last 10,000 years

Real Alto

-Key Site in Ecuador during the Late Preceramic -Dated 4,800-1,800 BCE -Key Site of the Valdivia Culture and was a regional center surrounded by small hamlets -Located on coast of Ecuador near Chanduy Valley -First occupation occurred in the Terminal Archaic -About a dozen elliptical thatched huts in a U-Shaped pattern, 50-60 people -This pattern is reminiscent of Paloma but also like Amazon Basin cultural groups -Grew to 1,200 people in 100 houses around a central plaza by 2500 BC -practiced horticulture (kind of like gardening) -Maize, beans, and manioc are key domesticates -possibly domesticated cotton first -central plaza had 4 ceremonial structures, one, the Fiesta House Mound and one, the Charnel House Mound

Caballo Muerto Complex

-Key Site in Peru during Initial Period -Dated 1,100-800 BCE -Key Site of the Moche Valley area -Located on the North Coast of Peru -Cupisnique archaeological culture -U-Shaped centers which were symmetrical (unlike the Manchay culture and Cardal which had J-Shaped centers and asymmetrical arms), emphasis on symmetry -8 large mounds over 2 square miles, large scale construction -Temples were built on fertile soils, suggesting a low population -Houses and special-function buildings between temples -seafood/coastal resources, beans, peanuts, maize, shows that coastal agriculture was well developed -Huaca de la Cruz (main building) -Other buildings: Huaca de los Reyes, Huaca Herederos Grande, Hall of the Niches -Feasting was an important activity at these temples

Cerro Sechin

-Key Site in Peru during Initial Period -Key Site of the Casma Valley people -Located 8 miles from the Pacific Ocean, continues from the Late Preceramic, central coast of Peru -impressive architecture, includes a perimeter wall composed of about 400 stones with carvings depicting humans killed in gruesome fashion -stones in the wall depict severed heads with blood vessels dangling from them, detached arms, victims cut in two with intestines spilling out, vertebrae dismembered -warriors portrayed with elongated feline eyes -victims' eyes were usually gouged out

Paracas Cavernas

-Key Site in Peru during the Early Horizon -Funerary bundles in pits or bottle-shaped ("shaft") tombs at the top of a hill. Multiple burials/reused -textiles and textiles with linear designs

Chavin de Huantar

-Key Site in Peru during the Early Horizon -Located in a high valley near rivers -Convenient location for communication with other regions -Located near reserves of high quality stone, hot springs, and rich soil -Pilgrimage site -U-Shape -Attention to what lies within the structures; symbolic significance of unseen details -construction over a large period of time, with many additions/remodeling -Sunken plazas, dualism -Old and New Temple -Reason for abandonment is unknown

Carhua (Karwa)

-Key Site in Peru during the Early Horizon -located on south coast -heavy Chavin influence on textiles -possible spread of Chavin influence through missionaries -the largest textiles may have been used to erect portable ceremonial spaces

Paracas Necropolis

-Key Site in Peru during the Early Horizon -two clusters of hundreds of burials around abandoned architecture at site of Wari Kayan -large, elaborate funerary bundles -Leaders from all over

Huaca Pucllana

-Key Site in Peru during the Early Intermediate Period -Located in the Miraflores district of Lima -main mound of adobes with square layers like stacked books -sacred areas painted yellow - 3 step stair altars against walls reminiscent of Cardal -caches in floor with fish and mollusks...ocean nearby -skeletons buried in walls -Lima culture -Like Moche but no high status burials -evidence of interpersonal violence in burials

Moche

-Key Site in Peru during the Early Intermediate Period -Located on North coast in the Moche Valley -gigantic structures -famous for fine ceramics which often depicted everyday life -invented new pottery shapes such as the florero -Huacas de Moche includes the massive Huaca del Sol and Huaca de la Luna -politics and religion were inseparable -re-enacted important mythic events -sacrificed men were found in ritual contexts at the Huacas de Moche and El Brujo

