ANTH135 Exam #2

Unitary State

places most power in the hands of central government officials

Emotionalistic disease theories assume that emotional experiences cause illness.

-susto (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.: soul loss in some Latin American cultures - the cure is to entice the soul back to the body "the Headache" (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. in -Appalachia - the cure is bed rest for a period of time

Prophet

A person who speaks or interprets for God to other people

religious rituals

behaviors or practices that are either required for or expected of the members of a particular group

Incorporation

free borrowing and modification of cultural elements and occurs when people of different cultures maintain contact as well as political and social self-determination

ideological rituals

seek social control by changing the mood, behavior, sentiments, motivations, and values of people; usually for the sake of the community as a whole

age grade

specific status defined by age, such as a warrior or elder

spirit possession

state of being taken over by the spirit of a god, demon, or deceased person

Circumcision

surgical removal of the foreskin

expiation

the act of atoning for sin or wrongdoing

entopic phenomena

the forms painted on the cave wall

infibulation

the ritual removal of the clitoris, prepuce, and labia, and the sewing together of the vestibule

Explain the purpose/role of the Aztec human sacrifice.

Aztec society (Mesoamerican culture area) was based on agriculture and was highly stratified. The Aztecs believed that the life of the Sun was about to end and tried to avoid that by providing the sacred food that the sun needed: blood. Human sacrifice on a large scale was an important part of Aztec religion.

Who is Ngundeng? What is the significance of the dang?

Ngundeng, a nineteenth-century Nuer prophet. He was born in the late 1830s. Of course, there are no historical records of his life, but there are many stories, espe cially those told by his family. According to tradition, he was conceived after his mother was past menopause and was born after a twelve-month pregnancy. Ngundeng is said to have spoken to his mother at birth and to possess a number of physical characteristics that were attributed to divine influence. Unlike some prophets who make contact with supernatural power later on in life, Ngundeng was born with that power.

Why are full-time religious specialists found in large complex societies?

In larger, more complex societies where there is the development of many occupational specializations (e.g. ironsmith, pottery makers, scholars, etc.) you will find religious specialists that are full-time.

Why are part-time religious specialists found in small-scale societies rather than full-time specialists?

In small-scale societies, rituals are usually performed by most or all adult members of the community. Religious activities are interwoven the secular activities. This is where you find part-time religious specialists.

Tabu/Taboo

Objects and persons that are supernaturally prohibited. May also refer to certain behaviors that would bring about negative consequences through supernatural beings.

Occasional Rituals

Performed when a particular need arises-such as marriage or death

Stigmata

Phenomenon in which a person bears all or some of the wounds of Christ in his or her own body.

Explain why body modification is a common element of a rite of passage.

Physical appearance serves to distinguish individuals socially with regard to such attributes as gender, age, social status, and occupation as well as membership in age and social groups. Many rituals involve temporary alterations of the human body, as when paint is applied to the body to symbolize that an individual is in a liminal state. Changes in status through rites of passage are often marked with changes in dress and hair style that mark the individual's new status.

What are the characteristics of a priest? How does one become a priest?

Priests are full-time religious specialists associated with formalized religious institutions that may be linked with kinship groups, communities, or larger political units and are given religious authority by those units or by formal religious organizations.

What are the beliefs of the Rastafarian religion? What is ital levity and how is it related to ganga?

Rastafarian religious practice is the smoking of marijuana, or ganga. Ganga is sometimes referred to as the "wisdom weed" or "the holy herb" and is seen as a religious sacrament and a way to gain new understandings of self, the universe, and God. Rastafarians trace the use of ganga to several passages in the Bible, including the following: "thou shalt eat the herb of the field" (Genesis 3:18), "eat every herb of the land" (Exodus 10:12), and "Better is a dinner of herb where love is, than a stalled ox and hatred therewith" (Proverbs 15:17).

Which came first - ritual or myth?

Ritual

technological rituals

Rituals that attempt to influence or control nature

social rite of intensification

Rituals that delineate codes of proper behavior and articulate the community's worldview

hunting and gathering (hunting and agricultural) rites of intensification

Rituals that influence nature in the quest for food.

