ANTH Test 3 Thru Chapter 13
Headman
A person who holds a powerless but symbolically unifying position in a community within an egalitarian society; may exercise influence but has no power to impose sanctions. Inuit—> headman learns from other members , older man Most people adhere to him
Totem
A plant or animal associated with a clan (sib) as a means of group identification; may have other special significance for the group. Clan members may be forbidden to kill or eat their totem
Religious Functions
Clan or lineage may have its own religious beliefs and practices, worshiping its own gods or goddesses and ancestral spirits
The Need for Uncertainty
Forces direct behavior, pushing them to resist what is wrong, pulling to do what is right- forces of public opinion, custom and law Invisible and unexplained, people feel them as mysterious forces and therefore believe in gods/ spirits
The Careless Technology
By Farvar and Milton Innappropriate + Ethnocentric response
Matrilocal Residence
A pattern of residence in which a married couple lives with or near the wife's parents.
Avunculocal Residence
A pattern of residence in which a married couple settles with or near the husband's mother's brother.
Defined ways of behaving in different castes
- emphasis on exclusivity - caste marries within class - can many close castes in india you can't marry both - send people to check castes - Iff marry lover you move down to the caste
Neolocal Residence
A pattern of residence whereby a married couple lives separately, and usually at some distance, from the kin of both spouses. Couples live with or near a particular set of in laws
2009 Change in Tibet
China Mobile reached nomad culture Hear people on phone speaking chinese, start to learn it Big change
Chief
A person who exercises authority, usually on behalf of a multicommunity political unit. This role is generally found in rank societies and is usually permanent and often hereditary
Unilocal Residence
A pattern of residence (patrilocal, matrilocal, or avunculocal) that specifies just one set of relatives that the married couple lives with or near.
Bilocal Residence
A pattern of residence in which a married couple lives with or near either the husband's parents or the wife's parents
Material Possessions
2000-2006 Materials increase
1986 Animals
5322 Animals Divided #hh<30 animals per person (19%) - #hh with 30-67 per person (62%) Less mortality more survival--> Change to how well animals lived and grew directly affected family 2005: 7158 (+35%) 30 animals/ person 27% change, rich got more
CHAPTER 9
9.1 Discuss the cross-cultural variation in the types of political organization What are some factors that may explain change in political organization? 9.2 Explain the spread of state societies How might the spread of state societies be explained? 9.3 Describe and explain the variation in political structure in various societies What are some examples of different political processes? What may explain the differences? 9.4 Critically examine the methods used for resolving conflict, including warfare, in different societies What are some of the different types of mechanisms for resolving conflict peacefully and violently? Provide examples
Animism:
A belief in dual existence for all things— a physical, visible body and a psychic, invisible soul Some disagree with tylor (R. R. Marett—> Preceded creation of spirits, have to add emotional factor) Anthropomorphizing— an attempt to understand what is otherwise incomprehensible and disturbing
Animatism
A belief in supernatural forces
Band
A fairly small, usually nomadic, local group that is politically autonomous
Nuclear Family
A family consisting of a married couple and their young children
Extended Family
A family consisting of two or more single-parent, monogamous, polygynous or polyandrous families linked by a blood tie
Independent Family
A family unit consisting of one monogamous (nuclear) family, or one polygynous or one polyandrous family
Ordeal
A means of determining guilt or innocence by submitting the accused to dangerous or painful tests believed to be under supernatural control
Patrilocal Residence
A pattern of residence in which a married couple lives with or near the husband's parents.
Chiefdom
A political unit, with a chief at its head, integrating more than one community but not necessarily the whole society or language group
Taboo
A prohibition that if violated is believed to bring supernatural punishment E.g. food, places, animals, sexual touching and other forms of touching
The Shaman
A religious intermediary, usually part time whose primary function is to cure people through sacred songs, pantomime and other means; sometimes called witch doctor by westerners Deals with spirits to help or prevent harm Uses trance or other form of consciousness and journeys to other worlds SOmeone may be called to be a shaman through dreams, enhance vividness of imagery by hallucinogens, sleep or food deprivation or extensive physical activity- dancing Shamastic training can take several years under master Shaman
Clan
A set of kin whose members believe themselves to be descended from a common ancestor or ancestress but cannot specify the links back to that founder; often designated by a totem. Also called a sib.
Lineages
A set of kin whose members trace descent from a common ancestor through known links.
Nation
A set of people sharing a common territory, history, and a sense of identity.
Raiding
A short-term use of force, generally planned and organized, to realize a limited objective. Prevalent in pastoral societies Self-perpetuating
Family
A social and economic unit consisting minimally of a parent and a child In most societies family and the household tend to be indistinguishable, only in complex societies and commercial exchange may some members of a family live elsewhere
Feuding
A state of recurring hostility between families or groups of kin, usually motivated by a desire to avenge an offense against a member of the group. Members of kin group carry responsibility to avenge an offense Inuit community- feud caused by husband killing wife's lover that lasted for decades Lasts years No means limited to small societies- occur just as frequently in high political organization societies
Mana
A supernatural impersonal force that inhabits certain objects or people and is believed to confer success and/ or strength Malayo-Polenesian word E.g. Ballplayer might think cetain pants have supernatural power/ force: four leaf clover has mana, three leaf clover does not
Double Unilineal Descent
A system that affiliates individuals with a group of matrilineal kin for some purposes and with a group of patrilineal kin for other purposes.
Phratries
A unilineal descent group composed of a number of supposedly related clans (sibs).
Moiety
A unilineal descent group in a society that is divided into two such maximal groups; there may be smaller unilineal descent groups as well.
Scalding
Accused person has to reach hand into boiling water and grasp for a rock suspended there Then plunges hand into cold water Spends night with guard, if blisters in morning= guilty Found in almost every part of world Common in western society "Cross my heart and hope to die" Witnesses are obliged to swear/ tell the truth
AIDS
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome, a disease caused by the HIV virus HIV- immunodeficiency virus causes it- only recent emmergence Millions don't know they're infected Deaths declined 48 percent from 2005 to 2011 Sub-Saharan Africa, deaths declined 33% Fewer people are dying from aids (From 2005-2011) Some areas have gotten worse Long time for symptoms to appear- transmittable to others Transmitted through sex/ blood/ semen Drug users Pregnant woman to offspring through placenta and after birth through breast milk 20%--40% Children are at a risk because they are likely to be orphaned- 14 million children were parentless because of AIDS Most think of AIDS Behavioral, cultural and political issues need to be addressed as well Medical solution alone will not be sufficient Vacccination will -- require people at risk to be willing to get vaccinated and t Researchers who have studied reasons for parental refusal find that refusers are likely to believe that vaccines are not necessary to protect child or that vaccines are not safe→ more higher status/ educated families Clinton Health Access Initialtive: Negotiated reduced cost for 70 poorer countries Usually transmitted from Man to Woman Condom use is now required in brothels Predominant programs have not been helpful where epidemic is generalized, ned new methods, may have negative effects E.g. testing negative may result in more risky behavior Have not tried to change sexual behavior Low cost education programs stressing abstinence and avoidance of mutiple sexual partners Ed may also emphasize wrong message- risk of HIV transmission UN observed for most women in the world, major risk factor is being married Lower likelihood of condom use
Unilineal Descent
Affiliation with a group of kin through descent links of one sex only.
Animals
Allow them to carry things which is why they were able to dominate the salt trade for so long
Statistical Control Analysis
Allows us to see if a particular factor still predicts when the effects of other possible factors are removed When possible effect of sex ratio is removed, effects of other factors are removed like on long-postpartum sex taboo no longer predicts polygyny Behavioral ecologists- behavioral ecologists have also suggested ecological reasons why both men and women might prefer polygynous marriages Foraging societies in which men control hunting or fishing territories are more likely to be polygynous Degree of disease in the environment may also be a factor Bobbi Low suggested a high incidence of disease may reduce "healthy" men- may advantage woman to marry a 'healthy" man even if he he is married Predicted polygyny in modern nations as well
3 Main Types of Affiliation with Kin
Ambilinal Descent, Bilateral Kinship, Patri/Matrilineal Descent
State
An autonomous political unit with centralized decision making over many communities with power to govern by force (e.g. to collect taxes, draft people to work and war, and make and enforce laws). Most states have cities with public buildings, full time craft and religious specialists, an official art style, a hierarchical social structure toppled by an elite class and a governmental monopoly on the legitimate use of force to implement policies monopoly develops special instruments of control Society may achieve more than one state Eg Germany and Austria- both speak Austrian
Religion
Any set of attitudes, beliefs and practices pertaining to supernatural power, whether that power rests in forces, gods, spirits, ghosts or demons
Getting Development Programs to Include Women Farmers:
Applied Anthropology Delegation of women told researcher to be a woman is to be a farmer Development agents often downplay this role of women Complex agriculture increases women's time in the field US Agency for international development Formed new program, success was not just due to its design, also due to Malawi's willingness to change
Caste System in India
Arises from ancient philosophical texts Top: Brahmans- most pure (inherent) Kshatriyas- Vaisha Shudra -- Untouchables/ Dalits-- Not considered part of system, most impure Ascribed--> Assigned by how you lived your past life Humans can create vastly different cultural template
Matrilocal VS Patrilocal Residence
Assumed that if married children live near/ with kin, the pattern of residence will tend to be patrilocal if males contribute more to the economy and matrilocal if women contribute more However cross cultural evidence does not support this When women do equal or more subsistence work, tendency is not any more likely matrilocal than patrilocal Women usually do more inside/ outside home combined→ Most societies are not matrilocal
British Ambassador
Ate beef, still honored by higher cstes but had to follow rules e.g. didn't use toilet paper outside, hand/ water Wife had to leave house when menstruating
Revitalisation Movements
Attempts to restore such societies to their former confidence and prosperity.
The Spread of State Societies
Band, tribal and chiefdom societeis, armies ready to fight at any time, waged war against chiefdoms and tribes and have almost always won, politically incorporate losers (E.g. incorporation of Native Americans) This partly was due to disease Number of independent political units in the world has decreased strikingly in the last 3000 years and in last 200 years 1000 BC, May have been between 100,000 and 1 million separate political units in the world, today there are fewer than 200 40% of 2000 societies described with last 150 years had local political integration Theorists think world will eventually come to be politically integrated, maybe by 23d century and no later than 4850
Elman Service Four types of political organization
Bands, tribes, chiefdoms, states—> Show how societies create and maintain social order
Gods
Beings
Monotheistic
Believing that there is only one high god and that all other supernatural beings are subordinate to, or are alternative manifestations of, this supreme being
Tibetans Fraternal Polyandry
Biological paternity seems to be of no particular concern- no attempt to link children biologically to a particular brother, all children are treated the same Explanation: Shortage of women - Toda practiced female infaticide Excess of men is rare cross-culturally Another possible explanation is that polyandry is an adaptive response to severely limited resources. Melvyn Goldstein studied Tibetans who live in the northwestern corner of Nepal, above 12,000 feet in elevation. Cultivable land is extremely scarce there, with most families having less than an acre. The people say they practice fraternal polyandry to prevent the division of a family's farm and animals. Instead of dividing up their land among them and each taking a wife, brothers preserve the family farm by sharing a wife. Although not recognized by the Tibetans, their practice of polyandry minimizes population growth. There are as many women as men of marriageable age. But about 30 percent of the women do not marry, and, although these women do have some children, they have far fewer than married women. Thus, the practice of polyandry minimizes the number of mouths to feed and therefore maximizes the standard of living of the polyandrous family. In contrast, if the Tibetans practiced monogamy and almost all women married, the birth rate would be much higher and there would be more mouths to feed with the severely limited resources.
Concepts of Balance and Equilibrium
Body should be kept in equilibrium or balance- in latin america/ Caribbean Ancient Greek system of medicine stemming from Hippocrates assumed that there were four humors Blood, phlegm, yellow bile, black bile Greek med system was diffused in Europe/ Islamic world Ayurvedic system - 4000 years North India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Arab world Chinese med system, dates back about 3500 years, initially stressed balance between contrasting forces of yin and yang and later added the concept of humors which were six in number in Chinese medicine Yin/Yang concepts illustrated in Emily Ahern's ethnographic description of med system of Taiwan Hokkien- both hot and cold, when out of balance can be restored by drinking missing substance Loss of blood means loss of heat After childbiirth women mostly eat mix of Chicken wine and sesame oil- hot soup Hot- generally oily, sticky or from animals, cold things soupy, watery, made from plants
Sorcerers and Witches
Both sexes, have low social and economic status Feared, know how to invoke supernatural to cause illness, injury, death Proving witchcraft has not prevented people from accusing and killing others from being witches
Guy Swanson
Certain aspects or conditions of society generate what we call religious but he thought Durkheim was too vague
The Shaman
Charismatic leaders, perform many functions in societies lacking political hierarchies, role as medical practitioner After working with shamans in Africa, E. Fuller Torrey, a psychiatrist and anthropologist, concluded that they use the same mechanisms and techniques to cure patients as psychiatrists and achieve about the same results. He isolated four categories used by healers the world over: 1. The naming process. If a disease has a name—"neurasthenia" or "phobia" or "possession by an ancestral spirit" will do—then it is curable; the patient realizes that the doctor understands his case. 2. The personality of the doctor. Those who demonstrate some empathy, nonpossessive warmth, and genuine interest in the patient get results. 3. The patient's expectations. One way of raising the patient's expectations of being cured is the trip to the doctor; the longer the trip—to the Mayo Clinic, Menninger Clinic, Delphi, or Lourdes—the easier the cure. An impressive setting (the medical center) and impressive paraphernalia (the stethoscope, the couch, attendants in uniform, the rattle, the whistle, the drum, the mask) also raise the patient's expectations. The healer's training is important. And high fees also help to raise a patient's expectations. (The Paiute doctors always collect their fees before starting a cure; if they don't, it is believed that they will fall ill.) 4. Curing techniques. Drugs, shock treatment, conditioning techniques, and so on have long been used in many different parts of the world.
Herdache
Cheyenne Native Americans of the Great Plains see this as multi gender- "Two spirit" Boys wear women's dress and take on many of the activities of women Female "two-spirits" marry women, lesbian relationships
Race as a social Category
Children and people sort things into groups- easy to use Racial classification to divide "us" from "them" in supposedly biological differences Used to justify discrimination One of the most orthodox Jewish groups is composed entirely of African Americans Social bias of racial classification is arbitrary
Cross-Cousins
Children of siblings of the opposite sex. One's cross-cousins are the father's sisters' children and mother's brothers' children.