Gallinazo Group

-Key Site in Peru during the Early Intermediate Period -Located on north coast of Peru, lower Viru valley -antecedent to Moche -large architectural complex of unknown function -over 30 architectural complexes -not clear which were residential and which were temples

Cahuachi

-Key Site in Peru during the Early Intermediate Period -Located on south coast of Peru -Nasca culture, largest Nasca site -pilgrimage center in dry desert, associated with lines -more than 40 mounds -located around a water source, which are infrequent on south coast -place of production of Nazca polychrome ceramics -believed to be the epicenter of Nasca religious ideology

Quebrada Jaguay

-Key Site in Peru during the Early Preceramic -Dates 13,000-11,400 BP -Located on the Coast, just North of the town of Camana -probably one stop on a seasonal round -probably abandoned due to flooding -remains of rectangular and circular houses -good variety of tools, both uni- and bi-facial tools -NO projectile points because they probably weren't hunting here --> Maritime adaptation -small quantities of obsidian -substantial amounts of petrified wood -specialized maritime technology that focused on clams, freshwater and marine crustaceans, several species of drums, mussels, anchovies, and various seabirds -remains of prickly pear cactus found indicating some interaction with higher elevations

Huaca Prieta

-Key Site in Peru during the Early Preceramic -Dates 14,200- 13,300 making it one of the earliest known sites in the New world -coastal site on the edge of sea in the Chicama Valley -is also a key site in the LATE Preceramic -importance of coastal adaptions -few early rock shelters farther inland so people were probably moving seasonally

Nasca Lines

-geoglyphs -significant due to the density and diversity of the geoglyphs, which span 200 miles -about 70 animals are represented and there are more than 500 lines, up to 6 miles in length -ceramic offerings were found along the lines -likely used as ceremonial pathways

Valdivia Sedentism

-health worsens -evidence of violence increases

Cardal

-Key Site in Peru during the Initial Period -GOOD Representative of Manchay Culture -Located on the Central Coast of Peru -Local center drawing people to it from the mid-to lower valley, rather than an urban complex that sent people outwards -it was a place designed to hold more people than those who lived there -U-Shaped structure with monster-mouth entrance, with usage of the colors: cream, yellow, red, and black -Site was made to resemble a living monster god, with the priests entering and leaving the atrium literally moving in and out of the maw of the god -Small houses built of adobe located behind the U -16 burials of individuals of all ages/sexes in the central atrium: not sacrifices: were honored people buried here? -Murals and friezes depict fanged monsters -Four circular depressions off right arm with skulls/non-domestic hearths. -most of the major food crops were grown, marine resources imported, and cotton processing was common

Huaca Prieta (Late Preceramic)

-Key Site in Peru during the Late Preceramic -Key site in Early AND Late Preceramic -One of the earliest monumental sites -Famous for early textiles --> cotton! -A single large mound

El Paraiso

-Key Site in Peru during the Late Preceramic -Located on central coast -9 or 10 major structures, with 2 being gigantic -U-shape -some buildings may have combined ceremony, residence, and administration -"unit 1" is the most studied structure

Caral (Late Preceramic)

-Key Site in Peru during the Late Preceramic -Near Aspero -Possibly the world's first state, city, and civilization -20 stone structures over 150 acres -6 large stone built structures, ziggurat-like in form cover the central part of the site -most focused on a central open space/plaza -more site planning around a plaza, clear site organization with most of the main pyramids oriented around an empty space that served as ceremonial space -large standing stones in plazas (huancas) -musical instruments indicate festivals or ceremonies -Major Pyramid --> Piramide Mayor

Kotosh

-Key Site in Peru during the Late Preceramic -in the mountains on a river -Kotosh Religious Tradition -Temple of Crossed Hands: crossed arms modeled in plaster were made underneath niches flanking an entryway, with one set exhibiting right-arm-over-left-arm and the other left-over-right, interpreted as male and female respectively and expressing concepts of DUALISM -the site continues into the Initial Period