What are the characteristics of a shaman? How does one become a shaman?

Shaman (part-time religious specialist): A part-time religious specialist who receives his/her power directly from the spirit world and acquires status and ability to do things through personal communication with the supernatural during trances or other altered states of consciousness

Discuss the following types of shamans:

Siberian -Siberian shamans perform rituals to heal the sick, divine the future, and ensure success in the hunt. Here again the world is divided into three realms. The upper realm is one of light and good spirits; the middle realm is the home of people and spirits of the earth; and the lower realm is one of darkness and evil spirits. It is the shaman's role, while in an altered state of consciousness, to communicate with various spirits. The shaman may also journey to one of the other realms. Yakut -the Yakut or Shkha live in northeastern Siberia. Missionaries of the Russian Orthodox Church entered the region in the early eighteenth century. They found a people living in small groups spread over a vast area, hunting, fishing, and herding horses and reindeer. Over time, many Yakut converted to Christianity, yet the practice of shamanism remained strong, and most people participated in both Orthodox and shamanic rituals. Korean -Korea has had a long history of shamanism. At one time shamans, who were mostly men, had considerable political influence. Over time this influence waned, and eventually shamans were persecuted and driven underground. Shamanism moved from being a prominent, public institution to being a more private, secretive activity. Today most shamans are women. This provides many women with a good source of income and also gives women some degree of influence over the community. Shamanism is now becoming recognized as an important part of Korean culture, and many aspects of shamanistic ritual, such as songs and dances, are being publicly performed for entertainment. Shamans are chosen by the spirits. Pentecostal -If we are using the term shaman in its broad sense, then there are religious practitioners in the United States who also exhibit many of the same features. One example is Pentecostal faith healers (see Box 6.1 for another example). Altered states of consciousness are achieved through the use of rhythmic speech and music. Participants in the ritual are often moved to shout, dance, run up and down the aisle, or cry. The healing ritual, known as "laying on hands," generally takes place during a service. The person in need of healing stands in front of the preacher, who is standing in front of the altar. Others stand behind the person receiving the prayer in case he or she needs physical support. The preacher anoints the person's head with oil and recites incantations. The preacher may also rub the head, torso, back, or legs of the person. The whole congregation may participate by clapping in unison during the healing. The Holy Spirit is believed to possess both the healer and the patient, which can lead either one of them to convulse suddenly or begin speaking in tongues. Neoshamanism -The last several decades have seen a growing interest in shamanism, primarily in the United States and Europe. Much of this can be traced to the publication of historian Mircea Eliade's book Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy in 1951. This book was one of the first to look at common elements of shamanism cross-culturally and to focus on shamanism as a technique for achieving an altered state of consciousness. The interest in shamanism, however, really took off starting in the 1970s

What are the characteristics of altered states of consciousness

-Alterations in thinking: disturbances in concentration, attention, memory, and judgment; reality testing impaired to varying degrees; distinction between cause and effect blurred -Disturbed time sense: altered sense of time and chronology; feelings of timelessness; time coming to a standstill; the acceleration or slowing of time seen as infinitely long or infinitesimally short -Loss of control: fear of losing grip on reality and self-control; feelings of helplessness; in spirit possession states the person relinquishes control -Change in emotional expression: sudden and unexpected displays of emotional extremes; individual may become detached and uninvolved -Body image change: distortion in body image; a schism between body and mind; dissolution of boundaries between self and others and the universe; various parts of the body appear or feel shrunken, enlarged, distorted, heavy, weightless, disconnected; spontaneous experiences of dizziness, blurring of vision -Perceptual distortions: hallucinations; increased visual imagery; synesthesia, in which one form of sensory experience is translated into other form, such as in seeing or feeling sound -Change in meaning or significance: attach increased meaning or significance to experiences; feelings of profundity -Sense of the ineffable: inability to communicate the experience to someone who has not undergone a similar experience; varying degrees of amnesia; sometimes a lucid memory -Feelings of rejuvenation: experience a new sense of hope, rejuvenation, and rebirth; hypersuggestibility, in which the person comes to rely more on the suggestions of the shaman, demagogue, interrogator, or other religious practitioner; contradictions, doubts, inconsistencies, and inhibitions tend to diminish; suggestions of the person endowed with authority accepted as concrete reality

