anthro

ultimate vs. proximate cause

Proximate causes-what mechanism enables the organism to exhibit the behavior? Ultimate causes-in terms of evolution, how and why did that behavior come to be?

Movius line

is a theoretical line drawn across northern India first proposed by the American archaeologist Hallam L. Movius in 1948 to demonstrate a technological difference between the early prehistoric tool technologies of the east and west of the Old World

homo sapiens (modern humans)

Compared to the Neandertals and other late archaic humans, modern humans generally have more delicate skeletons. Their skulls are more rounded and their brow ridges generally protrude much less. They rarely have the occipital buns found on the back of Neandertal skulls. They also have relatively high foreheads, smaller faces, and pointed chins.

Hominid Bipedalism

The spine has two distinctive curves—a backward and a forward one—that keep the trunk (and weight) centered above the pelvis. S-shape Versus C-Shape 8. Lower limbs are elongated In humans the thigh comprises 20% of body height In gorillas it comprises only 11%

stratigraphy

is a branch of geology which studies rock layers (strata) and layering (stratification). It is primarily used in the study of sedimentary and layered volcanic rocks. Stratigraphy includes two related subfields: lithologic stratigraphy or lithostratigraphy, and biologic stratigraphy or biostratigraphy.

Australopithecines

A species of hominin that looks ape-like but has a slightly larger cranial capacity than chimpanzees and is bipedal Considered the forerunners to the genus Homo Not hunter/gatherers, but due to body size and tool technology they were likely scavengers All fossils found in Africa Genus dates from 4.5 to 1.0 m.y.a. Divided into two groups: Graciles: Robusts: Large back and front teeth (more like us) Obligate biped (like us) Smallish brain (like chimps) Bowl-shaped pelvis with broad ilium Angled hip and knee joints Foramen magnum below skull S-shaped vertebral column Enlarged big toe in line with others

homo erectus

Early African Homo erectus fossils (sometimes called Homo ergaster) are the oldest known early humans to have possessed modern human-like body proportions with relatively elongated legs and shorter arms compared to the size of the torso. These features are considered adaptations to a life lived on the ground, indicating the loss of earlier tree-climbing adaptations, with the ability to walk and possibly run long distances. Compared with earlier fossil humans, note the expanded braincase relative to the size of the face. -1.6-1.8 million years old -eastern asia used Acheulean stone tools

Mousterian tools

Mousterian industry, Mousterian industry [Credit: Guérin Nicolas]tool culture traditionally associated with Neanderthal man in Europe, western Asia, and northern Africa during the early Fourth (Würm) Glacial Period (c. 40,000 bc). Tools included small hand axes made from disk-shaped cores; flake tools, such as well-made sidescrapers and triangular points, probably used as knives; denticulate (toothed) instruments produced by making notches in a flake, perhaps used as saws or shaft straighteners; and round limestone balls, believed to have served as bolas (weapons of a type used today in South America, consisting of three balls on the end of a thong, which is hurled at an animal, wraps itself around its legs, and trips it). Wooden spears were used to hunt large game such as mammoth and wooly rhinoceros.

Aurignacian tools

The Aurignacian stone tool industry occurs within the Upper Paleolithic Period in Europe from 34,000 to 29,000 years ago. The same stone tool making technology also occurs on sites in countries farther to the east into Siberia. Anatomically modern humans appear at least 100,000 years ago. But there are no significant technological changes until the Upper Paleolithic. The Aurignacian cultural tradition is generally accepted as the first modern humans in Europe. During this period an explosion of sudden and innovative changes take place. People begin to use musical instruments which indicates possible ceremony, ritual and dance. Plus all forms of art appears at this time which signifies the full emergence of modern symbolic expression. The most significant development in stone tool making is the refinement of the manufacture of blades struck off conical cores or nuculi. Many different types of tools were made from these long narrow flakes of stone called blades.

Holocene

The term Holocene was first proposed at the third International Geological Congress in 1885. It comes from the Greek words holos (meaning "whole") and kainos (meaning "recent"), referring to fact that this epoch is the most recent division of Earth history. However, many scientists also used the term Recent or Postglacial for this epoch until 1967, when the U.S. Geological Survey formally adopted the term Holocene and discontinued the use of Recent. The Holocene is a chronostratigraphic division that follows the Pleistocene Epoch. By consensus, it covers the last 11,500 years of Earth history. It is an important time to scientists because during this epoch most of our modern landscapes and soils evolved. In addition, significant changes in global climate occurred as the Earth moved into a postglacial — or interglacial — regime. In areas that were glaciated, this transition is marked by a clear stratigraphic boundary due primarily to the scouring effects and debris that retreating glaciers left on the landscape.

projectile weapons

The term projectile weapons refers to any weapon which inflict damage on a target by means of launching a physical object towards it. Early projectile weapons generally damaged a target by having the projectile physically impact the target, transferring kinetic energy to it. More advanced weapons had more complex projectiles, often including explosives or other technology designed to increase the damage.