La Galgada

-Key Site in Peru during the Late Preceramic -in the mountains on a river -Kotosh Religious Tradition -two main structures with a circular sunken court at the base of larger one -tombs with ceremonial rooms over them -ceremonial chambers were centered around a fire pit, which contained remains of burned stone, shell, and food -probably a link in long-distance exchange systems

Aspero

-Key Site in Peru during the Late Preceramic -Dates 2,900-1,970 -17 mounds, 6 which were ceremonial -Huaco de los Idolos and Huaco de los Sacrificios

Paloma

-Key Site in Peru during the Middle Preceramic -Dates (7,700-5,500 BP) -Central Coast in the Chilca Valley -Short term camp -Three seasons (not occupied in high summer) -Exploited three zones: lomas, river valley, pacific coast -round huts for 5 or 6 families -fishing was probably the main activity -bottle gourds were domesticated already -fog moisture provided drinking water, condensing in pits dug for the purpose -burials near houses implying an attachment to place and some buried with wigs -short lifespan, few people lived to their 40s

Chiripa

-Key Site in Peru/Bolivia during the Early Horizon -Located on Lake Titicaca -Temples around a sunken court, 16 buildings around this court -Narrow chambers were probably used as large food storage bins -Separate chambers used by independent social groups -often compared to Pucara -Altiplano ceremonial architecture and rituals were probably different from the Kotosh Relgious Tradition, BUT sites like this may represent gathering places for smallish social groups, as in the Kotosh tradition

Pucara

-Key Site in Peru/Bolivia during the Early Intermediate Period -Located on the Lake Titicaca Basin -Area of Tiwanaku and Wari -contains 3 large sunken courts -chambers held human remains thought to be local kin groups -iconography represents shaministic practices, human violence, deities, Chachapumas (feline-masked humans) -As Pukara decline, Tihuanaco rises

Monte Verde

-Key site in Chile during the Early Preceramic -Dates 14,800-13,800 BP -Campsite of 20-30 people -Tent-like structures of poles, logs, and planks covered in animal hides and wood, with internal divisions for possible separate living quarters -simple stone tools, no clovis points, as well as cordage(cords or ropes) and wooden tools -variety of plant foods including wild potatoes (solanum maglia), seeds, nuts, berries -hearths found -preservation of this site was good due to the bog-like conditions of the banks of Chinchihuapi Creek

Cotton

-Late Preceramic is often called the Cotton Preceramic -Earliest domesticated at Real Alto -Some communities probably specialized in it, traded for fish, fisherman could make nets

Maranga

-Lima sites had large roofed patios for communal gatherings -largest Lima site -more than 20 mounds, but no clear pattern -largest huacas are in a row and face northeast

New Temple

-Located at Chavin de Huantar -Also called "Castillo" -Old Temple expanded south to face new entrance -used at height of Chavin's influence -Painted stonework (which hid its quality), highly polished carved surfaces (to amaze visitors?) -Architecture oriented to astronomical events/objects (solstices, Pleiades, etc.)

Old Temple

-Located at Chavin de Huantar -Asymmetrical U-shape with circular sunken plaza between the two arms

Key Concepts of the Initial Period

-Markers of the Initial Period: the widespread introduction of pottery and weaving -the development of new art forms and architectural styles -intensified interaction

Sechin Alto

-Nearby site of Cerro Sechin of the Casma Valley -Main mound that covers 17 acres --> probably the largest complex in the New World in its time -Circular courts in front -built partly of conical adobes and use of granite blocks

Abandonment

-Not only socio-polticial explanations -Environmental explanations such as soil salinization, geological uplift, encroaching of dunes into farmland, environment exploitation, and disasters such as El Nino -Sites do not rebound, they are permanent abandonment