Revitalization Ritual Examples

-Nativistic movements: elimination of alien customs and a return to the native way of life -->Example: Handsome Lake (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. (can also be vitalistic) -->Messianic movements: participation of a divine savior in human flesh -->Vitalistic movements: importation of alien elements

Understand prescriptive and situational rituals, and periodic and occasional ritual

-Prescriptive rituals are rituals that are required to be performed, The require ment may be set forth in a religious text ("Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy [Exodus 20:8]"), may be required by a deity or a religious authority, or may simply be based in tradition. -Situational rituals or crisis rituals, are rituals performed because of a particular need of an individual or a community. -The former are called periodic rituals or calendrical rituals -The latter are called occasional rituals

Explain the concept of liminality.

Liminality is the state of ambiguous marginality during which the metamorphosis takes place. As such, it is symboli cally represented by a number of attributes.

Who is Michael Harner and what was discussed about his work?

Michael Harner is an anthropologist who spent many years studying shamanism, primarily in the Americas (among the Jivaro in the Upper Amazon) and northern Europe (Saamiland). Harner felt that the insights he learned about shamanism from the Jivaro were applicable to all people in all places. He dubbed the concept core shamanism, which is described on his website as "the near universal methods of shamanism without a specific cultural perspective."4 In 1980, Harner published The Way of the Shaman as a sort of self-help book for those in the West interested in pursuing shamanism; he now trains more than 5,000 people each year in core shamanism. These training workshops take place all over North America, Europe, and Latin America.

Core Shamanism

Michael Harner's concept of the core and nearly universal methods of shamanism without a specific cultural context

Describe the use of altered states in the

-the Holiness churches -->The state is entered through intense concentration in prayer and with loud music with a repetitive beat; no drugs are used. Individuals speak in tongues, dance energeti cally, and even enter trancelike states. In some Holiness Churches participants in an altered state will pick up poisonous snakes and drink poison. Entrance into an altered state is a highly desired religious experience and is interpreted as being filled by the Holy Ghost. This is an example of a unitary state. -San healing rituals -->n their healing rituals the !Kung experience !kia, which is an altered state of consciousness. According to the !Kung, an energy known as n/um, given to the !Kung by the gods, resides at the base of the spine. As an individual enters !kia, the n/um begins to boil and turn to a vapor, which then rises in the spine to a point near the base of the skull. At that point the individual enters an altered state. -Sun Dance -->The ceremony is pledged by an individual who is making a commitment to supernatural beings. This pledge may be made in hopes of healing a loved one, or a man may himself may be sick and vow to do the dance if he recovers. The vow may be made to avert danger in war or may be based on a dream. From the time the man makes his pledge until the end of the ritual, there is a tabu on sexual activity. This again references the myth in which Tomsivsi refused to have sex with his companion until after he emerged from the Sacred Mountain. -Yanomamo (What is hekura?) -->Many ethnographies of South American cultures describe the varied ways in which drugs are used among these peoples. Many of these practices are outlined by Johannes Wilbert, who, while focusing on the use of tobacco in South American societies, also touches on the use of other substances. In these societies a drug is often used in combination with a variety of substances, both collected and cultivated.5 -ethnographic literature of South American cultures -->

healer

A religious specialist who concentrates on healing

Crisis Ritual

A ritual that arises spontaneously, frequently in times of crisis

calendrical rituals

A ritual that is performed on a regular basis as part of a religious calendar.

periodic rituals

A ritual that is performed on a regular basis as part of a religious calendar.

anti-therapy rituals

A ritual that is performed to bring about illness, accident, or death.

therapy rituals

A ritual whose function is to cure.

Divination Ritual

A type of ritual to seek information through supernatural means

Orientation Association Structure

The part of the brain that enables us to distinguish ourselves from the world around us and to orient ourselves in space.

Peyotism

The ritual use of peyote, a hallucinogenic cactus.

Shaman

The single person who takes on the roles of priest, counselor, and physician and acts as a conduit to the supernatural world in a shamanist culture.

Define ritual. What is the purpose of rituals?