Parallel Cousins
Children of siblings of the same sex. One's parallel cousins are the father's brothers' children and the mother's sisters' children. Female parallel cousins will maintain respectful relationship, while male parallel cousins will have more joking relationship- signifies possibility of marriage
Undernutrition
Combination of particular plants also provide complement of protein Tortillas and frijoles provide many amino acids Bread as staple, wheat also provides protein Thrifty genes-- adaptive during famine, may become maladaptive when food is readily available High prevalence of diabetes and obesity in many populations today may be linked to such genes Commercial cash crops have created undernutrition Sisal: Agricultural product land used for sisal growing, small landholders Lack of nutrition = weight deficiencies Even with economic differences with sisal production, 45% of children from lower economic groups were undernourished as compared with 23 percent of those children from the higher economic groups In 2008, not only was there a global economic recession, but there were serious increases in the cost of food. There were riots and demonstrations in over 50 countries, and it was estimated that 40 million more people became undernourished in 2008 on top of the already existing 923 million people. Some examples where nutrition improved when families in New Guinea started growing coffee for sale Extra money earned allowed them to buy canned fish and rice Food deprivation sometimes starts in infancy-- e.g. girl babies weaned earlier than boy babies in India Food production is hurt by terrorizing the population, disrupting migration routes and health care services, recruiting people for military service or outright killing
Decollectivization
Commune dissolved Changes not because global warming, environmental but because chinese government Give back equal share of animals Each received 37 Animals for each land
Big Men
Competition to attract followers Needs to sometimes have money Wive(s) usually also have power
Anthropomorphic
Conceived in the image of a person- although sometimes given the shapes of other animals or of celestial bodies such as sun or moon Some gods create themselves and then create/ give birth to other gods Creator gods retire in some cases, in others they pay attention to life on earh and human beings, or choose one segment of humanity Specialization of gods can vary
Medical Practitioners
Consult full time medical specialist (if we don't feel better quickly) Effectiveness of other medical systems based in part on symbolic or ritual healing The form of treatment may be just as important as the content of treatment
Extended Family Household
Couples that live in same household as kin
Treatment
Culture influences disease symptoms, incidence and treatment We should expect a cultures conception and treatment of illness to be unique like its practices Cross cultural similarities: Natiev remedies contain chemicals that are the same as or used 0in western biomedicine Mayan studies have emphasized beliefs about illness based on supernatural causes, a good deal of maya ethnomedicine is about natural conditions, their signs and symptoms and remedies used to deal with tthose conditions Maya have a wide range of understanding of anatomy, physiology and symptoms Hot cold theories of illness in Latin America - neglects other factors about reproductive/ female health Browner: Certain plants used to expel substance from uterus, to facilitate labor, to produce an abortion, to induce menstrual flow. Most plant remedies appear to work Traditional medicinal remedies are more conscious in biomedical establishment now Learning from other culture's remedies and diets Hasa have 72 plant treatments, also eat antimalarial plants for malaria prevention
Unilineal Descent
Descent lineage
"Great Father"
Determines bride price, settles disputes, administers punishment, and plans for new buildings Three iroquoi women sing in an iroquois longhouse in Ontario Wife may feel like an outsider Husband comes to live with or near his wife's parents, the wife and her kin take on greater importance- husband is outsider Not the sisters (or daughters of the matriarch) who become the kin group's decision-makers
Anthropologists as Advocates and Collaborators
Development anthropologists have played an important role researching and documenting the mostly negative effects on populations that have been relocated. Occasionally, a few projects have had better outcomes and researchers try to understand what factors appear to ameliorate the situation. Two factors critical to success appear to be collecting good data in affected communities prior to the project and consulting with the community. Population involved in decision making Applied anthropologists increasingly asked to work on behalf of indigenous grassroots organizations, which have proliferated recently in the developing world E.g. Kenyan farmers in grassroots organizations produce higher farm yields than farmers who do not belong even though the latter is exposed to more agricultural extension agents Large development projects planned by powerful governments or agencies rarely are stoppable, but can be successfully resisted- e.g. Kayapo stopped dam building by brazilian government for hydroelectric power- interntl attention Were not opposed to all change- wanted better access to medical care, other gov services and manufactured goods from outside
Fundamentalism
Different interpretations of what this means→ Religious or political movements that appear in response to rapidly changing environment of the modern world, occurs in many religions Each movement is different but all have selective use of scripture to inspire and assert proof of particular certainties, quest for purity and traditional values in what is viewed as an impure world; active opposition to what is viewed as a permissive secular soeity and nation-state that separates religion from the state, incorporation of selected modern elements such as television to promote the movement's aims Antoun suggests that fundamentalist movements deliberately push certain practices because the leaders know they will outrage the secular opposition. Protestant churches considered radical social movements at first, intepretations change
Jati
Different smaller casts within villages, can roughly judge to see what village they are in You're expected to act in the away your caste acts, acting like a higher caste is punished Since it's their own karma that ed them to be own caste Behaviors-- more polluting impure behaviors Burying dead= untouchables
Pacification
Disappearance of warfare Men and women get more freedom to travel War provides path to leadership, champion wariors would acquire great renown and influence Women have less of an opportunity to acquire influence now But this may change as more women learn English May be more likely to achieve leadership roles Its easier to explore persons ability to achieve leadership through non-hereditary Certain Faces are more likely to win —> Less "babyish" features, more masculine facial qualities are preferred in war, feminine qualities in peaceful time
Truck Use
Discussions of new traits does not mean the successful integration of these trait Government encouraging business - Initially failed, but after a couple years learned how to use/fix truck -- Use tractors now, don't load up yaks anymore to move as nomads They're adopted a technology that fits their own personal/way of managing herds traditionally
Toteism
Nothing inherent in a lizard, rat or frog (animal totemss) would be sufficient to make them sacred, and hence totems are symbold Clan affirms the ritual
US Culture
Do not have mat/pat, families are - we pass names down main kinship groups - unless there is a function, it is not mat/ patrilineal
Democracy and Economic Development (App Anth)
Does economic development affect political participation? Comparative research- cross-national Some have different election processes, different levels of economic development= more democratic - economy icreases degree of social equality in the country; and more equality among interest groups, more demanded participation in the political process, hence more democracy Cross cultural or ethnographic record anthropologists? More hierarchal chiefdoms and states have more concentrated power, less political participation than band/ tribal societies and foraing economies In ethnographic record more economic developed societies likely to have more advanced technology, more conductive to concentratied wealth than hunter-gatherer subsistence or shifting cultivation—> More economically developed societies have more social inequality and therefore less democracy
Freud Reversion to Childhood Feelings
Early humans lived in groups dominated by a tyrannical man who kept all women for himself Totem pole modeled after the father —> Religion Most do not agree with Freud- however events in infancy can have strong effect on adult beliefs, helpless and dependent children- view them as all-knowing, all-powerful Feelings about supernatural world parallel feelings in everyday life
Violent Resolution of Conflict
Foragers recently have generally been peaceful, warfare has increased over time overall But past have considerable fighting Violence has declined markedly over the course of history Enormous variation between different societies
Organized Cultures
Ethnographic research involves stdying this but not only this Also aims to enable businesses to asses the needs of potential customers and users Business anthropologists often do not have the luxury of a year or more of study Usually have a few days or weeks for a rapid assessment Differences in cultures can have profound effects on how people work together Communication is much more than the formal understanding of another language Japan and China - countries with negative messages are less likely than messages expressing politeness and harmony Time is money and valuable in every culture If a meeting is arranged and the other person is late, say, by 45 minutes, people from the United States consider it rude; but such a delay is well within the range of acceptable behavior in many South American countries. Business usually asks for help in understanding organizational culture when they perceive a problem Rigid Hierarchy Culture may interfere with mergers, hirig, changing to meet business needs, even parking lots can have differences
Same cultural template
Even with new technology still maintains cultural values - e.g. motorcyclist has pictures of old dhali lama as form of protesting current system
Pollution & Purity
Every caste has potential for pollution and purity by birm Brahmans have the most potential Untouchables usually do not have interaction with other groups- lost potential - foods/ materials also have purity/ impurity Brahmans don't eat meat Mutton above pork above beef- only eaten by untouchables - Clay absorbs pollution more, can't be cleansed -- metals can be cleansed ritually e.g. when he went with wife sun, no AC< people selling tea, drink then throw on platform-- famine - silk conducts pollution less - rice absorbs pollution more than fried foods, phaka foods - much increased restriction about rice deals
Matrilineal Descent
Female descent Relatives who are not in the family. If you marry somebody in theory will not be part of lineages People who are descents of lineages
Political Organization/ Political Life
Focused on activities and beliefs pertaining to territorial groups The different types of political organizations as well as how people participate in poiitics and how they cope with conlict are often linked to variation in food-getting, economy and social stratification
Environmental Anthropology
Focuses on issues relating to the interaction of humans with their environments, at the local, regional, and global levels, particularly on how to understand and alleviate the degradation of the environment. Forest management programs Gov retains ownership of forest/ trees, responsibilities and benefits shared with communities OR Communities register for full ownership with full responsibility Roots in colonial times Sometimes fixes do not actually solve the problems- lead to more problems e.g. with forest reserves, increase tensions Dealing with tension led to pilot programs- tree/ limb exchange But these technological advances alone are not sufficient, for without research on the ground, scientists cannot be sure how the land is used now and in the past. For: instance, they would want to know whether land was previously burned, or when the land was last logged, what species of tree have been cut, how many people live in a household or how households allocate labor. Climate change is a worldwide phenomenon Understanding resilience of local communities and their resourcefulness is necessary Distrust of city and distrust of action plan makes it difficult to do this City government id implement some suggestions Problem with people not being educated
Indian ANTH went to village, met untouchable who had gore to study , got PHD, invited by highest family in village, very proud
Food outside house- banana leaf plate Thought india was becoming egalitarian However when he left another untouchable, cleaned his leaf because higher class would not touch it Progress but still pollution
Codified Laws
Formal principles for resolving disputes in heterogenous and stratified societies Societies lack specialized offices and institutions for dealing with conflict, but there are certain disputes with the principle that each, regulate individual and group conduct and to prevent redress or punish deviations from prescribed social norms Each people has its system of social control. And all but a few of the poorest of them have as a part of the control system a complex of behavior patterns and institutional mechanisms that we may properly treat as law. For, "anthropologically considered, law is merely one aspect of our culture—the aspect that employs the force of organized society to regulate individual and group conduct and to prevent redress or punish deviations from prescribed social norms." 77 Hoebel How do you know what the laws are without codified law? Hoebels view too narrow- gossip, shunning, public opinion can be effective in absence of force Law whether formal or informal means of dealing peacefully with whatever conflicts develop-
Anxiety and Uncertainty
Freud did not view religion as positive- thought humans would outgrow need for it Malinowski thought all societies are faced with anxiety/ uncertainty, skills/ knowledge to take care of many needs but knowledge is not sufficient to prevent illlness, accidents and natural disasters Death is most frightening Religious ceremonies help people be comforted by it Therapeutic (James, Jung and Fromm and Maslow) Resolve inner conflict and attain maturity Framework of values (Fromm) Transcendental understanding of the world (Maslow) Religion is correlated with better health (e.g. going to church lowers blood pressure) Less inequality, economic prosperity,less conflict leads to lower rates of religion
Large Scale Confrontations
Generally attacked without warning, victims often unable to muster immediate defense Large scale confrontations = large # of people and planning of strategies of attack and defense by both sides Support specialized armies, military leaders, strategists, et. Not limited to state societies Occur among horticultural and others Dani battles—> Fewer fighters and less sophisticated weapons Formal battles announced through a challenge by one side to opposing side Challenge must be accepted, then meet at place to fight, may have rest period Insults are shouted, Front line a dozen active warriors and few leaders, second line who have just left or preparing to join it Third line noncombatants- males too young, old or recovering Grassy plain, think ancestral ghosts guide them
Priests
Generally fulltime specialists, with very high status, who are thought to be able to relate to superior or high gods beyond the ordinary person's access or control. Training- fasting, praying, physical labor Don't receive a fee for services but are supported by donations from parishioners or followers Material well-being is a direct reflection of their position in the priestly hierarchy The dependence on memorized ritual both marks and protects the priest. If a shaman repeatedly fails to effect a cure, he will probably lose his following, for he has obviously lost the support of the spirits. But if a priest performs his ritual perfectly and the gods choose not to respond, the priest will usually retain his position and the ritual will preserve its assumed effectiveness. The nonresponse of the gods will be explained in terms of the people's unworthiness of supernatural favor.
Democracy
Governments brought to power by periodic contested elections, a chief executive either popularly elected or responsible to an elected legislature and often also civil liberties like free speech 12-15 countries qualified as democratic at beginning of 20th century, number decreased post WWI, dictatorships in Russia, Italy, Germany and central Europe, Japan and elsewhere replaced democratic institutions NATO were not democracies and neither were many members of wider Western alliance system 1970s and 1980s people, not just polisci start noticing that democracy becoming mroe common Bush and Clinton (candidate) were talking about the spread of democratic peace Some countries do not find it appealing because movement and acceptance of ideas are different things
Clinical Variation
Gradient of skin color
Sovereign Groups
Groups that have independent jurisdiction (Decision making powers) over some sphere of life— the family, clan, village, state Such groups are not mortal and persist beyond lifetimes of individual members Spirits or gods that people invent personify or represent the powerful decision making groups in their society. Spirits/ gods are immortl and have purposes that superseded those of individuals just like sovereign groups in society
Ritual Reconciliation-- Apology
Harmonious relationship desire may explain ceremonial apologies- deference, asks for forgiveness When higher status person offended others begin to avoid and gossip about the offender, if the offender wants to save village opinion, performs i soro (Fijians of South Pacific)
Picture Credibility
Have traditional parades but do not still dress in traditional way- pictures of parades may alter perception
Political Functions
Headmen or elders may also have the right to settle disputes between two members within a lineage although they generally lack power to force a settlement. And they may act as intermediaries in disputes between a member of their own clan and a member of an opposing kin group
Getting to be a leader
Hereditary leadership: Often identifiable in clothing- mark or tatood or dress Chosen Leadership: Informal leades, political officials need more reason to know why they are chosen Leaders are rated higher in intelligence, generousity, knowledgeability, ambitiousness, and aggressiveness Another personal quality of leaders Seem to have positive feelings about fathers and mothers, US and brazilian leaders biggest difference is in US leaders are usually wealthier than others
Land under HH responsibility system
However long term lease Governmet still owns land - Long term lease with government ownership Shared pastures with others
Depression
Hundreds of millions of people suffer from depression Feelings of hopelessness, sdness, thoughts of death, weight loss, fatique, disruptive sleep Divorce, loss of job, natural disaster predict higher rates of menal illness for all social classes, these events Social class, social roles have different levels
Why is love discouraged
Husband and wife live in an extended family One of the spouses does most of the primary subsistence work or earns most of the couple's income Romantic love is unlikely when men have more sexual freedom than women Intimacy is different than romantic love- some societies marriages have more intimacy than others- e.g. foraging more than more complex herding/ agricultural societies, high involvement in war Men are more vioent in terms of sexual jealousy Does romantic love as a basis for marriage increase or decrease sexual jealousy?