Huaca de la Cruz

-One of the 8 locations at Caballo Muerto Complex -Temple was buried with colored sand before construction of new temple: a symbolic act that would only be seen briefly by people...a concern with the invisible/hidden and "essences" -a natural bedrock outcrop is also incorporated which is likely an expression of the sacred character of earth on which the huaca was built, and perhaps at the same time it served to "naturalize" the religion of the temple...shows the seamless continuity between Pachamama (the mother earth of the Inca) and the priests or rulers in charge of the buildings that grow out of her -evidence of drinking rituals and endo-cannibalism -many additions/remodeling

Abandonment of Chavin de Huantar

-Reason is unknown -Led to a period of diversity known as an intermediate period

Key Concepts of the Early Intermediate Period

-Recuay Culture -Gallinazo Culture -Characteristics of Moche Politics and Religion -Senora de Cao -7th century changes in Moche culture -Moche and water/environment -Lima Culture -Nasca lines and geoglyphs

Valdivia Culture

-SouthWest Ecuador -first known for its very early ceramics (Middle Preceramic) -a key site is Real Alto -Fully sedentary, horticultural society with increasing social distinctions and long-range contacts -Beans, cotton, manioc, and maize were grown

Nasca Culture

-Southern coast of Andes, relatively isolated -Cahuachi is a pilgrimage site -More distinct culture after collapse of Chavin -small villages supported by floodwater agriculture -fishing/marine resources -camelid pastrolism -polychrome pottery, 15 pigments made from various minerals, up to 13 pigments on a single vessel -double-spout-and-bridge vessels instead of stirrup spouts --> dualism -religion appears to be rooted in agriculture and fertility --> shamanistic practices likely as well as animism -sacred spaces (huacas) were those believed to have a heavy concentration of these forces

Earliest Andean ceramics are from...

-Valdivia, Ecuador. Found in the lower levels of the Loma Alta site --> end of the the Middle Preceramic -Valdivia is also known for human figurines. Mostly female figurines, with large breasts, curvy hips, elaborate hairstyles/headdresses

Clovis Point

-a particular kind of stone projective point -is evidence for the earliest humans in North America -fluting is a key characteristic

Coprolites

-a piece of fossilized dung -helped to date arrival to the Americas earlier

Neckless Ollas

-also called tecomates -look like gourds -deep bowls -pots and vessels used for cooking, tended not to be decorated, while non-cooking pottery was decorated

Folsom Point

-also fluted -associated with what are usually called Paleoindians, or as Quilter refers to early hunters -But, their diet was diverse

The Kotosh Religious Tradition during the Initial Period

-an Initial Period Phenomenon with roots in the Late Preceramic -disappearance of huancas (upright stone sculptures) from the coast -chambers were filled with burials, new chambers were built on top of them -enclosed and separated chambers designed to highlight the importance of community/equality of people, which contrasts with the enormous ceremonial complexes of the Late Preceramic

Senora de Cao

-buried in the Huaco Cao Viejo, located in the Chicama valley -offerings included nose ornaments and ceremonial spear throwers -healer -burial has features that are linked to Salinar -her weaponry suggests that power in the Chicama Valley was tied to warfare

Advantages of using pottery over gourds:

-can be used to cook food for long periods of time --> maximum nutrition, fermentation

Lima Culture

-centered on the central coast, where the city of Lima is today -contemporary with Moche and Nasca cultures -poorly understood

Temple experience at Chavin

-combined religion, entertainment, performance, and celebration -smoke and music inside and around temples during ceremonies -sudden appearance of priests on balconies -labyrinth within the temple leads to rooms where offerings could be made -canal under the temple created low, rushing sound -hallucinogens and/or alcohol used

Maritime Foundations

-concentration of large Late Preceramic architectural complexes on the central and north coast of Peru is noteworthy -maritime resources were key to development, NOT MAIZE -allowed higher populations and complexity

Holocene Period

-current period that we live in -warmer than the Pleistocene (Ice Age)

