anthropology chapter 9 quizlet

cultural beliefs and traditions

A code of propriety governed male male sexual activity among the etoro although sexual relations between older and younger males were considered culturally essential, those between boys are the same age or discourage. A boy who took semen from another youth was believed to be sapping their life force in stunting their growth. A boys rapid physical development might suggest that he was getting Semen from other boys. Like a sex hungry wife, he might be shunned as a witch. The sexual practices described in the section rest and not on hormones are genes but in _______ ________ and ________. The etoro shared a cultural pattern, which Gilbert herdt calls ritualized homosexuality, with some 50 other tribes in one area of Papua New Guinea. The societies illustrate one extreme of a male female avoidance pattern that has been widespread in Papua New Guinea, and in patrilineal-patrilocal societies more generally.

sexual orientation

A person may be attracted to the opposite sex, the same sex, both sexes, or not attracted to either sex. This description refers to

matriarchy

A political system in which women play a much more prominent role than men do in social and political organization is known as a(n)

a patriarchy

A political system ruled by men in which women have inferior social and political status is referred to as

Etoro

An extreme example of tension involving male female sexual relations in Papua New Guinea is provided by the __________, A group of 400 people who subsisted by hunting in horticulture in the trans fly region. The__________illustrate the power of culture in molding human sexuality. The following account, based on ethnographic field work by Raymond to see Kelly in the late 1960s, applies only to ___________ males and their beliefs. ___________ culture norms prevented the male anthropologist who studied them from gathering comparable information about female attitudes and behavior. Note, also, that the activities described have been discouraged by missionaries. Since there has been no re-study of the ___________l specifically focusing on these activities, the extent to which these practices continue today is unknown.

economic needs

Anthropologist maxine marigolis describes how gendered work, attitudes, and beliefs have varied in response to American _______ ________. for example, when men are off fighting wars, work outside the home has been presented as women's patriotic duty, and the notion that women are biologically unfit for hard physical labor has faded.

the domestic-public dichotomy

Besides contribution to subsistence, what other factor has a strong impact on gender status or gender stratification?

transgender

Biology, remember, isn't destiny; people construct their identities in society. Many individuals affected by one of the biological conditions just described see themselves as simply as male or female, rather than _________. Individuals may become ___________ when their gender identity contradicts their biological sex at birth and the gender identity that society assigned to them in infancy. Feeling that their previous gender assignment was incorrect, they assert or seek to achieve a new one. The ____________- category as diverse. Some _____________ individuals lean toward male; Some, female; and some toward neither of the dominant genders. cisgender refers to someone who still identifies with the gender assigned them at birth

There is nothing new or abnormal about third sex/gender identities.

Cross-cultural and historical research reveals such gender identities as eunuchs, hijras, Two-Spirits, sworn virgins, and mahu. What does this research suggest about gender identities?

DOMA DADT

Facebook now offers more than 50 gender options. There have been various recent attempts to estimate the transgender population of the United States. The US Census Bureau attempted such an estimate based on census records of people whose name change suggested a gender switch. Of Americans who participated in the 2010 census, about 90,000 had change their names to one of the opposite gender. Another study examined the survey data and estimated that .3% of the American population, or 700,000 adults, we are likely transgender. In recent years, the lesbian and gay rights movement has expanded to include bisexual and transgender individuals. This lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender LGBT community in the United States works to promote government policies and social practices that protect its members civil rights and human rights. In recent years the LGBT movement and its supporters have achieved many successes, including the repeal of the defense of marriage act _________ end of the don't ask don't tell _________ policy of the US armed services.

primate heritage

Flexibility and sexual expression seems to be an aspect of our _______ _________. Both masturbation and same sex sexual activity exist among chimpanzees in other primates. Male bonobos (Pygmy chimps) Regularly engage in a form of mutual masturbation that has been called penis fencing. Female bonobos get sexual pleasure from rubbing their genitals against those of other females. our primate sexual potential is molded by culture, the environment, and reproductive necessity. Male-female coitus is practiced in all human societies which after all must reproduce themselves but alternatives also are widespread. Like our gender roles, the sexual component of the human identity, the ways in which we express our natural or biological sexual urges, is a matter that culture and environment influence and limit.

roberta close

For several years, one of Brazil's top sex symbols was _______ _________, whom I first saw in the furniture commercial. ____________ ended her pitch with an admonition to prospective furniture buyers to accept no substitute for the advertise product. Things she warned, or not always what they seem. Nor was _________. Although petite and very feminine, __________ was actually a man. Furthermore, despite the fact that___________ was a man posing as a woman, he or more appropriately she, one a secure place in Brazilian mass culture. Her photos decorated magazines. She was a panelist on a TV variety show and starred in a state play in Rio with an actor known for his super macho image. __________-even inspired a well known and apparently heterosexual, pop singer to make a video honoring her. In it, she strolled seductively around Rios inpanama beach in a bikini, showing off her ample hips and butt ox.

socially constructed

Gender is _______ __________, and societies may recognize more than two genders. The contemporary United States, for example includes individuals who may self identify using such labels as transgender, intersex, and transsexual. Such persons contradict dominant male female gender distinctions by being part male and part female, or neither male nor female. Because people who self identify as transgender or increasingly visible, we must be careful about seeing male and female as absolute and binary categories.