Changing Values
Hygeine --? ?Same person years later same but much less dirty Nomad traditional dark face paint -changed to start wearing chinese cold cream as make up
Phala + Marke System
If they were maximizing animals then animals pop would increase greatly (think demographic transition) - This is obviously not what happens because of Animal Pasture Relocation - Animal census every 3 years - Distribute animals moving households - Pasture adjustment - SHifting pasture areas among households- if I have 100 more, get 50 more - Shifting whole chunks of land - Lord protects his estate pasture land - Lord max tax collection - based on number of markes - System allows nomad HHS to max productivity land will never be over pasteurized - Every unit will have correct amount, lets household to max occur productivity - Some will increase, some decrease Lord- butter, skins, salt, baking soda
Mitigation Plan
Important in business for buiding dam which would submerge many archaeological sites Historic preservation law requires any project receiving federal funds to ensure that archaelogical resources are protected or their damage mitigated - highway construction projects in the US are common places to find CRM archaeologists Complete archeological survey has to be made before construction starts on federal projects Do not work for state or federal agencies Also working with native peoples to protect, preserve, mange archaelogical materials for them Work with government and the public Biblical fundamentalism is the context of mainstream anthropology
Matrilineal Organization
In Matrilineal societies, descent affiliation is transmitted through females, and females rarely exercise authority in their kin groups→ in matrilineal and patrilineal societies both exercise authority Chuuk→ property owning group members trace descent fom a known common ancestor in female line Often marry women who live in the same village Matrilineal societies tend to be locally exogamous Within nuclear family, the father and mother have the primary responsibility for raising and disciplining their children Woman's brother rarely interferes with his sister's child before puberty
Political Life
In US- many branches of government Political parties, lobbying, campaigning "Politics" the activities (not always apparent) that influence who is elected or appointed to political office, what public policies are established, how they get established, and who benefits from those policies Involves more than gov/ politics Ways of preventing/ resolving troubles/ disputes internally/ externally Informal and formal Complex societies establish social order and minimize/ deal with disorder Past 100 years have become more widespread around the world Informally organized units, did not have individuals or agencies formally authorized The band or village was the largest autonomous political unit in 50 percent of societies in the ethnograpic record, as of the times they were first describes Families, descent groups, and associations have political functionsIn US- many branches of government Political parties, lobbying, campaigning "Politics" the activities (not always apparent) that influence who is elected or appointed to political office, what public policies are established, how they get established, and who benefits from those policies Involves more than gov/ politics Ways of preventing/ resolving troubles/ disputes internally/ externally Informal and formal Complex societies establish social order and minimize/ deal with disorder Past 100 years have become more widespread around the world Informally organized units, did not have individuals or agencies formally authorized The band or village was the largest autonomous political unit in 50 percent of societies in the ethnograpic record, as of the times they were first describes Families, descent groups, and associations have political functions
Patrilineal Descent
Male descent
Ego
In the reckoning of kinship, the reference point or focal person.
Regulating Marriage
In unilineal socities- in some however marriage may be permitted within more inclusive kin groups but prohibited within smaller kin groups
Nomad Prosperity
Increases in price of Nomad products 1986-2005 - Chinese start to consume more meat not more/ person, but value of animals increase dramatically - Yak now worth a lot
Social Control or Lack thereof
Individual "self-help" characteristic of egalitarian societies, noconsensus or likely to lead to ending of a dispute
Double Descent
Individuals affiliate for some purposes with a group of matrilineal kin and for other purposes with a group of patrilineal kin
Political and Economic influences on Health
Inequality in health in social, economic, political power in a society are generally healthier. Inequality in health in socially stratified societies is not surprising. Poor have more exposure to disease because they live in more crowded conditions and more likely to lack resources for quality care UK - higher classes less likely to have certain diseases Difference between African Americans and European Americans in health have narrowed somewhat in some respects, those favoring EA still substantial 1987 - difference in life expectancy was 7 years
Formal Structure in Chiefdom
Integrates more than more than one community into a political unit such as district More populated, greater economic productivity Chief redistribute goods, plan ad direct use of public labor, supervisevise religious ceremonies Chiefs usually are considered to have it be in their "blood" Goods collected by the chiefs May be high priests When none of the goods collected by the chief are for his/her own use, then it becomes more like a state
Kinship
Murdock: Basic family is the nuclear family - other e.g. polygyny Polygynni Polygamy - Sororal/ Fraternal Polyandry These are families- come together, form
Anorexia Nervous
Involving aversion to food- unique to societies that idealize slimness Beauty standards- skinny valued in places where resources are slim so more valued to share Concepts of personality and mental illness have to be Jane Murphy studied descriptions by Inuit and Yoruba in Nigeria-- Nuthkavihak: when a person is out of order Talking to themselves, believing themselves to be animals, making strange faces, becoming violent and so on
Murdocks View:
Is it ethnocentric went on to say that if there is polygynous groups, they still have nuclear families However this does not work for all- e.g. in textbook this one is more useful
Explaining Conversation
Islam brought common language of trade Young people attracted by economic opportunities Loss of population and demoralization also played significant role in conversion Epidemics= christians come to help the sick Rapid population loss makes people belieeve traditional gods could help them
Nayar Kerala- India
K. Gough-- both polygamous / nucleus families Studies ceremony in weddings Have tali ceremonies- tying Strong tied around bride/ groom eck ,this happens in india, usually before puberty, 8 or 9, have ceremony with matrilineal relative --> usually male leaves after leads to NO continuing rights of anything- sexual, property, etc. no relation to her children What does this do? --> Lets society know she is eligible for sexual relations/ marriages
Life After Death
Katcinas - Zuni of southwest US think dead choin village at bottom of lake Many murders/ suicides have been linked to this Christian belief in two dead groups: unsaved vs everlasting reward Hell is associated with fire, heaven ith mansions
Stratification Forma
Must have Hierarchy Permanency Differential Rewards 1. Power that can be allocated differently 2. Wealth - can distribute it diffferently 3. Honor or prestige- e.g. highest strata may not be the wealthiest but often is combined
Patrilineal Organization
Killing within a lineage is considered a serious offense and any fighting that takes place is done with sticks rather than lethal weapons such as spears Kapauku also belong to larger and more inclusive patrilineal descent groups-- clans and phratries Kapauku is phratry - members of same phratry may marry Matrilocality and matrilineality might not enhance women's status because of the dominance of male matrilineal kin, but patrilocality and patrilineality are very likely to detract from women's status. Residence and descent also predict societal attempts to control reproduction. According to Suzanne Frayser, patrilineal societies are more likely than other societies to prohibit premarital and extramarital sex for women, and they are more likely to make it very difficult for a woman to divorce her husband. Smedley speculates that women support patrilineality in some environmental circumstances because it serves their interests and those of their children too. For example, male crops are highly valued, but such crops are grown on the more dangerous plains where men risked death at the hands of raiders from other groups. Food was scarce, so it may have been adaptive for everyone, including women, to give special status to men for growing crops in dangerous places.
People's Affiliation with Kin
Kinship is like a political party or a private club Rules that connect individuals with particular sets of kin because of known or presumed common ancestry.
Ambilineal Systems
Less numerous than Unileal or bilateral soci Believe they are descended from common ancestors Whereas most others do not allow a choice
Sambandan
Male has to give gift to woman several times a year, he comes at night and sleeps with her, provides no money, straight sexual relationship Accepted by society Common at least a generation ago to have multiple sambandan relations, will leave spear outside to show he is there No marriage, but this is all approved. Can have marriage with nuclear family Goes against Murdock Regulated sexual relation but no farther connection Father usually provides $ Only important to know who is passable father-- gives gifts-- only high class men do this--> establishes himself as father has nothing to do with father Murdock is ethnocentric despite his fame and many theories
Neolocal Residence
Many anthropologists have suggested that neolocal residence is related to the presence of a money or commercial economy Presence of money, then, partially accounts for neolocal residence. Money allows couples to live on their own Why do couples prefer to live on their own?
Intervention of Gods in Human Affairs
Many instances of requests for divine intervention Stop flow of lava down the side of a volcano to stop a war or to cure illness Concern of gods with moral behavior is more likely in large, complex societies Religion can cause harmony and cooperation but also war
Cultural understandings of health and liveliness
Many researchers/ [ractitioners in western societies do not exist in social vaccum, influenced by culture which they live- medicine as purely based on "fact"
Combinations
Many societies have two or more types in various combinations. Some societies have lineages and clans, others may have clans and phratries but no lineages
Not the only condition required- evidence
Many societies with unilocal residence lack unilineal descent groups Related people will not necessarily view themselves as a descent group
Monogamy
Marriage between only one man and only one woman at a time. Most cultures have allowed some form of polygamy
Extended Family Households
Marriage does not bring as pronounced change in lifestyle as it does in our culture Couples are assimilated into existing family unit Margaret Mead: The woman serve all the men Extended family is more likely than the independent nuclear family to perpetuate itself as a social limited
Nonsoral
Marriage of a man to two or more women who are not sisters Jealousy is not as present in sororal societies polygynous societies appear to have invented similar customs to try to lessen conflict and jealousy in co-wives: 1. Whereas sororal co-wives nearly always live under the same roof, co-wives who are not sisters tend to have separate living quarters. 2. Co-wives have clearly defined equal rights in matters of sex, economics, and personal possessions. 3. Senior wives often have special prestige, which may compensate the first wife for her loss of physical attractiveness. 41
Non Fraternal Polyandry
Marriage of a woman to two or more men who are not brothers
Main family
Matrilineal family - Mother child NOT Murdock's nuclear family
Economic Functions
Member's of a person's lineage or clan are often required to side with that person in any quarrel or lawsuit to help him or her get established economically to contribute to a bride price or ine and to support the person in life crises- mutual aid often extends to economic cooperation on a regular basis
Polyandry
Mirror of Polygyny, The marriage of one woman to more than one man at a time. Murdock's "World Ethnographic Sample"
Religious Conversation
Missionaries have not met with equal success in all parts of the world
Supernatural Forces
Most illnesses have natural or physiological causes, but more common to believe illnesses are cause by supernatural forces 56% of sample societies thought gods or spirits were major causes of illness Religion and magic chapter Sorcery and witchcraft are common in world's societies Illness can also be thought of as caused by the loss of one's soul, fate, retribution for violation of a taboo, or contact with a polluting or taboo substance or object. Serious illness and death are mainly believed to be the work of spirits Therapeutic options: Hospital medicine or Chuuk medicine Taboo on having sex before going to sea
Physicians
Most important full time medical practitioner in bioedical system Ability to treat, alleviate, prolong life Offering promises of confidentiality and privacy Ethics, skill Try to do something even in face of uncertainty Start relying on technology as opposed to talking to patients May not listen well Patients do not always seek physicians, ⅓ of US regularly consults with alternative practitioners unbeknownst to physicians
Why Avuncular Residence
Mother's brother plays important role Almost all avunculocal residences are matrilineal societies Internal fighting is common - keep matrilineally related married men together to mount a quick defense against surprise attacks from nearby Strong, functioning, matrilineal descent groups may choose to switch initially to avunculocality Transition when close warfare = high male mortality - this makes pat descent harder to trace than mat descent
Needs/ Conditions for Universal Religion
Need for intellectual understanding, reversion to childhood feelings, anxiety and uncertainty, need for community and need for cooperation
Marae
New Zealand meeting houese where people are allowed to air grievances and settle disputes in an atmosphere of respect and open-mindedness Curator wanted chicago one to make it an actual Marae He developed a way for chicago community to use it
Revitalization Movements
New religious movements intended to save a culture by infusing it with a new purpose and life. Efforts to save a culture by infusing it with a new purpose and new life A revitalization movement that became known as the Ghost Dance spread eastward from the Northwest from the 1870s to the 1890s. It was generally believed that, if people did the dance correctly, ghosts would come to life with sufficient resources to allow the people to return to their old ways, and, as a result of some cataclysm, the whites would disappear. Ember, Carol R.. Human Culture (p. 260). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.
Cultural Rules
No fighting at night Weapons limited State societies: gov will sign "self-denying" pacts restricting use of poison gas, germ warfare and so forth, arrange truces, exchange pow, etc.
Supernatural Forces
No personlike character Marett animatism
Egalitarian
No restricted access to material thing Hunters/ gatherers
Multilocal Integration
Not permanent, informal, only when outside threat arises, when threat disappears local groups revert to self-sufficiency
Explaining the emergence of different systems of Kin Affiliation
Officials and agencies take over many of the functions that kin groups might perform- organizing work and warfare and allocating land- but not all lack complex political organizations that have unilineal descent systems Assumption that unililocal residence is necessary for development of unilineal descent Mat/ pat residence patterns are x-culturally associated with mat/ pat descent
Development Anthropology
One of the main subfields of applied or practicing anthropology, aimed at improving people's lives, particularly decreasing poverty and hunger Environmental Anthropology, business or organizational anthropology, musem anthropology, cultural resource management, and forensic anthropology , medical anthropology
2000
Pace of change increasing Males hair (trad): Bangs in front Bareost doctor Charge to have motorcycle, cut hair, has jacket
Mediums
Part-time religious practitioners who are asked to heal and divine while in a trance.
