Anthropology ch 8 study guide

Cahokia

Cahokia, near St. Louis, Missouri◦huge settlement, over 100 earthen mounds ◦Monk's Mound, largest pre-Columbian structure north of Mexico ◦area of 5 square miles◦large and powerful chiefdom Largest and most influential urban settlement in Mississippian culture which developed advanced societies across much of Central and Southeast US.

llamas and alpacas

Llamas and alpacas used for meat, transportation, and wool.

microbands

microbands (camps with 2 to 15 residents)

Sumeria

3500 BC: few cities, most of them enclosed in a fortress wall and surrounded by agricultural areas.◦3000 BC: All of Sumer unified under a single government◦Empire: great urban centers, monumental temples◦elaborate system for administration of justice, codified laws◦specialized government officials◦professional standing army sewer systems in the cities◦specialized craft◦wheel wagons, horse-drawn chariots◦spears, sword, armors of bronze◦economic specialization caused elaborate social stratification◦free citizens and slaves

Teotihuacan

500 BC: population movement to settlements on the valley floor probably due the use of irrigation◦300 BC-200 BC: small elite centers emerged◦Individuals from the elite centers were buried in special tombs with burial items◦Elite centers may indicate the presence of chiefdoms

domestication plant and animals (timeframe and innovations)

By 2000 BC most major food plants and animals domesticated◦Plowing, fertilizing, fallowing, and irrigation developed by 2000 BC. ◦Sedentarism: settle life◦Agriculture: cultivation/domestication of plants/animals

Writing: hieroglyphs and cuneiform

Cuneiform: wedge shaped symbols on clay tablets, fired later to create a permanent record. Hieroglyphics: Egyptian writing, appeared around the same time, were written on rolls woven from papyrus reeds.

Theories of food production

Drastic change in climate caused domestication in the Near East (Childe)◦Desire to reproduce into other areas what was abundant in the most bountiful hunting and gathering areas. Population growth pushed people to move to smaller areas with less resources, they decided to reproduce what they had (Binford and Flannery)◦Population pressure on a global scale pushed people to adopt agriculture. (Cohen) Climate changed into more seasonal weather, people started exploiting seasonal grains, developing storing and processing. People became sedentary and agriculture was needed to maintain grain supplies. ◦Seasonal climate led to a shortage of certain nutrients for foragers both in plants and animals. Some foragers started planting crops to get them through the shortage. ◦In Mesoamerica, people turned into domestication to obtain more of the most desired or useful plants species and not because population pressure or food shortages.

maize: teosinte, Tehuacán

Earliest domesticated form of maize: 5000 BC ◦Tehuacán, Mexico ◦Domesticated from teosinte, a tall wide grass that still grows in Mexico

Epipaleolithic

Early Epipaleolithic- Trend towards increasing sedentism, less frequent movement, focus on smaller, non-herd animals. Also included the use of plant collection and storage Later Epipaleolithic- Was part of the Natufian "culture". Many large cave sites and early villages were discovered from this time.

Harappa Civilization

Indus Valley, northwestern India ◦2300 BC ◦no monumental architecture ◦controlled enormous territory, over a million square kilometers ◦Many major cities, built in a similar manner with a municipal water and sewage system

Mesolithic

Mesoamerica and the Andes 7000 BC

Archaic

Mountainous regions of central and southern Mexico◦Altitude became a factor in hunting and foraging, different altitudes, different plants and animals◦Vertical zonation: different environments close by with different plants and animals. Increment of available resources.

pre-agricultural developments: Natufians, Mesoamerica, Southern Asia, and Africa

Natufians: 11,000 years ago◦area of Israel and Jordan◦caves, rock shelter, and villages◦Storage areas and pit houses◦people harvested wild grain intensively◦earliest people in the Epipaleolithic known to have stored surplus crops Mesoamerica: Glacial ice from North America disappeared: warmer and wetter climate◦Extinction of megafauna and horses◦Hunting aimed to a broader range of game species◦consumption of shellfish◦Expansion of the woodlands and grasslands◦Range of new plants. Evidence: different tools and artifacts for plant processing: axes, adzes, mortars, pestles. Southern Asia : changes in climate and environment◦warming trend, more moisture, higher sea levels◦inland base camps consumed animals, primates, birds, bats, and stream fish◦coastal sites consumed fish, shellfish, deer, wild cattle, rhinoceros Africa: Warmer, wetter environment◦numerous lakes, rivers, and other bodies of water◦Consumption of fish, shellfish, hippopotamuses, and crocodiles.◦Increase in sedentarism

Shang Dynasty

Northern China 1750 BC◦was earliest city state in the Far East until recently, now the Xia dynasty is the oldest 2200 BC◦had all the traits of statehood: stratified society, specialized society, religious, economic, and administrative unification, and a distinctive art style.

consequences of the rise of food production (negative, positive)