The term ritual can refer to any repetitive sequence of acts. Psychologists use the term when referring to repetitive compulsive activity, such as the ritual of washing one's hands dozens of times a day. A class might begin with the ritual of calling role and making announcements. However, when the ritual involves the manipulation of religious symbols such as prayers, offerings, and readings of sacred literature, we call it a religious ritual.

What is the origin and meaning of the word shaman?

The term shaman actually comes from the Tungus language of Central Siberia. It refers to the religious specialists who use handheld drums and spirit helpers to help the members of their community by healing the sick, divining the future, and ensuring success in the hunt. The term was later expanded to include similar religious specialists in other cultures, although some people believe that the term shaman should only be applied to these Siberian religious specialists.

offering, sacrifice

What is the highest form of worship we can offer to God

altered states of consciousness

forms of experience that depart from the normal subjective experience of the world and the mind

Rite of passage: separation, transition, and incorporation

marks an individual's movement from one status to another. Rites of passage include birth, coming-of-age, marriage, and death rituals as well as many secular rituals such as graduations and inaugurations.

What is ethnomedicine?

medical systems of particular cultural groups. They investigate how different cultures perceive of the body as a locus of health and illness, classify and interpret illnesses, practice preventative measures; offer therapeutic approaches and involve specialists in treating illness (Miller 2013)

axis mundi

center of the world

Personalistic disease theories blame illness on agents (often malicious) such as sorcerers, witches, ghosts, spirits, ancestors, and demons. This can occur through`

-imitative and contagious magic - cure is reverse magic -disease object intrusion - cure is massage and suck out disease -spirit intrusion - cure is exorcism, scream, entice spirits with food -breach of taboo/ punishment - cure is confession, sacrifice, offerings

Naturalistic disease theories explain illness in impersonal terms, for example Western medicine or biomedicine links illness to scientifically demonstrated agents, which bear no personal malice toward their victims. Western medicine attributes disease/illness to:

-organisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites toxic materials -organic breakdown or deterioration (heart failure, senility) -obstruction (kidney stones) -injury (broken bones, bullet wounds) -imbalance (abnormal white blood cell count, too -little estrogen or testosterone) -malnutrition (too much or too little food, not enough proteins, vitamins, or minerals) -other naturalistic ethnomedical systems blame -poor health on unbalanced body fluids - for -->example in some Latin American cultures people classify food, drink and environmental conditions as hot or cold; people believe their health suffers when they eat or drink hot or cold substances together or under inappropriate conditions

Cursing Ritual

An anti-therapy ritual that involves reciting a curse to bring about illness and death

herbalist

A healthcare practitioner whose expertise is in types and dosages of herbal remedies needed for specific conditions.

Pilgrimage

A journey to a place considered sacred for religious purposes.

Discuss how pilgrimages may be considered a rite of passage.

A journey to a sacred place is often referred to as a pilgrimage. A pilgrimage can also be a series of rituals that are associated with a sequence of sacred spaces. In terms of our classifica tion of rituals, each ritual in the sequence of rituals is a social rite of intensification, although therapy rituals are often included. In fact, the purpose of a pilgrimage may be to seek a supernat ural cure for an illness.

Neoshamanism

A modern spiritual practice that draws on some concepts and practices of traditional shamanism, but is usually used as a method for improving an individual's life.

Who is Carlos Castenada and what was discussed about his work?

Carlos Castaneda, while a graduate student at UCLA, claimed he was apprenticed to a Yaqui (Arizona) shaman named Don Juan Matus. Based on his experiences, he wrote a series of books beginning with The Teachings of Don Juan: A Yaqui Way of Knowledge, published in 1968. The earliest books focused on the use of mind-altering drugs to experience another reality. Later, he moved his focus to a new technique of body movements, or magical passes, that he called tensegrity, a term borrowed from architect R. Buckminster Fuller, who coined the term as a combination of "tensional" and "integrity." The aim of tensegrity is to increase awareness of the energy fields that, according to Castaneda, humans are made of. This is done through body movements and breathing, which Castaneda said were taught to him by Don Juan and which go back to ancient Mexico. Although Castaneda himself passed away in the late 1990s, workshops in tensegrity continue to be offered.