Placebo Affect
Patients who believe medicine will help recover quickly even if medicine is only a sugar pill or not particularly relevant to their conditions Not just psychological effects Shaman believe God gave him powers to cure, but his powers are reserved for removing evil caused by sorcerers
Patterns of Marital Residence
People go to summer camps World Ethnographic Sample→ 5% have had the practice of setting up separate households for newlyweds→ a couple lives within or very close to the household of either the grooms or the brides parents or other close relatives Young people in almost all societies are required to marry outside the nuclear family and with few exceptions Young people in almost all exceptions live together and get married
Kindred
Person's bilateral set of relatives who may be called upon for some purpose Kindred A bilateral set of close relatives who may be called upon for some purpose. Most have kindreds that overlap in membership People we might invite to ceremonial occasions, but not usually a definite group- a lot of time is put into deciding what relatives to invite to a wedding
Culture Bound Syndromes
Pibloktoq: Some Eskimo adults of Greenland, usually women who became oblivious to their surroundings and acted in agitated eccentric ways Amok: Destructive maddened excitement... beginning with depression and followed by a period of brooding and withdrawal with final mobilization of tremendous energy during which wild man runs destructively berserk
Peaceful Resolution of Conflict
Police, district attorneys, courts, etc.
Guns
Put gun powder in "little" - plate Impregnator must be lit Hard to light matches Use flinstone- strike stone on fingers, finder in hands, lets it ignite
Christianity on Tikopia
Polynesian Believe number of gods and spirits of various ranks who inhabited the sky, water and land Not comparable to the all powerful God of Christianity Tikopian gods did not rule over all creation over Tikopia If one left Tikopia, one left the gods behind House construction, fishing, planting Why did they convert to christianity? Firth: 1. Education was helpful getting ahead in outside world Ability of chiefs as religious and political leaders to bring entire descent groups to christianity Members of kin group usually followed him. When Tafua, chief of Faea district of Tikopia converted he broght entire group Final blow to traditional Tikopian religiom came in 1955 when severe epidemic killed at least 200 peope in population of about 1700. Often missionary activity destroys culture and self-respect, leaves repressive system of values ill suited to the people's real needs and aspirations E.g. used black to symbolize evil and white to signify good, hostility towards paganism Promised that Africans would gain access both to European heaven and society, however they were blocked from society
Ascribed
Positions determined at birth
Postpartum Sex Taboo
Postpartum sex taboo Prohibition of sexual intercourse between a couple for a period of time after the birth of their child.
Supernatural
Powers believed to be not human or not subject to the laws of nature Illness is sometimes believed to come from a supernatural force In some societies religion is embedded in other aspects of everyday life Hard to separate religious, economic, political from other cultural aspects Also hard to agree whether or not a custom is religious Categorizing religious, political or social is a new custom
Explaining Warfare
Preindustrial societies go to war mostly out of fear of extable natural disasters destroying resoureces Victors in war almost always take land or other resources from defeated0 true for simpler and complex pre-industrial societies In more complex modern day societies- evidence that war is unlikely to occur internally (within a society or territory) if it is small in population (21,000 or fewer people) - high likelihood of warfare within the society, among communities or larger territorial divisions Men in band and tribal societies may mostly go to war over women We'd have shortages of women, cross-cultural evidence contradiicts tis Nation-state warfare: Military alliances do not necessarily lessen war Alliances are less likely to go into war with each other but drag each other into wars Military equality among nations when preceded by rapid military buildup seems to increase rather than lessen the chance of war among those nations Military buildups do not make war less likely but trade does
Structure of Hierarchy or Supernatural Beings
Range of social structures in human societies from egalitarian to highly stratified has its counterpart in supernatural world Ranking gods, some societies have this, sometimes gods are ranked as people are- each clan worshipped a god that had names and similar clan titles God of highest ranking class respected by all clans of village Judaism, Christianity, Islam believe in one high God
Polytheistic
Recognizing many gods, none of whom is believed to be superordinate Many societies have separated church and State
Functions of Unilineal Descent Groups
Regulating Marriage Economic Functions Political Functions Religious Functions
Universality of Religion
Religious beliefs date back to Homo Sapiens who lived 60,000 years ago Buried dead, graves contained food—> Afterlife 30,000 years ago may have been used for religious purposes (art) - sculptures with secondary sex characteristics- fertility charms Superior religions- Herodotus comparisons of religions- similarities in many, later some groups claim superiority for their own forms of religion, others have derided the naive simplicity of others' beliefs, some expressed skepticism concerning all beliefs
Cargo Cults
Religious movements in which there is an expectation of and preparation for, the coming of a period of supernatural bliss Liberating power that would bring all western goods that people might want Cults profess that tidal wave would destroy village and work in gardens ceased, wharves were built for expected cargo Why? Peter Worseley→ Existence of oppression-- colonial oppression
Rituals
Repetitive sets of behaviors that occur in essentially the same patterns every time they occur Intended to strengthen faith
Why Bilocal Residence
Research shows this may be a necessity as opposed to a choice Introduction of infectious diseases - people who come in contact with Europeans - making a living in noncommericial societies- couples in depopulated, noncommercial societies might have to live with whichever spouse's parents and other relatives are still alive In hunter gatherer societies- other circumstances may also favor bilocal residence- found among hunter-gatherers who have very small bands or unpredictable and low rainfall - choice may be a question of adjusting marital residence to where the couple will have the best chance to survive or to find close relatives with whom to live and work
Age-Set Systems
Same sex, similar age groups that live life stages together- begins before puberty Karimojong- immediately allocates to each individual a place in teh system and thereby establishes for him an appropriate pattern of response Political leaders are not elected from among the elders of a particular age-set, not appointed, acquire their positions informally Political leaders exercise their authority within the local sphere becasue pastoral nature of economy, has dispersed groups and movements from one to another, no alternative Prophets prestige do not warrant him a position of overlord or chief Young men get guns during raids, elders find it risky to punish someone with a gun
Difficulties in instituting planned change
Seedling trees given away through ministry of agricultre Private voluntary organizations rather than government distributed trees, frmers told they were tree owners New trees could be planted in borders or interpersed with other crops, interfering little Murray After 2 years, 2,500 Haitian households had planted 3 million seedlings Farmers not rushing to cut down trees Successfulness of Murray's program dependent on how the people react and want the proposed change/ program Innovation in culture, innovators must determine what population is aware of benefits, lack of awareness can be a temporary barrier to solving the problem
Kinship Bonds
Segementary Lineage System: A hierarchy of more inclusive lineages; usually functions only in conflict situations. A hierarchy of lineages stretches farther and farther back genealogically - unites segments into larger and larger genealogical groups Relationship contigency in conflict settings very strong- brothers aainst brothers, against cousins, against the world Tiv: Nigeria- 800,000 in large society Tiv lineage structure as described by Paul Bohannan. In the figure, there are four levels of lineages. Each of the smallest lineages, symbolized by a through h, is in turn embedded in more inclusive lineages. So minimal lineages a and b are together in lineage 1. Lineages 1 and 2 are embedded in lineage A. Territorial organization follows lineage hierarchy. As shown in the bottom of the figure, the most closely related lineages have territories near each other. Minimal lineages a and b live next to each other; their combined territory is the territory of their higher-order lineage, 1. Lineage A in turn has a territory that is differentiated from lineage B. All of Tivland is said to descend from one ancestor, represented by I.
Avoidance
Separated until emotions cool down Foragers are likely to use this Move to other bands or dwellings to opposite ends of camp More feasble when people live independently and self-sufficiently Why do they use this more than confrontation as a way of resolving conflict
Types of practitioners
Shamans, sorcerers, witches, mediums and priests
Why is polygyny a common practice
Social benefits Econnomic, political advantages Farm labor Extra marketable food Companionship Housework More freedom to come and go Shorthands of marriageable males Polygyny is allowed and preffered in most societies- Linton suggests that polygyny derives from a general male primate urge to collect females, why wouldn't all societies allw polygyny These are statistically and strongly predict polygyny in worldwide samples Theory that polygyny is permitted in societies that have a long postpartum sex taboo- to protect child from kwashiorkor- protein-deficiency disease - if child gets protein from mother's milk, likely of contracting it may be reduced- but long sex taboo means that a woman can nurse each child longer Man having more than one wife might be a cultural adjustment to the taboo Other theory that excess women over men causes it Warfare= more men dead Almost all adults in non-commercial societies are married, polygyny may be a way of providing spouses for surplus women Monogamy and low male mortality in warfare Society will allow polygyny when men marry at an older age than women- delaying age would create an artificial excess of marriageable women
Durkheim
Social groups give rise to religion Enhance community/ confidence—> Society is the object of worship in religion
Warfare
Socially organized violence between political entities such as communities, districts, or nations. Cultural pattern of violence- some societies have higher rates than others, not conflict-free, but attempt to resolve conflict more non-violently Cultural warfare is the key War is correlated with other kinds of aggression Children affected Boys—> Effective warriors Warriors are generally proud of their accomplishments, considering it an honor to be a brave and fierce warrior
Community Action
Societies finding ways to resolve disputes peacefully- action by group or whole- collevtive action Often in simpler, non-authoritarian societies E.g. Inuit A single murder case does not involve the community but repeated murders do Boas: There was a native of Padli by the name Padlu. He had induced the wife of a native of Cumberland Sound to desert her husband and follow him. The deserted husband, meditating revenge ... visited his friends in Padli, but before he could accomplish his intention of killing Padlu, the latter shot him. ... A brother of the murdered man went to Padli to avenge the death ... but he also was killed by Padlu. A third native of Cumberland Sound, who wished to avenge the death of his relatives, was also murdered by him. On account of these outrages, the natives wanted to get rid of Padlu, but yet they did not dare to attack him. When the pimain (headman) of the Akudmurmuit learned of these events he started southward and asked every man in Padli whether Padlu should be killed. All agreed; so he went with the latter deer hunting ... and ... shot Padlu in the back.
Need for Cooperation
Solidarity of religion is now focused on human cooperation Evolutionary theorists paradox - human groups are cooperative but how did cooperation rise when helping others has a cost to an individual Group is more likely to ward off atackers, safety Religion promotes cooperation- supernatural beings can police /see all and invoke powerful punishments If religions require considerable participation and sacrifice- fasting, etc. participation is hard to fake Supernatural is believed to interact with humans
Nation-State, Nationalism, and Political Identity
Sometimes accept and tolerate other cultural groups, however common language and religion is promoted However sometimes multiculturalism is promoted- does not preclude identification with the state as ones own ethnicity- need sense of pride
Independent Family Household
Sometimes live nearby
Big Women
Southeastern coast usually have matrilineal descent Women and men compete with each other for valuables
The Character of Supernatural Beings
Spirits and gods usually have some personality traits- unpredictable, predictable, aloof or interested in humans, helpful or punishing Evidence from x-cultural studies that character of supernatural beings may be related to nature of child training God-human relationship is a projection of parent-child relationship in which case child-training practices might well be relived in dealings with supernatural—> If a child was nurtured immediately by her parents when she cried or waved her arms about or kicked, might grow up expecting to be nurtured by the gods when she attracted their attention by performing a ritual, but she would grow up expecting gods to punish her if she disobeyed them Societies with less punitive child training are more likely to believe gods are benevolent Consistent with Freudian notion that supernatural world should parallel the natural Some peoples refer to the god as their father and to themselves as his children
Modern Nomad Summer Camp Site
Stays in old tent but has a lot of new tech Reocation and other new "scientific" rules destroying transforming society even though they don't know about it
GM Business
Study team found in mid 1980s that efficiency and meeting quotas was the company culture Authoritarian leadership- less collaboration However everyone wanted a culture of collaboration Created 10 tools designed to help individuals appreciate and learn collaboration techniques GM objectively improved a lot Sharing and team responsibilities Anthropologists are good at finding out because they go and watch and ask questions about businesses E.g. -- Squire's observations that children don't like eating breakfast early inspired gogurt- portable yogurt
Ancestral Spirits
Supernatural beings who are the ghosts of dead relatives
Ghosts
Supernatural beings who were once human; souls of dead people Most socieites believe in ghosts Ghosts actions can be perceived by living Loved ones live on in dreams Belief in ghosts is nearly universal Some groups likely to believe in ancestral spirits Dead concerned with fortunes, prestige and continuity of descent group as strongly as living "Does not a man help his father when he is old?"
Lineages
Usually can trace all people in descent groups
Code of Gaiwiio
Temperance: Fully aware of social disorders arising out of liquor abuse Peace and Social Unity: cease futile bickering, all were to be united in their approach to the larger society Preservation of Tribal Lands: Fearing piecemeal alienation of senseca lands was ahead of contempories in demanding a halt in land sales to non-Seneca Pro-Acculturation (Favoring external culture traits): Though individual property and trading for profit were prohibited, acquisition of literacy in English was encouraged so that people would be able to read and understand treaties and to avoid being cheated Domestic Morality: Sons obey fathers, mothers avoid interfering with daughters marriages, husbands and wives should respect the sanctity of their marriage vows Handsome Lake- power over people, helped Seneca undergo dramatic re-birth
The Seneca
The Seneca reservation of the Iroquois on the Allegheny River in New York State was a place of "poverty and humiliation" by 1799. 77 Demoralized by whiskey and dispossessed from their traditional lands, unable to compete with the new technology because of illiteracy and lack of training, the Seneca were at an impasse. In this setting, Handsome Lake, the 50-year-old brother of a chief, had the first of a number of visions. In them, he met with emissaries of the Creator who showed him heaven and hell and commissioned him to revitalize Seneca religion and society. This he set out to do for the next decade and a half. As his principal text, he used the Gaiwiio, or "Good Word," a gospel that contains statements about the nature of religion and eternity and a code of conduct for the righteous. The Gaiwiio is interesting both for the influence of Quaker Christianity it clearly reveals 78 and for the way the new material was merged with traditional Iroquois religious concepts. The first part of the "Good Word" has three main themes, one of which is the concept of an apocalypse. Handsome Lake offered many signs by which the faithful could recognize impending cosmic doom. Great drops of fire would rain from the skies and a veil would be cast over the earth. False prophets would appear, witch women would openly cast spells, and poisonous creatures from the underworld would seize and kill those who had rejected the Gaiwiio. Second, the Gaiwiio emphasized sin. The great sins were disbelief in the "good way," drunkenness, witchcraft, and abortion. Sins had to be confessed and repented. Finally, the Gaiwiio offered salvation. Salvation could be won by following a code of conduct, attending certain important traditional rites, and performing public confession. Ember, Carol R.. Human Culture (p. 261). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.