U-Shaped Centers

-define the Manchay Archaeological Culture -flat-topped, U-Shaped platform complexes decorated by painted, unbaked clay friezes, oriented north-northeast and with an open space between at least one of the asymmetric arms of the U and a central platform -used for ceremonies and public gatherings -artifacts have simple designs and simple pit burials have few grave goods -actually more J-Shape with a large central mound and 2 adjacent arms of varying lengths -unequal arms of the "U" represented asymmetrical dualism -usually contained complex sculptures/carvings of religious beings, in addition to valuable thin metal foils that were likely crafted using native metals -competition between U-Shaped centers for people to come and support one center as opposed to another

Hierarchy during the Late Preceramic

-developing but was not yet highly marked -who needs political and religious leadership when marine resources are so abundant -hierarchy is more clearly connected to irrigation agriculture

Transition to Late Preceramic

-domestication evolved, maize may have been domesticated for chicha -institutionalized warfare, sacrifice or conflict may have begun in this period -humans begin overexploiting the environment, domestication was the result of trying to make do

Reasons for Moche decline

-el nino caused environmental stress -arrival of new ideas from the Wari culture -influence from Cajamarca

Moche Ceramics

-famous for fine ceramics which often depicted everyday life -found of the stirrup-spout vessel, but also invented new shapes such as the florero -pottery often showed gods interacting and depicted long narratives -noted for portrait head vessels of adult men of high status, lords, or gods -sexually explicit vessels

The Kotosh Religious Tradition

-practiced at La Galgada and Kotosh -in the mountains on rivers...NOT on the coast -less impressive than the bigger sites of the Late Preceramic -Kiva-like chambers built by ordinary families or other groups -"A little tradition" -Probably central religious centers for prosperous farming communities -men and women buried with textiles, bone pins, beads, and stone bowls -age range may represent extended family organization, differentiated but NOT highly stratified -extensive irrigation agriculture and good location for exchange between coast and highlands -religion for ordinary people!

Manchay Culture

-refers to the Initial Period U-Shaped Centers from the Lurin Valley to the Chancay Valley, along with a shared sets of artifacts and practices -common iconographic style -contain simple pit burials with few grave goods -pottery suggests interaction among these sites -Cardal is a good representative of Manchay Culture -asymmetrical dualism -no sharp class divisions/ social stratification. relatively simple homes and burial practices suggest that ordinary people and those in charge of ceremonies were similar in status -community economical specialization: suggested by the presence of fish remains at Cardal but no fishing gear, so Cardal got its fish from coastal communities

Fibre-Tempered

-refers to the inclusion of fragments of plant material, such as palmetto leaves, sometimes burnt, in the clay to give it strength and durability -associated with hunter gatherers

Politics and Religion during the Initial Period

-religion and politics were inseparable -ceremonial complexes which share similar architectural designs suggests a politico-religious belief system practiced across vast regions -iconography and artifacts also indicated continuity practices both before and after the Initial period -Quilter compares these early temples to Hindu temples, where diverse activities occurred with complex personnel to manage things

Endo-cannibalism

-remains of the beloved departed were eaten in reverence to absorb some of their essence into living communicants, this is a practice known for the Amazon -or in other words, eating people from within your own group to reincorporate the dead into society

Kiva

-round to square chambers used by individual social units (extended families) in the Kotosh Religious Tradition -contained small hearths within

Stages versus Phases

-stage is a rise or collapse, the event -phase is when it happened, a chronological period that the stage happens in

single-handed mace with a stone or bronze head

-standard weapon of the Recuay culture -first people in the Andes known to have extensively used the lost wax technique of metal casting

Yaya-Mama

-tall pillars carved with distinctive symbolic elements are a hallmark of Formative Period Titicaca Basin religious complexes (note, this period is in the Early Horizon) -It is a term derived from Quechua words for father (yaya) and mother (mama) -A dominant motif of the sculptures is a pair of stylized male and female figures commonly portrayed with hands on chest and stomach -other elements include single-headed and bicephalic serpents, tadpoles, zig-zags, and distinctive crosses -comparable to huancas

Nasca Life

-wells called pukios supported agriculture -maize became more important to the Andean diet in this region -evidence for ranked society -general decrease in health with increased sedentism -warfare was prolific -environmental problems were probably at least partly anthropogenic

Shared shapes and decoration of pottery suggest...