Population growth accelerated: ◦children became a commodity in farming and herding economies◦ increase in fertility◦Health declined: ◦rapid population growth created malnutrition and disease. ◦Lower life expectancies.◦Malnutrition due overdependence on a few dietary staples. ◦Malnutrition due the rise of different socioeconomic classes of people and unequal access to food and other resources Woven textiles appeared due the domestication of flax, cotton, and sheep◦ invention of the spindle and loom for spinning.◦Long-distance trade for other resources◦Differences in status among households and communities.◦Communities started to specialize in certain crafts.◦Political officials with authority: chiefdoms◦Eventually: the rise of civilization and the state

Consequences of state formation (positive and negatives)

Positive:◦Allows for larger and denser populations◦Populations develop the potential to grow and the state to develop infrastructure for the efficient production and distribution of products◦Able to coordinate information to manage agricultural production cycles or to anticipate droughts, blights, or other natural disasters.◦Controls access to land through laws and a military force protecting food producers and production◦Efficiency in food production allows many people to focus on other tasks such as craftsmanship, commerce, art, military, politics, bureaucrats etc.◦Efficiency in food distribution allow people to live apart from farming areas, allowing the rise of cities in areas that are not suited for agriculture but maybe for other uses such as trade or defense.◦Art, music, literature flourish◦Organized religion develops Negative◦People governed by force◦Police and military forces can become instruments of oppression and terror.◦Class stratification creates differences in access to resources and an underclass of poor, uneducated, unhealthy people◦health issues due people concentration and epidemic diseases◦people with no access to food supplies are in danger of malnutrition and starvation if the systems of food production and distribution fails.◦Emergence of warfare and conquest due expansionist states

Akxum

Present-day Ethiopia◦1st millennium AD: center of trade and commerce between Africa and the Arabian Peninsula◦Multistory stone residences in singular architecture◦First official Christian state in the world◦Other similar states appeared in Ghana, the Congo River basin, and Zimbabwe.

domestication in Mesoamerica (why is different to elsewhere?)

Seminomadic Archaic hunters and gatherers◦continued nomadic practices long after domestication of plants◦Domestication was used to make desirable plants more common on their environment. Ex. bottle gourd: not for food but to carry water.◦Domesticates: tomatoes, cotton, beans, squashes, and maize (corn)

Ali Kosh (site, importance)

Southwestern Iran◦community started around 7500 BC consuming wild plants and animals◦5500 BC: agriculture and herding became important◦After 5500 BC: appearance of irrigation and the use of domesticated cattle. ◦Population explosion in the area during the following millennium◦Presence of obsidian suggest trade with eastern Turkey.

Archaeological inferences: How can archaeologists infer things about the past? E.g. different burial goods indicate different social classes- mortuary practices reflects life practices

Studied by archaeologists: lack of writing◦Inferences from the archaeological record◦Neolithic societies were egalitarian, no much difference in wealth, prestige, or power◦Later societies show signs of social inequality (see examples in the book)

domestication of animals: Old World vs New World

The Old World was the home to the wild species of most domesticates today: pig, horses, goats, cattle. The New World: Megafauna and horses went extinct. Not many options for domestication

Egypt

almost contemporary with the Sumerian Empire◦Dynastic Egypt: Ancient State◦3100 BC Old Kingdom 3100 BC Capital: Memphis◦Population seemed to live in large self-sufficient villages◦Pyramids and palaces built around 3500 BC

vertical zonation

different environments close by with different plants and animals. Increment of available resources.

Neolithic

efined by the presence of domesticated plants and animals ◦Movement from food-collecting to food-producing ◦People began to plant crops and to keep and breed animals Known as the "New Stone Age", it is a period when homo sapiens sapiens prevailed and used and created new technology in the form of stone tools of many varieties. At this point, there were neolithic societies ranging from areas in the Fertile Crescent, Europe, China, and others. 11,000-8,000 B.C.

Characteristics of a civilization (Slide 30)

first inscriptions or writing◦cities◦full-time craft specialists◦monumental architecture◦great difference in wealth and status◦strong, hierarchical, centralized political system (the state).

Uruk

focused on large, urban communities, and dealt with a surplus of production, may have stimulated trade. There was warfare between neighboring "city-states" during this time. 4200-3000 B.C.

domestication around the world

he Andes: only place in the New World where domesticated animals were a significant part of the economy: llamas and alpacas domesticated as early as 5000 BC

macrobands (located where? number of people)

macrobands (camps with 15-30 residents) Macrobands located near seasonal abundant resources

archaic Mesoamericans

seasonal movements between communities of two sizes: ◦macrobands (camps with 15-30 residents) ◦microbands (camps with 2 to 15 residents)◦Macrobands located near seasonal abundant resources◦No evidence of social differences

sedentarism

settle life

Ancient Peru

state societies as early as 2500 BC: Site of Caral, oldest city in the New World.◦Supe and Pativilca valleys north of Lima, Peru◦valley contains group of large cities◦200 BC development of a complex agricultural system dependent on irrigation