Oaths
The act of calling upon a deity to bear witness to the truth of what one says
Medical Anthropology
The anthropological study of health and illness and associated beliefs and practices Dealing with illness Society and culture have little to do with outcome of illness- reason that they die needlessly is lack of appropriate medical treatment Incidence of infant deaths due to diarrhea- origin is mostly biological due to infection- but social because hey are introduced to infection socially Biocultural synthesis
Forensic Anthropology
The application of anthropology, usually physical anthropology to help identify human remains and assist in solving crimes Estimating age- wide range only for adults but narrower range for younger remains "Race" is often asked for even though not useful biologically but useful socially Can estimate where the persons ancestors are from but can't detect skin color Can use dental records, etc. for specificity Can sometimes tell cause of death and when- body decay estimation Digestive enzymes Skin discoloratiop Build up of lactic acid in the muscles (which causes them to progressively stiffen over 12 hours after death) Action of factors outside the body contribute significanty to decay By carefully examining the presence and maturity of eggs of maggots Native American Forensic work - SSI- supplemental security income0 changed translation rules Gov. have been caught responsible for killing of citizens, forensic anth have helped confirm this- e.g. military dictatorship in Argentina in 1980s
Racism
The belief that racial groups are inferior
Practicing or Applied Anthropology
The branch of anthropology that concerns itself with applying anthropological knowledge to achieve the service of an agency outside the traditional academic setting Constructing policy or initiating action
Cultural Resource Management
The branch of aplied anthropology that seeks to recover and preserve the archaeological record before programs of planned change disturb or destroy it Work under contract usually In 1960's a large number of hydroelectric dam projects initiated to provide flood control and to bring a stable source of electrical power to developing nations
Nation-State
The co-occurence of a political state and a nation
Biomedicine: Paradigm
The dominant medical paradigm in Western societies today Change is not entirely one way Biological emphasis on this system Health is not the focus-- thought to be absence of disease Disease: Trauma, accidents, or biological, e.g. bacteria, viruses, infection Doctors specialize into different zones of the body Death is a failure, biomedical practitioners do everything to prolong life, regardless of circumstances of patient
Adoption
The family does not have enough kin in nuclear or extended family, need to add more family members Tavita was 11 - adopted informally in Pacific island American Samoan family Reducing the number of mouths to feed was a reason There have been 100,000 legally recognized adoptions in the US per year, 50% are relatives Most adopted children, domestic and foreign apparently turn out as well adjusted as natural children
Primary Subsistence Activities
The food- getting activities: gathering, hunting, fishing, herding, and agriculture.
Ethnomedicine
The health-related beliefs, knowledge and practice of a cultural group
Houses
Warrior dryer Iron stove with chimney pipe Smoke needs to go out but wind blows it back in Dirty-- since you can't move it gets very dirty, advantages overweigh disadvantages - Over years generate enough $$ to paint house with traditional art- like in temples Drink out of porcelain instead of wood, have alarm clock More clean
Band Organization
The kind of political organizaation where the local group or band is the largest territorial group in the society that acts as a unit, the local group This categorized most societies until 10,000 years ago Remember that these were mostly in marginal environments May not truly have been typical Usually less than 100 people or less Informal authority How hunt is to be arranged are agreed upon by community or by best qualified member Leadership is about when individual exercises it Leadership comes from influence and admired personal qualities rather than power and office
Tribal Organization
The kind of political organization in which local communities mostly act autonomously but there are kin groups (such as clans) or associations (such as age-sets) that can temporarily integrate a number of local groups into a larger unit. Tribe is sometimes used to entire society, but an entire language group may be called a tribe Occasionally a political - usually military- purpose. Thus what distinguished tribal from band political organization is the presence in the form of some multilocal, but not usually societywide integration A territorial population in which there are kin or nonkin groups with representatives in a number of local groups.
Level of Political Integration
The largest territorial group on whose behalf political activities are organized and in the degree to which political authority is centralized or concentrated in the integrated group Traditional organization was more organized on behalf of multilocal group, centralized supreme authority at the top
Sororal
The marriage of a man to two or more sisters at the same time
Capital Punishment
The most extreme action a community can take Exists in nearly all societies Assumed that capital punishment deters crime- but in reality it does not, in fact it is useally followed by decrease in homicide rates
Complete Opposition
The occasional uniting of various segments of a segmentary lineage system in opposition to similar segments. Segmentary lineage systems have military advantages even when they do not unite the entire society e.g. Dinka tribe VS Nuer- obtained more territory by cutting through it
Kin
The people who are obligated to help you (and you they), whether the help is deserved or not - Between 2007m and 2009 1.3 million men and women between 24-34 moved in with their parents, elderly moved in with relatives as well
Magic
The performance of certain rituals that are believed to compel the supernatural powers to act in particular ways Prayer is asking, voodoo is presumably compelling-- magic Manipulation for good or evil
Witchcraft
The practice of attempting to harm people by supernatural means, but through emotions and thought alone, not through the use of tangible objects Sometimes part of everyday living, explains otherwise unexplainable Witch craze in 16/ 17th century Commercial revolution and related changes Epidemics may have been the result of real epidemics of disease- Salem fungus disease can grow on rye plants, cause hallucinations, crawling sensations in skin, also contains LSD Beatrice Whiting: Found in societies that lack procedures or judicial authorities to deal with crime and other offenses
Personalistic Practitioners
The practitioners who deal with more than the body Social life out of order Sorcery/ witchcraft as causes have practitioners who are believed to be able to use magic in reverse- undo harm invoked by sorcerers and witches
The Tragedy of the Commons
The prevailing ogvernment and technocrat viewpoint is that plateaus/ grasslands, where people are sharing resource- each individual will work in his or her best interest when sharing land- only interested in maxing # of animals for household- not thinking about keeping good of peace --> Over-stocking - Wants them to become ranchers instead of pastoralists - Government solutions - Gives them private property rights - Privatisation of pastures - Extensive Fencing 0 Sedentatization - Ecological migration- relocation, setting aside pastures - Thought "simpl" Tibetan nomads
Adjudication
The process by which a third party acting as judge makes a decision that the parties to a dispute have to accept. Severe punishments in some cultures Why do some societies have codified systems and others do not? Formal legal guidelines in small, closely knit communities because competing interests are minimal Relatively few matters to quarrel about and general will of the group is sufficiently well known and demonstrated frequently enough to deter transgressors Disputes in smaller communities are more public, everyone knows and it is a public thing/ there are effects Larger heterogenous stratified societies are likely to have more disputes with less public awareness When there are strangers/ outsiders that cause problems, this initiated the federal authority like marshalls/ sheriffs- protect from intruders Is there some evidence to support the theory that codified law is necessary only in larger, more complex societies? Data from a large, worldwide sample of societies suggest that codified law is associated with political integration beyond the local level. Murder cases, for example, are dealt with informally in societies that have only local political organization. In societies with multilocal political units, specialized political authorities tend to judge or adjudicate murder cases. 96 There is also some cross-cultural evidence that violence within a society tends to be less frequent when there are formal authorities (chiefs, courts) who have the power to punish murderers. 97 In general, adjudication or enforced decisions by outside authorities tend to occur in hierarchical societies with social classes and centralized power.
Mediation
The process by which a third party tries to bring about a settlement in the absence of formal authority to force a settlement Nuer of East Africa: Leopard skin chief mediates- usually hereditary position Both sides are anxious to avoid a blood feud
Negotiation
The process by which the parties to a dispute try to resolve it themselves
Patrilineal Descent
The rule of descent that affiliates individuals with kin of both sexes related to them through men only.
Matrilineal Descent
The rule of descent that affiliates individuals with kin of both sexes related to them through women only.
Nationalism
The strong sense of loyalty, attachment, and devotion to a nation (see nation). Nationalism can even transcend big distances They may demonstrate nationalism by lobbying, demonstrating, setting up web sites, contributions, giving their lives for the cause of creating a separate nation
Biomedical Paradigm
The system in which physicians are trained itself needs to be understood as part of the culture
Sex Differences
The typical differences between females and males that are most likely due to biological differences.What terms to use?
Sorcery
The use certain materials to invoke supernatural powers to harm people
Practitioners and Social Complexity
Theory that religion helps individuals reduce anxiety and uncertainty Do not appear to be adaptive Hindus can't slaughter cows Wander tto forage Economic region→ not slaughter any of them? Oxen and a plow are essential for many farms in India Poor nutrition makes cows infertile 45 million tons of coal is burned annually Taboo against slaughtering cattle may be very adaptive
Factors Associated with Variation in Political Organization
These forms of political organization have many factors- shifts from intensive food production, low-high pop densities, emphasis on reciprocity to redistrbution to market exchange, reciprocity to redistribution, egalitarian to fully stratified class societies Greater importance fo agriculture, the larger population that is politically unified and number of political officials Community size appears to be especially sensitive predictor of political complexity- larger communities strongly predict not only a wider range of political officials in a society, but more administrative levels of decision making Why does political organization vary? Competition may be reason for political consolidation Fosters development of some informal organization beyond community- tribal organization for offense and defense If warfare is prominent, could enhance positions and become more permanent Trading policy may produce more, trading parties would foster state formation Different organizational requirements in different areas may have all favored centralized government
Ethnocentrism
Thinking science can replace more traditional technology Use traps (like steel claw traps) that trap skunks - dig hole in ground
Supernatural Beings
Those of nonhuman origin and human origin (e.g. ghosts/ ancestral spirits vs gods and spirits)
Edward Tylor
Thought that religion originated in people's speculation about dreams, trances and death—> Dead, distant, those in next house, animals all seemed real in dreams and trances, lifelike images suggested dual physical, visible and psychic and invisible soul
CHAPTER 13
USING ANTHROPOLOGY
Ways to interact with the supernatural
Universal problem Doing drugs/ hallucinogens lie peyote or opiates or alhohol can induce transes Psychological explanation of women's preponderance in possession transces, women are brought up to be submissive Voodoo dolls Divination: Getting the supernatural to provide guidance Eating of sacred meal is found in many religions E.g. holy communion is a simulation of Last Super Food given up to gods The suggested explanation is that the sacrifice mirrors what is socially important: Societies that depend mainly on human labor for energy (rather than animals or machines) may think of a human life as an appropriate offering to the gods when people want something very important. 48 Later studies found that societies with human sacrifice were at a mid-range level of political complexity, having alliances and confederacies with other polities but only weak political integration. Such societies also seemed to be subject to population pressure and frequently carried out warfare for land and other resources. Human sacrifice, with humans from the outside groups, may have been an attempt to terrorize people from the other polities.
Spirits
Unnamed supernatural beings of nonhuman origin who are beneath the gods in prestige and often closer to the people; may be helpful, mischievous or evil Native American groups have many instances of this, believe spirits have to be sought out, usually in childhood Most commonly animals but also rocks, lakes, mountains, whirlwinds or clouds Vigil not always sucessful but when it was it would appear in vision or dream and always in human form first, conversation would reveal its identity
Ethics of Applied Anthropology
Usually tudy disadvantaged people Caring about people's lives is not enough to improve them People affected may not want to change Need to make sure if the change will truly benefit the potentially affected population If the NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR THE PRACTICE OF ANTHROPOLOGY violates ethical principles of the profession, the practicing anthropologist has the obligation to try to change those practices or, if change cannot e brought about, to withdraw from the work Ethical issues of detereoration- some groups thrive but later end up with high mortality, alcoholism rates, etc. by 1980 because of globalization and reducing own food in favor of world market Such a strategy works well when world market prices are high; however, when prices fall, so does the standard of living. How is anthropology justified- working for agencies that fund projects Large scale projects are almost imporssible to stop 8 risks of displacement due to water projects-- landlessness, joblessness, homelessness, marginalization, food insecurity, increased morbidity, loss of access to common property resources and community disarticulation All of these risks make it important to avoid resettlement, but there needs to be serious political commitment by gov to provide adequate resources and legal protections
Crime
Violence not considered legitimate that occurs within a political unit
Individual Violence
Violent behavior itself is often used to try to control behavior Considered necessary for parents to beat children who misbehave If someone hurts someone in your family, some consider it appropriate to kill or maim trespasser
Other conditions
Warfare- unilocal societies are more likely to have unilineal descent than those without warfare When no other clan, phratry or moiety vies for loyalty = more unity Ambilineal: Unilineal descent groups may be transformed ito them Depopulation = unililocal→ bilocal society If unilocal society also had unilineal descent groups, descent groups→ ambilineal groups Patrilocal/lineal→ some matrilocal couples, children would be associated through mother with pat descent group - then unilineal principle → ambiblineal when this happens regularly Also could be caused by depopulation (Euro disease) Bilateral system conditions opposite unilineal descent conditions U: Nonstate society, unilocal with warfare→ Can provide unambiguous allies (bi systems unlikely to provide this) B: ego-centered- every one has different set of kn to rely on, not clear who has responsibility for aiding who - Complex political system: organized fighting on behalf of larger population Usually provides fighting force, mobilization of kin is not so important Foraging: less likely (warfare), bi systems may develop Neolocal Residence: Common with commercialization works against unilineal descent and makes a bi system more likely
How to predict Mat/ Pat Residence
Warfare: Internal: Fighting that occurs between such groups that speak the same language Purely External: Warfare that occurs never within the same society, only with other lanuage croups In societies where war is sometimes internal, residence is almost always patrilocal But in purely external warfare it is almost always matrilocal Why: Concern with keeping sons close to home to help with defence- women don't usually fight - sons will be loyal Pattern of warfare may be determined by other considerations, especially economic ones If women do most of primary subsistence work in societies with purely external warfare, families might want daughters at home after marriage- so pattern of residence might be matrilocal Only when internal warfare is nonexistent may a female dominant division of labor Absence of men with long distance trade/ wage labor - may provide impetus for matrilocal residence even after warfare E.g. Miskito of eastern central America Domestic/ village life continued without interruption when men were away from home for long periods of time- jobs not always available but went away when they were available
Achieved
When Differential rewards are achieved, they are obtained purely from one s own ability to make status for themselves
State Organization
When a society includes one or more states May include multiple societies Empire: Colonialism— when another nation takes over or displaced a large society Multi-society states post wwii Cities: Growing, urban development and attractiveness Pulls away from rural areas Economic problems However hard to attract people away from cities Voluntary formation of multi-society/ ethnic statesz Form to possibly shake off past empire, but e.g. USSR lose unity Intensive agriculture supports state=organized societies Cities, high economic organization, specialization of jobs State societies usually have class stratification Past 100 years cities have grown People's acess to resources is altered, also forced to listen to leaders and social order through force, general belief of people When people don't believe e.g. communist eastern Europe parties/ Former SU If parents teach children to accept authority, lessons may generalize acceptance of political authority State societies last a long time Nupe People- started stratified, but became a state- classes of nobility split into different obs, had court, taxes- powerfu tool that would give them security Some more autocratic than others Collective Action: Produce more public goods, are accountable, can redistribute goods in times of need
Violence Warfare
When committed among groups of people from separate political units- groups which there is no procedure for settling disputes
Nepal
When eating fried food, everone sits near, but when me cooking rice they went far away (americans_ because they didn't want pollution to get into rice The way people sit at a wedding - different castes- affects pollution
Warning Signs
When leaders act as if only they know the truth Call to blind obedience to a religious leader Possible to establish "ideal world" "End justifies the means" Holy war
Relative Deprivation
When people feel that they could have more and they have less than what they used to have or less than others Cults more important in Melanesian societies that had had decreasing cultural contact with the West, presumably dcreasing contact with valued goods within year prior to cults emergence
Civil War
When violence occurs among subunits of a population that had been politically unified
Crime
When violence occurs within a political unit in which disputes are usually settled peacefully
Were
Yoruba word for insane Principlal symptoms and relationships are comparable to NY patterns May be some truly culture bound symptoms however overall very similar Nutritional factors may account for things like hysteria Regarding Pibloktoq Complex set of related variables may cause the disease E.g Rickets might be eliminated through natural selection
Possible Reasons for Extended Family Households
Why do most societies known to anthropology have extended-family households? Such households usually occur in sedentary, agricultural societies, suggesting that the type of economy could be a determining factor. Agricultural life, as opposed to a hunter-gatherer life, may favor extended families. The extended family may be a social mechanism that prevents the economically ruinous division of family property in societies in which property such as cultivated land is important. Conversely, the need for mobility in hunter-gatherer societies may make it difficult to maintain extended-family households. During certain seasons, the hunter-gatherers may be obliged to divide into nuclear families that scatter into other areas. 65 But agriculture is only a weak predictor of extended-family households. Many agriculturalists lack them, and many nonagricultural societies have them. A different theory is that extended-family households come to prevail in societies that have incompatible activity requirements—that is, requirements that cannot be met by a mother or a father in a onefamily household. In other words, extended-family households are generally favored when the work a mother has to do outside the home (cultivating fields or gathering foods far away) makes it difficult for her to also care for her children and do other household tasks. Similarly, extended families may be favored when the required outside activities of a father (warfare, trading trips, or wage labor far away) make it difficult for him to do the subsistence work required of males. There is cross-cultural evidence that societies with such incompatible activity requirements are more likely to have extended-family households than societies with compatible activity requirements, regardless of whether or not the society is agricultural. Even though they have incompatible activity requirements, however, societies with commercial or monetary exchange may not have extended-family households. In commercial societies, a family may be able to obtain the necessary help by "buying" the required services.