What are the areas of study in ethnomedicine?

Ethnomedicine includes these areas: perception of body/mind/soul, prevention, diagnosis, cure/treatment, and specialists in treating illnesses

Communitas

Intense community spirit, a feeling of great social solidarity, equality, and togetherness; characteristic of people experiencing liminality together

Explain the concept of religious obligations, illustrating the idea with the examples from Polynesia (tabu) and Jewish food laws.

There are a number of simple religious ritual acts that are usually performed by an individual or a small group such as a family. A Christian says grace before eating a meal. A Jew entering a building kisses the mezuzah, a small case attached to the door frame in which lies a parchment with verses from the Torah. A Buddhist lights a candle in a household shrine. There are other ceremonial obligations that might not involve obvious ritual activity but do entail a series of obligations and avoidances of particular objects, foods, and activities that are found in daily life.

ritual

a ceremonial act; a customary procedure

diviner

a person who is believed to have the power to foretell events

priest

a person who performs religious ceremonies

Pan-Indian

a philosophy and movement promoting unity among different American Indian groups in the Americas regardless of tribal or local affiliations.

age set

a social category or corporate social group, consisting of people of similar age, who have a common identity, maintain close ties over a prolonged period, and together pass through a series of age-related statuses

Tensegrity

a type of space frame in which no two compression members (struts) are directly attached to each other, usually with a multiplicity of ties

sympathetic system

responds to stressful events

salvation rituals

rituals designed to change a person's identity from a spiritually corrupt, polluted, sinful, or lost person to a spiritually saved state of freedom from sin, corruption, ignorance, and the like

prescriptive rituals

rituals that are required to be performed

Cicatrization

scar formation at the site of a cut or wound

Ethnobotany

study of how various cultures use plants

How does Wallace view the role/purpose of rituals?

"Ritual is religion in action; it is the cutting edge of the tool.... It is ritual which accomplishes what religion sets out to do."5

What are the three categories of preventive practices?

-Clinical practices: for example vaccines, regular check-ups/physical, taking vitamins, etc. -Behavioral practices: for example hygiene practices (washing hands, brushing teeth), eating healthy, exercising, etc. -Ritual health protections: for example prayers, charms, spells strings tied around parts of the body, etc. In the book, The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.(1997, 2012), Fadiman discusses that the most common cause of illness for the Hmong is soul loss. The souls of newborn babies are very vulnerable and that is why some Hmong are careful not to say the baby's name out loud for fear of spirits (dabs) will hear and cause problems. Hmong babies are traditionally dressed in embroidered hats that make them look like a flower from above so as to hide from dabs. They also tie strings around their wrist to bind the soul to the body.

Identify the categories of drugs that produce an altered state of consciousness and their effects.

-Euphoria -->Morphine:Reduces mental activity and induces a sense of well-being -Phantastica -->Marijuana, peyote:Causes visions, illusions, hallucinations, delirium -Inebriantia -->Alcohol:Produces a state of intoxication; brings about an initial phase of cerebral excitation followed by a state of depression -Hypnotica -->Xanax:Sedatives or sleep producers; may cause insensibility to pain -Excitania -->Analeptics, coffee, tobacco:Mental stimulants Tranquilizer -Librium, Thorazine, Valium -->Reduces anxiety and mental tension; produces a state of mental calm

What factors bring about an altered state of consciousness

-Reduction of external stimulation and/or motor activity; constant exposure to repetitive stimulation -->Solitary confinement, prolonged social and stimulus deprivation, altered states while falling asleep or waking up, dreaming -Increase of external stimulation (sensory overload) and/or strenuous physical activity -->Third degree tactics, spirit possession states, ecstatic trance -Increased alertness or mental involvement sustained over time -->Prolonged vigilance, intense mental absorption in a task -Decreased alertness; passive state of mind; reduction in goal-directed thinking -->goal-directed thinking States attained through meditation, daydreaming, cognitive and muscular relaxation (e.g., while floating on the water or sunbathing) -Alterations in body chemistry or physiology of nervous system -->Hypoglycemia (which may be due to fasting), dehydration, sleep deprivation, hyperventilation, temporal lobe seizures, administration of pharmacological substances