Brazil United States

Generations of anthropologist have a plied their fields comparative, cross-cultural, and bio cultural approaches to the study of sex and gender. To some extent at least, gender, sexual preferences, and even sexual orientation Are culturally here I describe a case in which popular culture and comments by ordinary Brazilians about beauty and sex led me to an analysis of some striking gender differences between _______and the ________ ________.

transvestism

In almost 2/3 63% of the 76 societies in the Ford and beach study, various forms of same-sex sexual activity were acceptable. Occasionally sexual relations between people of the same sex involved ____________ on the part of one of their partners. Transvestism did not characterize male male sex Amanda Sudanese Azande, Who valued the warrior rule. Perspective warriors young men age 12 to 20 left their families and shared quarters with adult fighting men, who had sex with them. The younger men were considered temporary brides of the older men into the domestic duties of women. Upon reaching warrior status, these young men took their younger male brides. Later, retiring from the warrior roll, Azande males had no difficulty shifting from sex with older men as male brides, to sex with younger men as warriors, to sex with women as husbands.

sexual norms

In any society, individuals were different in the nature, range, and intensity of their sexual interests and urges. No one knows for sure why such individual sexual differences exist. Part of the answer appears to be biological, reflecting genes or hormones. Another part may have to do with experiences during growth and development. But whatever the reasons for individual variation, culture always plays a role in molding individual sexual urges towards a collective norm. And such _______ _________ may vary from culture to culture.

gathering

In foraging societies, gender status tens to be more equal with _____ is prominent.

high

In societies in which descent is traced through females only and newly married couples live near the wife's relatives, female status is

favors men when warfare is important and when political authority and land are passed through males.

In societies in which descent is traced through males only and newly married couples live near the husband's relatives, gender stratification

reorder

In the 2017 rankings, Norway jumped from fourth place in 2016 to 1st place followed by Denmark Iceland and Switzerland. The top four countries ranked highly on the main factors found to support happiness: caring, freedom, generosity, honesty, health, income, and good governance. Their averages are so close that small changes can easily _________ the rankings from year to year

societies in which women contribute either much more or much less to subsistence than men do

In which kinds of societies is gender stratification greatest?

patrilineal-patrilocal complex

Kay Martin and Barbara Voorhies Link the decline of matriliny and the spread of the _________ _________ _______ (consisting of patrilineality, patrilocality, warfare, and male supremacy) to pressure on resources) (societies with patrilineal descent trace descent through males only. in patrilocal societies a woman moves to her husband's village after marriage).

variation gender roles

Margaret mead did an early ethnographic study of _________ in ________ _______. her book sex and temperament in three primitive societies was based on fieldwork in three societies in Paupa New Guinea: the Arapesh, Mundugumor, and Tchambuli. the extent of personality variation in men and women among those three societies on the same island amazed mead. she found that arapesh men and women both acted as Americans traditionally have expected women to act: in a mild, parental, responsive way. Mudugumor men and women both, in contrast, acted as she believed we expect men to act: fiercely and aggressively. finally, Tchambuli men were "catty," wore curls, and went shopping, but Tchambuli women were energetic and managerial and placed less emphasis on personal adornment than did the men. (drawing on their case study of the tchambuli whose the call the chambri, Errington and Gewertz, while recognizing gender malleability have disputed the specifics of meads account

worlds happiest

Most of the countries high female labor force participation also ranked among the _______ _________. One wonders exactly why as more women work outside the home, citizens might feel a greater sense of well-being. The greater financial security associated with dual earner households may be part of the exclamation. The worlds happiest countries not only have more employed women, but they also have higher living standards and more secure government safety net.

confidence mobilize resources

One way to improve the situation of poor woman is to encourage them to organize. Membership in a group can help women gain ___________ and _______ __________. New women's groups can in some cases revive or replace traditional forms of social organization that I've been disputed

transgender

People whose gender identity has no apparent biological roots fit into which of the following categories?

United States

Roberta clothes emerged from a Latin culture whose gender roles contrast strongly with those of the _________ __________. From small villages to a massive city, public areas including streets bars soccer fields and stadiums tend to be dominated by men. Although bikinis adorn Rios beaches on weekends and holidays, there are many more men than women there on weekdays. The men reveal in their ostentaneously sexual displays. As they send them selves and play soccer and volleyball, they regularly stroke their genitals to keep them firm. They are living publicly assertively and sexually in a public world of men. Brazilian men must work hard at this public image, constantly performing their cultures definition of masculinity and their gender identity as a man.Public life is a play his strong rules go to men. Roberta close, of course, has been a public figure. Given that Brazilian culture to find the public world is male, we can perhaps better understand now why a popular Brazilian sex symbol could be a man who excels at performing in public as a woman.

matriarchy

Sanday considers the Minangkabu of West Sumantra, Indonesia a ________ because women are the center, origin, and foundation of the social order. the oldest village in a cluster of villages is called the "mother village." in ceremonies, women are addressed by the term used for their mythical queen mother. women control land inheritance, and couples reside matrilocally. in the wedding ceremony, the wife collects her husband from his household and, with her female kin, escorts him to hers. if there is a divorce, the husband simply takes his things and leaves. yet despite the special position of women, the Minangkabau matriarchy is not the equivalent of female rule, given the Minangkabau belief that all decision making should be by consensus.