Political Participation
Why is it that in some politics there are relatively large numbers of persons involved in political life, while in others political action is the province of very few? 16% of societies: Widespread, decision making forums open to all adults 37%: WIdespread participation by some but not all adults (e.g. men but not women) 29%: Some but not much input by the community 18%: Low or nonexistent participation Participation high in small-scale societies, modern democratic nation-states but not in feudal/ preindustrial empires Central authorities may only theoretically have the power to force people, in reality rely mostly on voluntary compliance When it tried with force to stop the manufacture, transport and sale of alcoholic beverages Family experiences: Children learn that they may have to obey and subordinate their wishes to their elders US invaded 3 countries- Grenada, Panama, Iraq, no democracies More controversies in some democracies- frequency of war is not very different from autocratic states in tendency to go to war
EVALUATING THE EFFECTS OF PLANNED CHANGE
Will a proposed change benefit the affected population? Benefits offered to target group would seem to be unquestionable- we all feel sure that health is better than illness Level of technology, capital and land resources possessed by population, there might not be enough resources to feed more people Death rate may exceed previous level Inoculation program in long term might merely change the causes of death Short run good effects may have bad long run effects E.g. Bakairi Indians of a program by Brazilian National Indian Foundation to produce rice with machine technology Population had declined to 150 people and were given relatively small reserve, much parched and infertile FUNAI introduced rice cerrado plan Unanticipated negative side effects More dependent on cash for fuel Insecticides fertilizer and repairs Cash hard to come by Only some individuals- usually men with outside experience can be hired Haiti experienced serious deforestation Loss of tree cover speeds erosion of topsoil Trend needs to stop - poorer people become moer poor, more likely to cut down trees
Millenium
Wished-for or expected future time when human life and society will be perfect and free of troubles; the wrold will then be prosperous, happy and peaceful-- this wish may or may not be religiously inspired now Expected that every period of time there will be a shift in religion
CHAPTER 10
[THE UNIVERSITY OF RELIGION 10.1: Characterize the universality of religion and discuss various explanations for that universality How might the universality of religion be explained? Critically discuss various theories VARIATION IN RELIGIOUS BELIEFS 10.2: Discuss the range of variability in religious beliefs What are some important variations in beliefs about a supernatural beings or forces across societies? VARIATION IN RELIGIOUS PRACTICES 10.3: Describe the variability in religious practices and practitioners cross-culturally What are some of the important variations in religious practices? What different types of religious practitioners are found across cultures? RELIGION AND ADAPTATION 10.4 Discuss Religion in terms of adaptation What is an example of an adaptive religious belief? RELIGIOUS CHANGE 10.5: Explain and give examples of various forms of religious change, such as conversion and revitalization movements What are examples of various types of religious change?
Ambilineal Descent
affiliates individuals with kin related to them through men or women. In other words, some people in the society affiliate with a group of kin through their fathers; others affiliate through their mothers. Consequently, the descent groups show both female and male genealogical links,
e.g. organized culture: Japan
apanese owned firms in the US Both Japanese and US were employed Was there tension? Clear differences→ Wanted job titles, authority, rights and pay to match closely Japanese emphasized the need to be flexible in their responsibilities as well as their tasks, also felt that prat of responsibility was to help co-workers Americans were too hard to manage, too concerned with money and authority and too concerned with own interests Americans wanted a clear definition of the job and its attached responsibilities, and they also wanted their job titles, authority, rights, and pay to match closely. The Japanese, on the other hand, emphasized the need to be flexible in their responsibilities as well as their tasks. They also felt that part of their responsibility was to help their co-workers. Americans were uncomfortable because the Japanese managers did not indicate exactly what the workers were supposed to do; even if there was a job description, the manager did not appear to pay attention to it. Americans were given little information, were left out of decision making, and were frustrated by the lack of opportunity to advance. The Japanese thought that the Americans were too hard to manage, too concerned with money and authority, and too concerned with their own interests. However system was somewhat "americanized"
Bilateral Kinship
groups—sets of kin who believe they descend from a common ancestor. These are societies with bilateral kinship. Bilateral means "two-sided," and in this case, it refers to the fact that one's relatives on both the mother's and father's sides are equal in importance or, more usually, in unimportance. Kinship reckoning in bilateral societies does not refer to common descent but rather is horizontal, moving outward from close to more distant relatives rather than upward to common ancestors (see Figure 8.5). The type of kinship system in which individuals affiliate more or less equally with their mother's and father's relatives.
Museum Anthropology
non-Western artifacts not considered art, nor were cultures of non-western peoples considered part of history Objects non-western peoples produced and info about their cultures were deposited with similar items from other forms of animal life Many still deposited and stored in nat history museums Museum Positions: Curators, collection managers, education Curators acquire (or accession) materials in order to fill areas that are inadequately represented in their collections, in other cases they have to make difficult decisions about discarding (or de-accessioning materials no longer of use) Museum educators work with the public to teach them about the peoples and cultures represented in the museum's collection Public education is central role for all museum anthropologists -- traditional native New Zealand Maori meeting house, marae on display at Field MUseum in Chicago
Three rules of descent qualities
patrilineal, matrilineal, and ambilineal—are usually, but not always, mutually exclusive.
Fraternal Polyandry
the marriage of a woman to two or more brothers at the same time
Subsistence Work
!Kung- example of society that depends on gathering and which women's work is primarily gathering - food getting is not always predictive however (e.g. Tchambuli) Ester Boserup, when population increases and there is pressure to make more intensive use of the land, cultivators begin to use the plow and irrigation, and males start to do more. But it is not clear why. Plow agriculture could increase male contribution because plowing takes longer and requires les weeding, cross-culturally men usually clear land Weeding is more easily combined with childcare Women have less time to spend in the fields During warfare more men participate- then women will do work Men also removed from primary subsistence work has to be done, then women will do work Girls are more likely to be trained to be indstrious probably to help mothers, female babies are more valued
Exchange of Females
6% of economic transaction marriages has a sister or female relative of the groom is exchanged for the bride Tiv of west africa and Yanomamo of Venezuela and Brazil Horticultural
CHAPTER 6: Social Stratification, class, ethnicity and racism
6.1: Discuss the concepts relating to the variation in degree of social inequality How do anthropologists typically distinguish variation in social stratification? 6.2: Describe the characteristics of egalitarian societies How can people in an egalitarian society achieve status? 6.3: Describe the characteristics of rank societies What are the different anthropological ideas about what advantages chiefs in rank society actually have? 6.4: Describe the characteristics of class societies In what ways do slavery systems differ? Why is slavery hard to define? 6.5: Discuss how racism and inequality are related Why do most anthropologists say that "race" is not a useful scientific construct as applied to humans 6.6: Explain the relationship between ethnicity and inequality What does it mean to describe ethnicity as a process? 6.7 Discuss the emergence of stratification What are some key theories regarding the emergence of stratification?
CHAPTER 7: Sex and Gender
7.1: Describe variation in gender concepts What are some examples of varying gender concepts? 7.2: Identify differences in physique and physiology between males and femanles How might gender differences result from both culture and genes 7.3 Explain differences in gender roles What are some of the near-universals and differences in gender roles cross-culturally? Discuss domestic, productive, and political roles. 7.4 Analyze relative gender differences in terms of contributions to work What might explain why men and women do relatively more work? 7.5 Discuss gender differences in terms of political leadership and warfare cross-culturally What theories might support the findings about gender differences in political leadership and warfare? 7.6 Analyze relative status among women cross-culturally How might the relative status of women and men be measured? What are some of the findings on cross-cultural variations in status by gender? 7.7 Discuss gender differences in personality What are some of the cross-cultural findings about gender differences in personality? 7.8 Explain variability in sexual behavior and attitudes between different cultures What may explain variability in sexual behavior and attitudes between different cultures?
Class Societies: Class
A category of people who have about the same opportunity to obtain economic resources, power, and prestige
Changes in Labor and Gender Roles
A fewer societies remain isolated and more adopt technologies to help them perform tasks- but both of these factors chane Machines replace humans
Social conditioning may be as important as—if not more important than— testosterone in predicting aggression in males.
A male who is deprived of testosterone but had been conditioned previously to be aggressive will continue to be so. On the other hand, a formerly nonviolent male who is given extra testosterone is not likely to be more aggressive in the face of frustration.
Sexually Dismorphic
A marketed difference in size and appearance between males and females of a species Females are less affected by nutritional shortages than men When it comes to female and male physique and physiology, what we see may be the result of both culture and genes.
Caste System
A ranked group, often associated with a certain occupation, in which membership is determined at birth and marriage is restricted to members of one's own caste. In conjunction with a more open class system John Ruskin: Who does the hard and dirty work vs pleasant and clean work an for what pay? In india these are established by caste: Untouchables vs Brahmans in between subcastes caste—sometimes the Brahmans and sometimes other castes. Also, it is not carried on without some resentment; signs of hostility are shown toward the ruling caste by the Untouchables and other lower castes. People will always stay in his/her caste- e.g. a barber can be a teacher BUT has to be a barber Economic, prestige and sexual gains Economic: Free labor with threat of sanctions or house may be withdrawn Prestige: Treated differently Sexual: High caste male has access to two groups
Bride Price
A substantial gift of goods or money given to the bride's kin by the groom or his kin at or before the marriage. Also called bride wealth. 44% of societies that had economic transactions at marriage practiced bride price Substantial price, in currency, animals What kinds of societies are likely to have the custom bride price? Social stratification, also likely where women contribute a great deal to primary subsistence activities and where they contribute more than men to all kinds of economic activities Bride price likely to occur in societies in which men make most of the decisions in the household
Dowry
A substantial transfer of goods or money from the bride's family to the bride. Women usually contribute lttle to primary subsistence activities, there is a high degree of social stratificatoin and a man is not allowed to be married to more than one woman simultaneously
Secondary Subsistence Activities
Activities that involve the preparation and processing of food either to make it edible or to store it. The world may hide the women's role in hunting and emphasize the mens
Economy of Effort Theory
Addresses what is not addressed in other theories Lumbering people give men more knowledge about physical properties of various woods Suggests it would be advantageous for one gender to perform tasks that are located near each other
Unequal in Death: African Americans compared with European Americans
African Americans die from the causes of death more than European Americans Unequal medical treatment- bias in what expensive machines But also might be more prone to have high rates of hypertension/ blood pressure Disproportion in wealth disparity However even with these factors the difference persists Possibly decreased economic mobility- still prone to prejudice and hence more stress which is related to higher blood pressure Racism may affect health When people come to the US, their "race has changed"- may have been considered white at home, but black in the US Two part black/ white division in US Unequal in death shows people of different races suffer from differential access to health care and have more health problems
Rank societies
Agriculture or herding common E.g. Nimpkish- Kwakiutl group gave gifts of livestock, have import of fish to support large families- very similar to food-producing societies , giving away wealth proved high status Chiefs: Usually decided geneologically Usually partly hereditary Always have some power in rank societies Usually "owner" of land but do not necessarily have rights to it Will be given many gifts, people must bow down and respect chief Some chiefs have better lifestyles where others have to work harder to prove dedication to land Theoretically, generosity is supposed to even things out, but Betzig found that the gifts from chiefs to other households did not equal the amount the chiefs received from others. Furthermore, although everyone gave to the chiefs, the chiefs gave mostly to their close relatives. Do not have as much economic equality as previously thought
Sexuality
All have at least some rules governing proper conduct- variation from one society to another in the degree of sexual activity permitted or encouraged before marriage, outside marriage and within marriage
Marking the Onset of Marriage
Among the Taramiut Inuit, an engaged couple's success at producing offspring marks the onset of marriage. The betrothal, or engagement, is considered extremely important and is arranged between the parents at or before the time their children reach puberty. Later, when the young man is ready, he moves in with his betrothed's family for a trial period. If all goes well—that is, if the young woman gives birth to a baby within a year or so—the couple is considered married and the wife goes with her husband to his camp. If the couple does not conceive, the young man returns to his family without a wife Kwoma→ Trial Marriage then ceremony, girl lives for a while in boys ohme, when mother and son are satisfied, mother has son go out of the house a nd prepare his meal. When first bowl is nearly finished, his mother tells him that his betrothed cooked the meal and he is now married, then boy rushes out of house and says the food is terrible, then there is an official ceremony Living together has become more of an option in western countries, a trial marriage or alterative
Biological
Biological? Or is it how boys and girls are raised? If boys are expected to be warriors, should this be how they are raised? And vice versa with females as caretakers There is no major personality difference between children If there is considerable experimental research on aggression in non-human animals Females injected with androgen at about the time the sexual organs develop (before or shortly after birth) behave more aggressively when they are older than do females without the hormone (animals) Study human females who were "androgenized" in the womb because of drugs given to their mother to prevent miscarriage through drugs given to prevent miscarriage in mother Show similar patterns of higher aggression- even these results are not Females look and develop male like genitals so htey may be terated like males Endocrinology studies: High testosterone levels do not cause men to be more aggressive- appears aggression results when testosterone surges in response to a distress signal of a sort sent by amygdala- part of brain that communicates with emotional center of the brain - hypothalamus Report on 101 societies does show that more societies encourage aggression in boys than in girls, most show no difference in aggressive training - account for widespread sex differences in actual age-aggressiveness. No obvious differences Beatrice and John witinh reported from six cultures project Generally showed more responsible and nurturant behavior Girls asked to babysit, cook, clean house and fetch water and firewood More boys than girls had been born, many mothers without girls at home asked their sons to do girls chores- systematic behvavior observations showed that much of behavior of boy who did girls work was intermediary between the behavior of other boys and girls
Sociability and Passivity
Boys and girls may be sociable in different ways because boys generally play in larger groups than girls Girls are less aggressive than boys, which we already knew
Task Assignment
Boys who did girls work were more like girls in that they were less aggressive, less domineering and more respnsible than other boys
Why do some societies let women participate in military combat?