-widespread interaction -but earlier pottery is from tropical forest regions, but cooler and dryer climate may have led the migration of people with pottery from tropical regions to the Central Andes

4 Major Schools of thought in the archaeology of the Andes

1. civilizational (historical) 2. marxism 3. processualism (New Archaeology) 4. post-processualism

Key Concepts/ Issues of the Late Preceramic

1. regional distinctions become more marked 2. maritime resources led to high activity on the Central and Northern coast of Peru: -maritime resources + addition of crops = sets stage for the spectacular stuff that follows 3. Cotton production near the coast stimulates interaction with inland valleys and highlands 4. origins of the state with large populations and hierarchy (Caral) 5. The Kotosh Religious Tradition: in La Galgada and Kotosh. A little tradition. Probably central religious centers for prosperous farming communities 6. First metal known in South America is from this period --> gold beads in highland Bolivia

Mesoamerica defined culturally

260-day ritual calendar combined with 365 solar calendar= 52 year cycle writing astronomy ball game urbanism (one of 7 world areas where cities were invented) markets and ports of trade wars human sacrifice and autosacrifice (letting of one's own blood) polytheism

shifting cultivation

A form of subsistence agriculture in which people shift activity from one field to another; each field is used for crops for relatively few years and left fallow for a relatively long period.

El Nino

A warm ocean current that flows along the coast of Peru every seven to fourteen years

Charnel House Mound

a building or vault in which corpses or bones are piled. mostly for high-ranking villagers

Casma Valley Sites

Cerro Sechin (Key Site) Sechin Alto Pampa de la Llamas

Key Sites in the Early Horizon Period

Chavin de Huantar, Peru Paracas Cavernas and Paracas Necropolis, Peru Carhua, Peru Chiripa, Peru/Bolivia

Highlands and Altiplano political organization during the Early Horizon

Chiefdoms

Earliest Ceramics in the Americas were found in...

Colombia at the San Jacinto site NOT in the Central Andes

Key Sites of the Initial Period

Cotocollao, Ecuador Cardal, Peru Cerro Sechin, Peru Caballo Muerto Complex, Peru Gramalote, Peru

Spread South

Fast

Key Sites of the Early Intermediate Period

Gallinazao Group, Peru Moche, Peru Huaca Pucllana, Peru Cahuachi, Peru Pucara, Peru/Bolivia

ayllu

In Incan society, a small community or family group whose members worked together for the common good of the peoples.

Chiefdom

It is a form of hierarchical political organization in which the chief of one village may have power over other villages in the area. This is often based on redistribution of resources rather than force

Huaca Herederos Grande

Largest mound at Caballo Muerto Complex

Early, Middle, and Late Archaic

Local phase names for periods which span the Early and Middle Preceramic

3 Distinct Areas in the Initial Period

Manchay Sites: on Central Coast of Peru, such as Cardal Casma Valley: also on the coast of Peru, sites such as Cerro Sechin Caballo Muerto Complex in the Moche Valley (Cupisnique culture)

Key Sites of the Early Preceramic Period

Monte Verde, Chile Quebrada Jaguay, Peru Las Vegas, Ecuador Huaca Prieta, Peru

Language of the Aztecs

Nahuatl

Key Site of Middle Preceramic

Paloma, Peru

Many Key Sites of the Late Preceramic may have been...

Pilgrimage centers and the people who managed them may not have been all that powerful, Quilter compares them to the staff of a country club

Key Sites of the Late Preceramic

Real Alto, Ecuador Huaca Prieta, Peru Aspero, Peru Caral, Peru El Paraiso, Peru La Galgada, Peru Kotosh, Peru

Petroglyphs

Rock art carvings made by scratching or pecking the surface of exposed stone.

Transhumance

The seasonal migration of livestock between mountains and lowland pastures.