graciles

These are specimens that appear to be similar to chimpanzees in terms of body size and cranial shape Three species makeup the gracile classification A. anamensis, A. afarensis, and A. africanus

homo habilis

This species, one of the earliest members of the genus Homo, has a slightly larger braincase and smaller face and teeth than in Australopithecus or older hominin species. But it still retains some ape-like features, including long arms and a moderately-prognathic face. Its name, which means 'handy man', was given in 1964 because this species was thought to represent the first maker of stone tools. Currently, the oldest stone tools are dated slightly older than the oldest evidence of the genus Homo. used Oldowan tools.

homo heidelbergensis

first half of the middle pleistocene (900- 130 kya) This early human species had a very large browridge, and a larger braincase and flatter face than older early human species. It was the first early human species to live in colder climates; their short, wide bodies were likely an adaptation to conserving heat. It lived at the time of the oldest definite control of fire and use of wooden spears, and it was the first early human species to routinely hunt large animals. This early human also broke new ground; it was the first species to build shelters, creating simple dwellings out of wood and rock.

taphonomy

is the study of what happens to an organism after its death and until its discovery as a fossil. This includes decomposition, post-mortem transport, burial, compaction, and other chemical, biologic, or physical activity which affects the remains of the organism.

turnover- pulse

based on Vrba and the Turnover-pulse hypothesis, evolutionary change is caused by physical changes in the environment such as climate change, tectonic plates shifting, and astronomical catastrophes to name a few.[3]

Denisovans

It appears the Denisovans contributed between 3 to 5 percent of their genetic material to the genomes of Melanesians. Scientists think that the most likely explanation is that Denisovans living in eastern Eurasia interbred with the modern human ancestors of Melanesians. When those humans crossed the ocean to reach Papua New Guinea around 45,000 years ago, they brought their Denisovan DNA over with them. When our ancestors first migrated out of Africa around 60,000 years ago, they were not alone. At least two of our hominid cousins had made the same journey—Neanderthals and Denisovans. Neanderthals, the better known of the two species, left Africa about 300,000 years ago and settled in Europe and parts of western Asia. The Denisovans are a much more recent addition to the human family tree. In 2008, paleoanthropologists digging in a cave in southern Siberia unearthed a 40,000-year-old adult tooth

Homo neandertalensis

Neanderthals are our closest extinct human relative. Some defining features of their skulls include the large middle part of the face, angled cheek bones, and a huge nose for humidifying and warming cold, dry air. Their bodies were shorter and stockier than ours, another adaptation to living in cold environments. But their brains were just as large as ours and often larger - proportional to their brawnier bodies. Neanderthals made and used a diverse set of sophisticated tools, controlled fire, lived in shelters, made and wore clothing, were skilled hunters of large animals and also ate plant foods, and occasionally made symbolic or ornamental objects. There is evidence that Neanderthals deliberately buried their dead and occasionally even marked their graves with offerings, such as flowers. No other primates, and no earlier human species, had ever practiced this sophisticated and symbolic behavior. (europe and western asia) features: large brains more rounded crania big faces like homo erectus and homo heidelberg small black teeth and large robust heavily muscled bodies used Mousterian industry,

robusts

Paranthropus "Beside Human" Suggesting the species were a dead end These species look more like gorillas in their morphology Represented by A. aethopicus, A. robustus, and A. boisei

cut marks on bone

Researchers working in Ethiopia's remote Afar region have recovered evidence that humans began using stone tools and eating meat far earlier than previously thought. The finds—cut-marked animal bones dating to nearly 3.4 million years ago—push the origin of butchery back a stunning 800,000 years. Furthermore, these ancient butchers were not members of our own genus, Homo, but the more primitive Australopithecus, specifically A. afarensis, the species to which the celebrated Lucy fossil belongs.

Homo georgicis

Skulls and several near complete skeletons have been found, which have been reliably dated to 1.77 mya. Homo georgicus was bipedal, but was rather small. Males stood only about four feet (1.3 m) tall, and the females were even smaller. Cranial measurements of the well-preserved skull D2700 indicate the brain of H. georgicus was about half as large (around 600cc) as that of a modern human being — the smallest of any adult hominid yet found outside Africa other than that of the far more recent Homo floresiensis. Tooth-wear patterns and remains found at the site show H. georgicus had an omnivorous diet, but there is no evidence of the use of fire. Crude stone tools have been found in association with the remains

the black plague

The Black Death was one of the most devastating pandemics in human history, resulting in the deaths of an estimated 75 to 200 million people and peaking in Europe in the years 1346-53

meat eating

There are several points of interest. First is the idea that eating meat allowed humans to develop the kinds of brains that we have now. A good idea, but apparently eating the meat raw was not sufficient. In fact, eating most things raw was more difficult and, in some cases, less nutritious than eating the same things cooked. Of course, this adds culture to evolution.