Conduct purely external wars= societies that allow women Wives come from other communities so in internal wars should they be expected to fight against ones father?
Gender Differences
Differences between females and males that reflect cultural expectations and experiences.
Lenski
Distribution of surplus will be determined on the basis of powe, thus inequallities in power promote unequal access to economic resources and simultaneously give rise to inequalities in privilege and prestige. A broader argument is that a surplus may lead to some advantages of one subgroup over another, such as more people to support a stronger military force, or more knowledge that could lead to the development of specialized, productive technology. People are more likely to put up with a leaders aggrandizement in exchange for protection, or to access economic resources becomes unequal when there is opulation pressure on resources in rank or chiefdom societies Across generations of 21 societies differing in substinence If resources are constantly changing, there is no inherent value of transmitting parcels of land to children. If there aren't enough people to help you defend a valuable parcel, there is no point trying to exclude others Land Scarcity, population pressure may push toward exculsion Some societies- Nigeria- tribal member could present leader for a gift and ask for higehr status
Stratified
Divided into levels Can an individal in a stratified society change his or her class affiliation?
Sharing
Ensues equal access to economic resources despite differences is acquired prestige Unequal access to power by social groups seems to occur only in state societies, which have full-time political officials and marked differences in wealth. Egalitarian societies use a number of customs to keep leaders from dominating others. Criticism and ridicule can be very effective. Christopher Boehm to suggest that dominance comes naturally to humans. Egalitarian societies work hard to reverse that tendency. 3 The Mbuti provide an example of a society almost totally equal: "Neither in ritual, hunting, kinship nor band relations do they exhibit any discernible inequalities of rank or advantage." 4 Their hunting bands have no leaders, and recognition of the achievement of one person is not accompanied by privilege of any sort. Economic resources such as food are communally shared, and even tools and weapons are frequently passed from person to person. Only within the family are rights and privileges differentiated. Pastoral societies are not usually labeled egalitarian- is unequal distribution of animals egalitarian? Vagaries of weather, theft, gifts of livestock to relatives make livestock ownership fluctuate, wealth differences may be mostly temporary
Look at Mammals and Birds
Female-male bonding occurs in most species of birds and warm-blooded animal species They exhibit female-male unions despite nothing like human division of labor- other two factors relate to male-female bonding in the opposite way of what was expected Mammal and bird species that have longer dependency periods or more female sexuality are less likely to have male-female bonding Postpartum mothers with animals do not mate stably and vice versa We believe the human female has a postpartum feeding problem. When humans lost most of their body hair, babies could not readily travel with the mother by clinging to her fur. And when humans began to depend on certain kinds of food-getting that could be dangerous, such as hunting, mothers could not engage in such work with their infants along. Generally, it appears that Hadza women could support themselves and their children without a mate. Married women forage more regularly and contribute more food (in terms of calories) to the family diet, except when they have a nursing infant. Even if we assume that human mothers have a postpartum feeding problem, we must ask if marriage is the most likely solution to the problem. It may well be, because other conceivable solutions probably would not work as well. If a mother took turns babysitting with another mother, for example, neither might be able to collect enough food for both mothers and the two sets of children dependent on them. A mother and father share the same set of children, making it easier for them to feed themselves and their children adequately. Another possible solution is males and females living in a promiscuous group. We believe that a particular mother in that kind of arrangement would probably not be able to count on any male, if he didn't think he was the father, to watch her baby when she had to go out for food, or to bring her food when she had to watch her baby. The need to solve the postpartum feeding problem by itself may help to explain why some animals, including humans, have relatively stable male-female bonds.
Polygyny
Form of marriage that allows a man to be married to more than one woman at the same time In bible- e.g. old testament David, King Solomon, hundreds of wives/ concubines Means great wealth or status Men can be wealthy already, or can have more than one wife to become wealthier E.g. Siwai feast giving, pigs There is never peace for a long time in a polygynous family. If the husband sleeps in the house of one wife, the other one sulks all the next day. If the man is so stupid as to sleep two consecutive nights in the house of one wife, the other one will refuse to cook for him, saying, So-and-so is your wife; go to her for food. Since I am not good enough for you to sleep with, then my food is not good enough for you to eat.
Dependence
Girls are more dependent Six Cultures project doubts this idea Boys and girls are equally likely to seek help or emotional reassurance from others- have different styles
Indirect Dowry:
Goods given by the groom's kin to the bride (or her father, who passes most of them to her) at or before her marriage.
Heterosexual:
Greater restrictiveness occurs in more complex societies Parents are more concerned with preventing children from marrying "beneath them" Virginity is emphasized in rank and stratified societies in which families are likely to exchange goods and money in the course of arranging marriages Have to understand how much we want the biology of sex to shape our lives
Expendability Theory
Idea that men, rather than women will tend to do the dangerous work in a society because the loss of men is not as great a disadvantage reproductively as the loss of women is called the expendability theory If society permits two or more women to be married to the same man Men rewarded for doing more dangerous tasks
Economic Aspects of Marriage
In about 75% of societies, one or more explicit economic transactions take place before or after the marriage
Political Leadership and Warfare
In almost every society men lead women in the political arena Even distribution of leadership in 2% of societies- 10% had women in leadership positions, mean average of women in national parliaments and legislative bodies is 19% In 87% of societies, women never participate actively in war Only 12 countries allow military woman in combatm only recent change in US Matarilineal Societies: The docent of a kin group is passed down through the mother and the female ancestors, formal political positions are usually held by men E.g. Iroquois of New York State still had majority male chiefs Male role in warfare may contribute Dennis Werner found that women with heavy child-care burdens were less influential than women not as involved in child care; he suggests that they had fewer friends and missed many details of what was going on in the village. 51 These various explanations suggest why men generally dominate politics, but we still need to explain why women participate in politics more in some societies than in others. Marc Ross investigated this question in a cross-cultural survey of 90 societies. 52 In that sample, the degree of female participation in politics varied considerably. For example, among the Mende of Sierra Leone, women regularly held high office, but among the Azande of Zaire, women took no part in public life. One factor that predicts the exclusion of women from politics is the organization of communities around male kin. As we will see later, when they marry, women usually have to leave their communities and move to their husband's household. If women are outsiders joining a community with many related males, the males will have political advantages because of their inside knowledge of their community's members and its past events.
Six Cultures Project
In the Six Cultures project, an extensive comparative study of children's behavior, this difference was statistically significant as early as 3 to 6 years of age. 66 Six different research teams observed children's behavior in Kenya (among the Gusii), Mexico, India, the Philippines, Okinawa, and the United States. A more recent cross-cultural comparison of four other cultures (the Logoli of Kenya, Nepal, Belize, and American Samoa) supports the finding that boys are generally more aggressive. Cross-culturally girls play in small, intimate groups whereas boys play in larger groups with more interpersonal distance Girls also show more nurturance
Varying Inequality
In the United States, inequality has fluctuated considerably from the 1900s to the present. Two of the highest periods of inequality were just before the 1929 stock market crash and just before the recession of 2007, when the top 10 percent had almost 50 percent of all the income in the country. The least inequality was in the mid-1970s, after the stock market declined by 42 percent. Then the top 10 percent controlled about 33 percent of the income. Except for declines during recessions after the 1970s, inequality has generally increased—the United States now has more inequality than any rich nation on earth. 1929 crash made wealthy more wealthy
Women's Electoral Success on the Northwest Coast
In this group- Coast Salish Communities- elect many women Tribal ceremonials and other public events Women are more popular politically in smaller communities- maybe they have a better chance of being known personally Does female income relative to male and community size help explain the relative political success elsewhere?
Endogamous
In-marrying group E.g. Burakumin of Japan The caste vocational distinctions have weakened in recent times as people have become more educated.
Education impact on women's roles
Increases likelihood that status will increase, also increases chance of lower fertility allowing them to persue other interests One study among the Kayapo found that women with children are considered less influential Western colonialism has been generally detrimental to women's status Undermined position of women
Compatibility with Child Care Theory
Males can't breast feed May explain why only infant care is listed as almost always woman's work - could have taken up so much time that it was hard to do other Weaving is also a woman's activity - full time specialization and production may be compatible with child care Doesn't explain why men prepare soil for planting, make objects out of wood
CHAPTER 8
Marriage 8.1 Define Marriage in anthropological terms What defines the custom of marriage Why is Marriage Nearly Universal? 8.2 Explain the near-universality of marriage across cultures What are four major explanations about why marriage exists? Critically evaluate them How does one marry? 8.3 Identify the various ways that marriage is marked in different societies and the economic exchanges that accompany it What kinds of economic transactions are associated with marriage? Whom should one marry or not marry? 8.4 Discuss the types of restrictions on whom one can marry What are some of the ways cultures restrict or express preferences for whom one marries? How Many does one Marry? 8.5 Describe the three different forms of marriage and explain social or economic reasons for each How are monogomy, polygymy and polyandry defined and what may explain why each form is preferred in societies that practice that form? The Family 8.6 Describe and explain variation in family form What defines the concept of family? How and why does it vary in form? The Importance of Kinship 8.7 Explain why kinship is important Why do anthropologists think kinship is so important in non-commercial societies? Patterns of Marital Residence 8.8 Identify the various patterns of marital residence How does patrilocal and matrilocal marital residence affect males and females? Types of Affiliation with Kin 8.9 Discuss the various ways of affiliating with kin and how the systems differ How do the forms of affiliation with kin differ? 8.10 Discuss what might explain variation in marital residence patterns What are some theories and evidence that migt explain variation in marital residence? Explaining the Emergence of Different Systems of Kin Affiliation
Marriage
Marriage is cutsomary in every society with only one or two exceptions Not essential to human survival Families all have parent-child groups, making it universal A socially approved sexual and economic union, usually between a man and a woman, that is presumed, both by the couple and by others, to be more or less permanent, and that subsumes reciprocal rights and obligations between the two spouses and their future children. Couples expect long ter relationship Implicit reciprocal rights and obligations in terms of finances, property, etc. Marriage unties the economic and sexual- Peter Murdock
Prolonged Infant Dependency
Marriage is suggested to help each other raise child But why could they not cooperate in providing for dependent children without marriage?
Industrial society power
Measured in political power and distribution of income- less pronounced than inequalities in complex preindustrial societies Some stress the importance of increased productivity resulting in surpluses Greater scope and complexity of distribution system- enhancing status of chiefs as redistributing agents
Social Stratification
Modern industrial and postindustrial societies contain social groups such as families, classes, or ethnic groups that have unequal access to important advantages such as economic resources, power and prestige. The number of prestigious positions is adjusted to fit the number of qualified candidates.
Sex in Marriage
Most cultures have the man on top - couples prefer privacy- easier with single family dwellings or separate rooms- this is difficult in unpartitioned and multifamily dwellings Couples in SIriono of Bolivia prefer outdoor sex in a secluded location Night is preferred Foreplay length may be quickly or hours Many cultures view frequent sex in marriage as bad but 9% studied view it as undesirable and cause of illness, weakness and even death
Emergence of Stratification
Not sure why it developed Archeological sites before 8000 years ago did not show extensive evidence of inequality Houses do not vary much in size or content and different communities of the same culture are similar in size and otherwize Signs about 2000 years after agriculture emerged in Near East- burials Past 10,000 years- most food collectors in distant past lacked social classes 1966 comparative sociologist Gerhard Lenski- trend toward increasing inequality since 8,000 years ago was reversing
Extramarital Sex
Not uncommon in many societies IN 69% OF WORLDS SOCIETIES MEN HAVE EXTRAMARITAL SEX MORE THAN OCCASIONALLY 11% acknowledging allowing it for men The Navajo of the 1940's wee said to forbid adultery but young married men under 30 had a quarter of heterosexual contacts with women other than their wives With onset of AIDS epidemic in 1990's - more men and women reported to be faithful to spouses Cross-culturally there is a double standard between men and women Women try to curtail sex, men are more likely to resort to pysical violence and women are mroe likely to distance themselves from husbands Gossip may be employed to shame the relationship
Xanith
Oman culture third gender- wear non female or male clothes Free to go and work as a servant and/or homosexual prostitute An older xanith who is no longer attractive ay decide to become an "old man"
Recognition of Class
Open classes are still class differences US is unique- multiple social classes, many deny their existence bc ideology of strong character and hard work can equal success, masks realities of social inequality
Cousin Marriages
People often don't refer to their cousins by how closely related to one another they are However in some cultures people will not make some jokes with certain cousins while he will with others
Transgender
People who do not feel that their assigned gender fits them well
Polygamy
Plural marriage; one individual is married to more than one spouse simultaneously. Polygyny and polyandry are types of polygamy.