Technological Rituals Examples

-Rites of intensification (hunting and agriculture) -->Designed to help obtain food and influence nature in the quest for food -->Includes periodic rituals and occasional rituals -->Rituals occur at the beginning of particular wild food availability and/or sowing -Protective rituals -->Designed to protect the safety of the people who are involved in dangerous tasks -->May be prescriptive, routinely performed at the start of a dangerous activity, or occasionally in response to a potential danger or unexpected threat -Divination rituals -->Obtaining information about things unknown -->Aims to extract useful information from nature so that humans can make informed decisions

Salvation Rituals Examples

-Rituals in which individual is changed in some way, temporarily or permanently -->Rituals to counter the effects of breaking a tabu or some other religious obligation -->Possession (exorcism) Becoming a shaman -->Mysticism -->Expiation (penance and good works) -->Pilgrimage: A journey to a sacred place, often seen as a rite of passage, and can be seen as salvation ritual -->Can be a series of rituals that are associated with a sequence of sacred places -->The purpose may be to seek a supernatural cure for an illness -->May involve visiting a number of related sites -->Examples include: Islamic hajj and the Huichol Pilgrimage

Ideological Rituals Examples

-Social Rites of Intensification (rituals that delineate codes of proper behavior and articulate the community's worldview) -->Unite people -->Directed toward the welfare of the community -->Serve to restore social harmony with the group -->Serve as a warning to other members of the group -->Allay fear of the crisis -->Prompts collective action -Rites of Passage (rituals that accompany changes in an individual's status in society) -->When a person changes his or her status in the society the individual alters his or her social relationship with other members of the society -->Birth, adolescence/adulthood, marriage, death Physical appearance distinguish individuals socially (e.g. gender, age, social status, and occupation) -->Changes in status often marked with changes in dress and hairstyle that mark the individual's new status -->Not showing pain when one's body is cut, pierced, tattooed, and scarred is often a critical element in rites of passage -->Genital cutting is a very controversial topic. The types of genital cutting for females include subincision, clitoridectomy and pharaonic infibulation. -->Structure of a Rite of Passage (Arnold van Gennep and Victor Turner) -->Separation: individual is removed from his/her former status -->Transition (liminal): individual in between states/status (limbo) * this is often viewed as a very vulnerable and dangerous state for the individual and the community - extra precautions are taken to ensure positive supernatural experiences -->Incorporation: individual reenters normal society in his/her status and a new social relationship -->Example: Monday's Girls (film this week) -Taboos/Tabus (ritual avoidance) -->Objects and people that may be off-limits in a society (also ceremonial obligations in social interactions) -->Things that are sacred can be thought of as possessing supernatural power and are therefore off-limits to most individuals -->The response to breaking a tabu is thought to be automatic -->Often there are ritual means of mending the situation -->Many cultures have complex systems of food prohibitions such as the Jewish law of Kashrut (rules for keeping kosher) -->Such prohibitions play important roles in defining religious groups and keeping them intact -Rituals of Rebellion -->People required to do the wrong thing -->Paradox, the ultimate goal is still the same: the maintenance of order and stability in society -->Ritualized catharsis

Identify the five categories of rituals in Wallace's classification.

-Technological: Rituals that attempt to influence or control nature, especially in activities that affect human activities and well-being (e.g. hunting and agricultural rites of intensification protective, divination) - Therapy and Anti-Therapy: Aim to control human health -Ideological: Rituals that serve to maintain the normal functioning of a community (used to control in a conservative way - behavior, mood, sentiments and values for sake of community as a whole) -Salvation: rituals to save a person from an identity crisis (focus on religious experience of an individual) -Revitalization: rituals associated with social movements and develop within a context of rapid culture change

Discuss the following types of priests:

-The Zuni: a pueblo people of the American Southwest culture area, developed religious practices that involved a complex of priests. This complex of priestly societies forms the basis of Zuni religious and political organization. -Okinawan:Okinawa, located southwest of the main islands of Japan, was once the independent kingdom of Ryukyus. Although the language, culture, and religious beliefs are very similar to those of Japan, there are considerable differences as well. Okinawa's indigenous religion was based on animism and shamanism, but has been heavily influenced by Shinto, Buddhism, and Taoism—entering from Japan and China. Like Shinto, Okinawan religion sees the world as inhabited by a myriad of supernatural beings referred to as kami. By pla cating and pleasing the kami through rituals, misfortune can be avoided and blessings gained. -Eastern Orthodox:The Orthodox Church has a strong tradition of asceticism where individuals separate them selves from the everyday world and spend their lives as monks and nuns. Monks are ordained priests, but instead of functioning in the outside world, they live in various types of isolated com munities, such as monasteries or small villages; some live a semi-solitary life as hermits associated with a nearby monastery. Bishops are normally selected from among the monks and most Orthodox seminaries are associated with monasteries. Bishops are celibate but men who are already married may become priests and deacons, although upon the death of their spouse they cannot remarry.

Describe the structure of a rite of passage (the three stages).

-The first phase is called separation. In this phase the individual is removed from his or her former status. In some rituals this is an abrupt separation of the individual from the community; in others it may take place over a longer period of time. -The second step is the transition phase. During the transition phase, several activities take place that bring about the change in status. In the American wedding, this phase, which is the actual ceremony, lasts from only a few minutes to over an hour. This is relatively short when compared with rites of passage found in other societies, in which the transition phase can last months or even years. -At the conclusion of the transition phase, the person conducting the American wedding ceremony often will introduce the newly married couple to the congregation as "Mr. and Mrs." Thus begins the final phase, incorporation, during which the couple reenters normal society, though in a new social relationship. This stage includes the reception or party celebrating the marriage. The incorporation phase usually lasts several hours, although in many groups it is considerably longer

Therapy and Anti-Therapy Rituals Examples

-Therapy Rituals (therapeutic) -->Rituals that focus on curing -->Rituals that deal with illness, accident, and death -->Type of ritual depends on the cause of the illness, with cause frequently being discovered by means of divination -Anti-Therapy Rituals (anti-therapeutic like witchcraft and sorcery) -->Rituals that bring about illness, accident, or death -->Cursing rituals

How is pain viewed and used in a religious context?

Altered states of consciousness can also result from pain. Pain is a common theme in religious traditions. It may be a punishment, as in the Christian legacy of Eve bringing forth children in pain ("in sorrow thou shalt bring forth children" [Genesis 3:16]) or the Hindu consequences of bad karma. Pain may be seen as purifying, as with the ascetics and monks who cause themselves pain of the flesh in this life to avoid greater torment of the soul in the next life. It is sometimes an enemy or maybe even a weapon, as with Christ's battle on the cross. Finally, pain may be seen as transformative or as a source of supernatural power—pain purifies and is used to achieve exorcism.

How are diseases diagnosed?

Culture determines etiology (cause) and treatment of diseases, disorders, and illnesses. All human societies have belief systems and practices that people turn to in order to identify disease and affect a cure. Explanations and cures of diseases/illnesses may be considered natural or supernatural.

For the Huichol, what does peyote symbolize? What does the journey represent?

Drugs can also be used to attain an altered state of consciousness. In Chapter 4 we discussed the pil grimage of the Huichol of Mexico. The use of peyote is a key element in their religious practices; it is used to contact and interact with supernatural powers in rituals that are an integral part of their pilgrimage. Although peyote is a controlled substance and its possession is illegal in the United States, it is legally used by the Native American Church (Box 5.2) as a sacrament in much the same way as Christians and Jews were able to use sacramental wine during the period of Prohibition.

What effects does fasting have on an individual? How is fasting used in a religious context?

Fasting is the act of abstaining from eating food and drinking liquids over a period of time. The concept of fasting may also include other prohibitions such as that against sexual intercourse and smoking. There is great variation in the nature of a fast. In some societies the fast includes all food and drink; in some the drinking of water is permitted. In still other societies a fast refers to abstaining from a particular food such as meat. Fasting leads to an alteration in body chemistry. In response to the absence of food intake over an extended period of time, the body turns to alternative means of providing glucose to run the body. Initially fat stores in the liver and elsewhere are metabolized. On depletion of the fat stores, the body begins to break down proteins. The feeling of hunger normally disappears after a few days.