paleospecies

fossils that are placed in a species bc of similar appearance

Achulean tools

Acheulean stone tools are the products of Homo erectus, a closer ancestor to modern humans. Not only are the Acheulean tools found over the largest area, but it is also the longest-running industry, lasting for over a million years. The earliest known Acheulean artifacts from Africa have been dated to 1.6 million years ago. The oldest Acheulean sites in India are only slightly younger than those in Africa. In Europe, the earliest Acheulean tools appear just after 800,000 years ago, as H. erectus moved north out of Africa. Acheulean technology is best characterized by its distinctive stone handaxes. These handaxes are pear shaped, teardrop shaped, or rounded in outline, usually 12-20 cm long and flaked over at least part of the surface of each side (bifacial). There is considerable variation in size and quality of workmanship. Acheulean handaxes were multi-purpose tools used in a variety of tasks. Studies of surface-wear patterns reveal the uses of the handaxe included the butchering and skinning of game, digging in soil, and cutting wood or other plant materials. Additionally, Acheulean tools are sometimes found with animal bones that show signs of having been butchered.

homo floresiensis

Remains of the most recently discovered early human species, Homo floresiensis (nicknamed 'Hobbit'), have been found between 95,000 and 17,000 years ago on the Island of Flores, Indonesia. H. floresiensis individuals stood approximately 3 feet 6 inches tall, had tiny brains, large teeth for their small size, shrugged-forward shoulders, no chins, receding foreheads, and relatively large feet due to their short legs. Despite their small body and brain size, H. floresiensis made and used stone tools, hunted small elephants and large rodents, coped with predators such as giant Komodo dragons, and may have used fire. The diminutive stature and small brain of H. floresiensis may have resulted from island dwarfism—an evolutionary process that results from long-term isolation on a small island with limited food resources and a lack of predators. Pygmy elephants on Flores, now extinct, showed the same adaptation. The smallest known species of Homo and Stegodon elephant are both found on the island of Flores, Indonesia. However, some scientists are now considering the possibility that the ancestors of H. floresiensis may have been small when they first reached Flores.

Chatelperronnian tools

The Châtelperronian period refers to one of five stone tool industries identified within the Upper Paleolithic period of Europe (ca 45,000-20,000 years ago). Once thought the earliest of the five industries, the Châtelperronian is today recognized as roughly coeval with or perhaps somewhat later than than the Aurignacian period: both are associated with the Middle Paleolithic to Upper Paleolithic transition, ca. 45,000-33,000 years ago. During that transition, the last Neanderthals in Europe died out, the result of a not-necessarily-peaceful cultural transition of European ownership from the long-established Neanderthal residents to the new influx of early modern humans from Africa.

oldowan tools

The Oldowan is the oldest-known stone tool industry. Dating as far back as 2.5 million years ago, these tools are a major milestone in human evolutionary history: the earliest evidence of cultural behavior. Homo habilis, an ancestor of Homo sapiens, manufactured Oldowan tools. First discovered at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania, Oldowan artifacts have been recovered from several localities in eastern, central, and southern Africa, the oldest of which is a site at Gona, Ethiopia. Oldowan technology is typified by what are known as "choppers." Choppers are stone cores with flakes removed from part of the surface, creating a sharpened edge that was used for cutting, chopping, and scraping (image 1985-0235). Microscopic surface analysis of the flakes struck from cores has shown that some of these flakes were also used as tools for cutting plants and butchering animals.

Pleistocene

The Pleistocene geological record gives evidence of 20 cycles of advancing and retreating continental glaciers, though during most of the Pleistocene glaciers were far more extensive than they are today. Much of this glaciation occurred at high latitudes and high altitudes, especially in the Northern Hemisphere. Up to 30% of the Earth's surface was glaciated periodically during the Pleistocene. Large portions of Europe, North America (including Greenland), South America, all of Antarctica, and small sections of Asia were entirely covered by ice. In North America during the peak of the Wisconsinan glaciation approximately 18,000 years ago, there were two massive yet independent ice sheets. Both the eastern Laurentide and the western Cordilleran ice sheets were over 3900 meters thick. In Europe, ice covered Scandinavia, extended south and east across Germany and western Russia, and southwest to the British Isles. Another ice sheet covered most of Siberia. In South America, Patagonia and the southern Andes mountains were beneath part of the Antarctic ice sheet. Because so much water was taken up as ice, global sea level dropped approximately 140 meters.

Pliocene

The Pliocene is the final epoch of the Neogene Period. It was named by Charles Lyell in 1830, after the Greek words pleion (meaning "more") and kainos (meaning "recent"). The Pliocene represents the beginning of the familiar modern faunas; many of the plants and animals from that time have continued to live and evolve to the present day. Indeed, Lyell devised the name because he noticed that of all the Cenozoic marine fossils, those from Pliocene strata were the most similar to modern forms. This characteristic distinguished these layers from earlier Miocene or Eocene strata. During this part of the Age of Mammals, the global climate underwent cyclic variations from cool and dry to warm and wet, then back to cool conditions again. Pliocene aquatic fossils are numerous, and they range from tropical marine life to freshwater fish and invertebrates.