Incest Taboo
Prohibition of sexual intercourse or marriage between mother and son, father and daughter, and brother and sister; often extends to other relatives. Incest permitted in royal families sometimes Incan and Hawaiin families Brother sister marriages 8% of commoner marriages were brother-sister marriages
Race (Biology)
Race In biology, race refers to a subpopulation or variety of a species that differs somewhat in gene frequencies from other varieties of the species. Many anthropologists do not think that the concept of race is usefully applied to humans because humans do not fall into geographic populations that can be easily distinguished in terms of different sets of biological or physical traits. Thus, race in humans is largely a culturally assigned category. Number of racial classifiers that people have come up with obviously show no clear lines of difference- people interbreed Geographically separated 3 to 37 different races over time
Gender Division of Labor
Reason for marriage SOciety structures itself so that woman and men share products of labor- a solution to a problem But marriage is not the only solution May solve the problem of sharing labor,, however only small group might be pledged to cooperate economically, or both men and women in hunter-gatherrer society hunt/ gather
Cultural Regulations of Sexuality: Permissiveness Versus Restrictiveness
Regulation or forbidding of sex in all societies to some degree- a number ease sexual restrictions during adolescence but more restrictions for adults The US has been more traditionally restrictive until recently- before AIDS epidemic
Reasons for Sexual Restrictiveness
Restricted with other species Societies that punish homosexuality also punish premarital and extramarital sex Have to consider heterosexual and homosexual restrictiveness separatesly Homosexual: Forbid abortion and infanticide= likely to be intolerant of male homosexuality
Slavery
Slaves: A class of people who do not own their own labor or the products thereof Obtained from other cultures Ancient Greece: very common, people could get higher status with freedom Manumission: The granting of freedom to a slave Cheap labor- slaves soon came to be regarded as low status because of their alleged inherent inferiority Quoted scripture out of context 1816 STILL NO RIGHT TO VOTE, COULDN'T INTERMARRY WITH WHITES many societies with intensive agriculture did not develop any variety of slavery. Also, the hypothesis that slavery develops where available resources are plentiful but labor is scarce is not supported by the cross-cultural evidence. All we can say definitely is that slavery does not occur in developed or industrial economies; either it disappears or it was never present in them.
Egalitarian Societies
Social groups (e.g. families) have more or less the same access to rights or advantages, as they tend to in foraging and horticultural societies. Societies in which all people of a given age-sex category have equal access to economic resources, power and prestige Egalitarianism probably characterized most of human history egalitarian societies have all but disappeared because of two processes—the global spread of commercial or market exchange and the voluntary or involuntary incorporation of many diverse people into large, centralized political systems.
Degree of Openness
Social scientists typically compare the class of people with the class of their parent or parents to measure the degree of mobility. United States, individuals with a college bachelor's degree working full-time average 67 percent more income than those with only a high school diploma. And individuals with professional degrees earn on average 81 percent more than those with a bachelor's degree. 22 And, individuals with higher degrees are much more likely to be employed full-time. 23 In many countries, educational attainment predicts one's social class better than parents' occupation does. 24 Leaders in "paradise", ontario found rigid stratification f leadership positions went to british, vacationed, upper class. Later by 1980's leaders came mostly from the middle and working classes
Cultural Complexity
Social stratification, plow-arid agriculture, large settlements, private property and craft specialization Associated with lower status for women - if Women only have informal influence in a society, do they have influence at all ? However, the relationship between cultural complexity and gender equality appears to be reversed in industrial and post-industrial societies. Judging by a comparative study of gender attitudes in 61 countries, it seems that countries that rely on agriculture, such as Nigeria and Peru, have the least favorable attitudes toward gender equality; industrial societies, such as Russia and Taiwan, have moderately favorable attitudes; and post-industrial societies, such as Sweden and the United States, have the most favorable attitudes toward gender equality.
Class Societies
Societies containing social groups that have unequal access to economic resources Differences in individuals in age and gender and in such abilities or traits as hunting skill, perception, health, creativity, physical prowess, attractiveness, and intelligence. According to Morton Fried, egalitarian means that, within a given society, "there are as many positions of prestige in any given age/ sex grade as there are persons capable of filling them." Many people can acquire high status from doing something e.g . Carving bones into artifacts
Global Inequality
Societies have to be involved with world market economy to be able to measure the standard of living in monetary terms Rich poor gap increasing→ Why? Between 1870 and 1914 rich nations invest in rich nations People are healthier, more educated, live longer, can buy more goods and services UN has computed a human development index for countries Combines life expectancy, literacy, measure of per capita purchasing power Almost all countries have improved, a quarter over 65%
Rank Societies
Societies that do not have any unequal access to economic resources or power, but with social groups that have unequal groups that have unequal access to status positions and prestige
Ethnic Groups
Some groups have more advantages than others, almost always associated with different access to advantages
Open Class Systems
Some possibility of moving from one class to anothe All nations of the modern world Class status not fully determined at birth in open class societies, there is high probablility that most people will stay close to the class into which they were born and will marry within that class. the importance of inheritance seems to increase at higher levels of wealth. Children of wealthier parents have better access to health care, higher quality food, better schools, and tutors and see more of the world. They learn the "manners" associated with the upper classes and are introduced to others who may help them later on. Debutante balls and exclusive private parties ensure that young people meet the "right people." Thus, wealthier children are more likely to marry wealthier people when they grow up. In addition to differences in occupation, wealth, and prestige, social classes vary in many other ways, including religious affiliation, closeness to kin, ideas about childrearing, job satisfaction, leisure-time activities, style of clothes and furniture, and (as noted in the chapter on communication and language) even in styles of speech. Class boundaries, though vague, have been established by custom and tradition; sometimes they have been reinforced by the enactment of laws. The crimes the poor are most likely to commit are dealt with harshly by the courts, and poor people rarely have the money to secure effective legal counsel. In open class systems, it is not always clear how many classes there are.
Same Sex Marriages
Some societies accept it and give reciprocal and similar rights to heterosexual men and women Male/ female expected to take on the opposite gender role and become the wife or husband in the union Cheyenne indians allow a man to take a second wife who is a biological man → Two spirits Some Azande warriors who could not afford wifves had "Boy-wives", have sexual relations, perform traditionally female chores In africa there are some female-female marriages but often no sex, allow one to take on role of husband, children will call her father - Nandi pastoral agricultural society of Kenya
Arranged Marriages
Sometimes betrothals are completed while the future partners are still children Hindu India, China, Japan, eastern and southern Europe Conviction that joining together of two different kin groups to form new social and economic ties is too important to be left to free choice and romantic love Becoming less common In Diaspora- same socio-economic background Some young South Asians in England are arranging their own marriages Websites, advertisements Have speed dating Matchmakers set up parties for people to meet
Gift Exchange
Somewhere more often (11% of those with economic transactions) than exchange of females Parents cease communication and send gifts of food and other objects through a third party until marriage is completed and groups united
Gender Stratification
The degree of unequal access by the different genders to prestige, authority, power, rights, and economic resources.
Clinical Distribution
The different gradients- e.g. gradient of color vs gradient of nose shape, hence no one line you can draw between two races Analyses of all human populations have demonstrated that 93-95% of genetic variation is due to individual differences within populations, while only 3-5% of genetic variation is due to differences between major human population groups.
Strength Theory
The idea that males generally posses greater strength and a superior capacity to mobilize their strength in quick bursts of energy (because of greater aerobic work capacity) However: It is not clear that some activities require strength- e.g. collecting wild honey, making instruments Women do hunt in some societies sugesting that differences in strength cannot play a very important role
Ethnicity
The process of defining ethnicity usually involves a group of people emphasizing common origins and language, shared history, and selected aspects of cultural difference such as a difference in religion. Because different groups are doing the perceiving, ethnic identities often vary with whether one is inside or outside the group. Ethnic Groups and Ethnic Identities emerge as part of a social and political process- defining ethnicity is difficult The majority group doesn't usually think of itself as an ethnic group - only minorities have ethnic identities→ African Americans, Asian Americans, Native Americans Often derogatory names are used to identify people who are different Ethnic identity may be manipulated, by insiders and by outsiders, in different situations. A particularly repressive regime that emphasizes nationalism and loyalty to the state may not only suppress the assertiveness of ethnic claims; it may also act to minimize communication among people who might otherwise embrace the same ethnic identity. 78 More democratic regimes may allow more expression of difference and celebrate ethnic difference. However, manipulation of ethnicity does not come just from the top. It may be to the advantage of minority groups to lobby for more equal treatment as a larger entity, such as Asian American, rather than as Japanese, Chinese, Hmong, Filipino, or Korean American. Similarly, even though there are hundreds of Native American groups, originally speaking different languages, there may be political advantages for all if they are treated as Native Americans. Ethnic diversity is often celebrated in multiethnic societies, differences are usually associated with inequities in wealth, power, prestige Stereotypes can become self-fulfilling prophecies However change has occurred- there is more political activism in the US, break down of legal barriers and segregationist practices that reinforced inequality The "color line" in the US has not disappeared
Theoretical Weaknesses
The productive and domestic tasks that societies everywhere have carried out are a well-established body of knowledge They argue that if women in some societies can develop the strength to do such work, then perhaps strength is more a function of training than has been believed Childcare can be compatible with other work- even hunting, hiking mountain Hunting is Fairly common among Aka, women spend 18% of time net-hunting which is more time than Aka men devote to the task
Exogamy
The rule specifying marriage to a person from outside one's own group (kin or community). Can b outside a village, or come from a distance Foragers and horticulturalists found a clear relationship between population density and distance between the communities of the husband and wife- the lower the density, the greater the marriage distance !Kung tribe lived 40 miles from each other before they were married
Endogamy
The rule specifying marriage to a person within one's own group (kin, caste, community). Obligation Lower castes would "pollute" family
Sexual Competition
This limits women's availability since they are usually sexually available for ong periods of time, unlike animals But wouldn't this make it easier for people Not much aggression over females Other systems could solve sexual competition problem
Homosexuality
Usually refer to sex between males or sex between females Some societies differ in gender concepts- meaning of homosexuality therefore may differ Navajo recognize four genders In Himalayas man considered homosexual if he ate flesh of an uncastrated pig In US, Papago southwestern US- nights of saturnalia where homosexual tendencies could be expressed Women did not have same freedom of expression- can participate in saturnalia feasts but only with husband's permission, female transvestites were nonexistent Berber speaking Siwans of NA expected all males to engage in homosexual relations- fathers arrange for unmarried sons to be given to older man in a homosexual arrangement Fear of Egyptian gov made them secret ceremonies, later would marry girls Heteroseuality prohibited as many as 260 days a year but homosexuality is never prohibited Male "mentor" relationships Cross-culturally it is extremely unusual to find homosexuals that are exclusive - males and females are expected to marry
Premarital sex
Varies in approval degree Trobriand Islanders approved of and encouraged premarital sex Could play at being wife with the boys of their choice (Ila) Tepoztlan Indians: "Crabbed, cribbed, confined" from first menstruation Blood stains displayed as proof of brides virginity Sex delayed until after marriage in western societies- most Americans like counterparts in Europe accepted/ approved of premarital sex
Gini Coefficient
Way of measuring inequality- a number that ranges from a possible 0 socore where everyone has the same income, to 100, where one person has all the income and everyone else has nothing Gini coefficients shown in Figure 6.1 for selected countries ranges from a low of 25.8 for Norway and a high of 59.5 for Haiti. US has more than countries in Europe and
Types of social inequality advantages
Wealth or Economic Resources: Things that have value in a culture, including land, tools and other technology, goods, and money Power: The ability to make others do what they do not want to do or influence based on the threat of force Prestige: Being accorded particular respect or honor Some societies in ethnographic record have no social groups with unequal access to prestige
Who does what work?
What are the universal or near-universal patterns in such assignments? Although many tasks are assigned to both genders (the middle column), clearly some patterns are worldwide. One of the most striking is in primary subsistence activities; males almost always hunt and trap animals, and females usually gather wild plants. Do this and the other distributions of activities in the table suggest why females and males generally do different things?
Status of Women
Women are under many restrictions enforced by men Why status changes: Women should have evry little status when food-getting depends largely on hunting, herding, or intensive agriculture Men will be more valued and esteemed than women whee warfare is particularly important Men will have higher status where there are centralized political hierarchies, since men usually play the dominant role in politics Women will have higher status where kin groups and couples places of residence after marriage are organized around women Value, power, authority and rights mean something slightly different Whyte: We cannot talk about status as a single concept Why is there less or more gender stratification?
Economic Development and Women's status
Women in developing countries are largely left out With the departure of men, women took over many of men's market niches, begin to engage in long distance trade Economic empowerment in agricultural societies Survey of 61 countries: Gender equality is more favored in industrializing countries than in agricultural societies- lets them pursue education ; less infant and chid mortality rates, post-industrial countries are even more accepting. Women are learning to get out in the world more
Overall Work
Women typically work more hours a day than men - bulk of household work as well as child care
Study in Mangrove Australia:
Women were aggressors 43% OF THE TIME- contrast
Bride Service
Work performed by the groom for his bride's family for a variable length of time either before or after the marriage. Varies in duration If egalitarian food collectors then South American Societies likely to practice bride service
The Na Exception
Yunnan Na group- don't marry or live with sexual partners No obligation, mostly discreet meetings Children stay with mothers family Government trying to impose more strict laws but unsuccessful, however now young people are marrying more
Population Pressure
does not explain why certain individuals become homosexual or why most individuals are in societies engage in activities
Systematic observational studies
for various non-Western societies that record details of behavior of many males and females Observe children in different cultural settings Female-male aggressiveness difference- based on actual accounts of the number of times a particuar individual tried to hurt or injure another during a period of time Not a matter of a behavior being present or absent