Explain the controversy surrounding female circumcision. What is the purpose of female circumcision according to the textbook?

Female cutting may be done at adolescence as a part of a rite of passage, but it is often performed much earlier. The procedure is seen as protecting the family's honor and controlling female sexuality.

What are the two categories of religious interpretations of altered states of consciousness

First, supernatural power, usually in the form of spirits or gods, enters the person's body, a phenomenon that we call spirit possession. An individual can control the spirit within his or her body to accomplish certain goals, or the spirit that possesses a human body can use that body to heal or to divine the unknown, often without the knowledge or the memory of the possessed person. However, possession by an unwanted spirit can bring about illness that may be cured by exorcism rituals. The second common religious interpretation of an altered state of consciousness is that a person has entered a trance state because the soul has left the person's body. The experience of the individual in the altered state is then associated with the experiences of the soul, which is operating in a supernatural realm.

Who is Handsome Lake?

Handsome Lake was a prophet of the Seneca tribe (Eastern Woodlands culture area) during the time when the reservation system was first imposed. In 1799 Handsome Lake became ill and appeared to have died. His body was prepared for burial, but he revived. He said that he had had a vision of three messengers who had revealed to him God's will and told him that he was to carry this message back to his people. Later the same year he received a second revelation in which he was shown heaven and hell and was given moral instructions, which were very similar to Christian ideas. Handsome Lake received further revelations in subsequent years. On the basis of his visions, he preached a revitalization of traditional seasonal ceremonies, strengthening the family, and a prohibition against alcohol. Handsome Lake's teachings continued to spread after his death in 1815 and ultimately became the foundation for the Longhouse religion.

How do altered states of consciousness play a role in healing?

Healing is facilitated, and in some cases even accomplished, through suggestibility, emotional catharsis, and feelings of rejuvenation. For example, when possessed by a spirit, the healer may use the supernatural power of the spirit to remove the cause of the illness, often by sucking the offending spirit out of the patient's body. When an illness is diagnosed as the loss of the soul, the healer sends his or her soul on a voyage to retrieve the lost soul of the patient.

How are altered states of consciousness explained biologically?

The biological basis for altered states of consciousness has been studied by neurobiologists focusing on how rhythmic, ritualized behavior affects certain parts of the brain. Scientists have found that when the sympathetic system is overstimulated, for example when a fast rhythm is being used, the brain selectively shuts down. One area of the brain that shuts down when overstimulated is the orientation association structure. This structure is part of the brain that enables us to sense the boundaries of our body, distinguish ourselves from the world around us, and to orient ourselves in space. When that structure shuts down, it relaxes the boundaries between self and other. This can give one the feeling of being in a unitary state: an altered mental state described by many religious systems in which the divisions between the self and the outside world disappear and one feels as being "one" with the universe or supernatural beings.

How are clown doctors like shamans?

The use of puppets by clown doctors is reminiscent of shamanic spirit helpers, and both use music and sleight of hand. Traditional shamans and clowns use suggestion and manipulation of cultural symbols and pay more attention to the patient's experience and social context than Western doctors typically do. Van Blerkom writes, "The clowns say they parody doctors and play with hospital equipment to lighten up the atmosphere and make children less afraid of doctors and their instruments, but one can also recognize another shamanistic function: psychosocial sup port. By involving the social group, illness and curing are given public recognition and the patient receives group support. Shamanistic rituals reinforce social roles and can be therapeutic for fami lies struggling to cope with an illness and disorder."

What is the main idea of "African Healers Meet Western Medicine"

Traditionally, healers have played important roles in the lives of people in sub-Saharan Africa, pro viding simple health services as they worked in consort with the spirit world. Today Western med icine also plays an important role. A great many native Africans have been trained as doctors, nurses, and other health practitioners, and large hospitals have been built in urban centers. Yet the majority of the population has little access to Western medicine. Hospitals and clinics are often not available in rural areas, and the cost of medical services and medicines is often prohibitive.

Therianthropes

an individual will often feel changed into an animal and shares the power of the spirit-animal. Images of transformed shamans are called therianthropes.