Friezes

a broad horizontal band of sculpted or painted decoration, especially on a wall near the ceiling

Radiocarbon dating

all prehistoric dates are calibrated with this method

Draught Animal

animal used for pulling heavy loads. None in Mesoamerica

Salinar Culture

another Moche predecessor known mostly through ceramics

Cotton Preceramic

another name for Late Preceramic

Analogy with the human colonization of Austrailia

assume that colonial movements with boats explain the rapid spread of people south

Quetzal

bird that many consider among the world's most beautiful. These vibrantly colored animals live in the mountainous, tropical forests of Central America

Ossuaries

container or room where bones of dead people are placed

Fiesta House Mound

contains evidence of feasting

Irrigation during the Late Preceramic

contributed to growth and complexity

Flexed Position

distinctive burial tradition during the Middle Preceramic possible cannibalism

Mexico was...

diverse both environmentally and in resources

Two Seasons of Mexico

dry and wet

Key Concepts of the Central Andes

dualism, movement, and flux

Rise of Tiahuanaco

due to militarism, trade, and the creation of religious centers that created patterns of growth and expansion

marxism thought

economic base and how the economy influences the substructure contradictions and conflict lead to social change

Peru in the Late Preceramic

emergence of circular semi-subterranean plaza sometimes paired with rectilinear buildings with staircases

civilizational (historical) thought

evolutionary progression

Early Ceramics may have been used for...

fermented beverages --> brewing

Huaco de los Idolos

flat-topped pyramid with central stairway topped by interconnected rooms, probably shrines; dates 2900-1970 BC located at Aspero

In tropical lowlands, nutrients were locked up in...

forest canopy

Pottery can tell archaeologists:

interaction, cooking, serving, economics (trade, specialization), religion/ritual, social structure/hierarchy, gender, etc.

Pastoralism

herding of camelids like llama, alpaca, guanaco, and vicuna

anthropology is...

holistic

Conflict in the Late Preceramic...

increased

Horticulture

less intensive form of agriculture which uses less technology; is often compared to gardening

camay

life force

3 or 4 Key Foods of Mesoamerica

maize squash beans chile peppers

Ollas

more plate like

Processualism (New Archaeology) thought

more scientific emphasis on the environment cross-cultural generalizations

Textiles during the Initial Period

mostly cotton on the coast, but sometimes wool in the highlands

Isthmus of Tehuantepec

narrow strip of land separating the Gulf of Mexico from the Pacific Ocean

Chilean remains dating to 11,000 BP

no clovis points instead fishtail points

Maize

not very important to development until AFTER Chavin during the Initial Period

Language in Mesoamerica

over 100 (125?) in 14 families

Politics and Society during the Late Preceramic

political organization was the same as social organization and based on kin relationships

Replacement of Gourds in the Initial Period by...

pottery vessels

agropastoral economy

practice of agriculture that includes both the growing of crops and the raising of livestock

Chinchorro culture

practiced mummification

Maize in the Middle Preceramic

present by about 7000BC but it was not a central food

Central Andes is defined by...

region of the Inca Empire

egalitarian

relating to or believing in the principle that all people are equal and deserve equal rights and opportunities.

Post-Processualism thought

return to variable meanings interpretations matter sweeping generalizations are now questions

alluvial soil

rich soil made up of sand and mud deposited by running water basically river soil that is very rich

huacas

sacred site

Power during the Late Preceramic

seems to be acquired rather than ascribed

New World Settlers

sophisticated hunter-gatherers and brought domesticated gourds and dogs

animism

supernatural forces present in nature have power

iconography

the study of a group of representative pictures or symbols

Huaco de los Sacrificios

two rooms at the top with sacrificial or dedicatory burials two-month old infant and an un-sexed adult were found in the floor of one room and are among the earliest known examples of Andean human sacrifice located at Aspero

huanca

upright stone sculpture/monument

ethnohistory

use of historic records to understand the precontact past

Gulf Coast

very hot and wet home of the Olmec

horizon style

widely distributed but relatively short lived think of a sunset