Two-spirit

Several native American tribes, including the Zuni of the American southwest, included gender variant individuals, described by the term ___________. Depending on the society, as many as four genders might be recognized: feminine women, masculine women, feminine men, and masculine men. The Zuni __________was a male who adopted social roles traditionally assigned a woman and, through performance of a third gender, contributed to the social and spiritual well-being of the community. Some bulk and societies included sworn virgins, born females who assumed male gender roles in activities to meet suicidal needs when there was a shortage of men.

biological socially constructed

Sex, we have seen, is ____________, whereas gender is _________ __________. Transgender is a social category that includes individuals who may or may not contrast biologically with ordinary males and females. Intersex people usually contrast biologically with ordinary males and females, but transgender includes people whose gender identity has no apparent biological roots.

feminization of poverty

Since roughly 1960, the number of female-headed households living in poverty has increased dramatically. This trend has been called

lowest

Table 9.5 compares a measure of the female labor force participation rate by country with that countries rank on the most recent list of the worlds happiest countries. The highest rate of labor participation 89% was in Iceland. The economies listed in the table the United States has the ____________female participation rate

india

The Hijras, who are culturally defined as "neither men nor women" and have organized strong social movements, live mainly in

bicha

The active passive Dichotomy also provide the stereo typical model for male male sexual relations. One man is supposed to be the active, masculine inserting partner, whereas the other is the passive effeminate one. The latter man is divided as a _______ (intestinal worm), but little stigma attaches to the inserter. Indeed, many active and heterosexually married Brazilian men like to have sex with transvestite prostitutes who are biological males. If a Brazilian man is unhappy pursuing either active masculinity or passive effeminacy, There is one other choice-active femininity. Roberta close in others like her, the cultural demand of ultra masculinity has healed into a performance of ultrafemininity. These men women form a third gender in relation to Brazil's polarized male female identity scale.

eunuch

The anthropological record confirms that gender diversity beyond male and female exists in many societies and has taken many forms across societies and cultures. Consider, for example, the ________, or perfect serving a castrated man who served as a safe attendant to harems in Byzantium. hijras, Who live mainly in northern India, or culturally defined as neither man nor woman, or as men who become woman by undergoing castration and adopting women's dress and behavior. hijras identify with the Indian mother goddess in our believe to channel her power they are known for their ritualized performances of births and marriages, where they dance and sing conferring the mother goddesses blessings on the child or the married couple. Although culturally defined as celibate, some hijras now engage in prostitution, in which their role is as women with men. Hijra social movements have campaign for recognition as a third gender, and in 2005, Indian passport application forms were updated with three gender options M, F, and E for male female and __________.

binary

The category transgender encompasses varied individuals whose gender performance and identity enlarge an otherwise _________ gender structure. transgender individuals are increasingly visible in the media and our every day lives. The Amazon television series transparent, whose principal character is a transgender woman, has received several awards. The emergence of Caitlyn Jenner as a transgender woman received considerable media tension in 2015, including her own television show. In November 2017, 33-year-old Danica Roem became the first transgender person to be elected to Virginia's house of delegates. She defeated a 13 term Republican who had introduced a bill to bar transgender students from using the bathrooms of their choice.

chromosome combination

The causes of intersex are varied and complex. Number one: intersex person has the chromosomes of a woman Xx and Normal ovaries , Uterus, fallopian tubes, but the external genitals appear male. Usually this results from a female fetus having been exposed to an excess of male hormones before birth. Number two and XY intersex person has the chromosomes of a man XY but the external genitals are incompletely formed, ambiguous, or female. The testes may be normal, malformed, or absent. Number three a true gonodal Intersex person has both ovarian and testicular tissue. The external genitals maybe ambiguous or may appear to be female or male. Number four intersex also can result from an unusual _______ _________, such as X0 only one X chromosome and no Y chromosome, XXY, XYY, and XXX. In the last three cases there is an extra sex chromosome, either an X or a Y.

intersex transgender

The distinction between the terms intersex and transgender is like the distinction between sex and gender. _____________ refers to biology, while ____________refers to an identity that is socially constructed and individually performed. The term intersex encompasses a variety of conditions involving a discrepancy between the external genitals (penis, vagina) and the internal genitals (testees ovaries etc.) the older term for this condition, hermaphroditism, combined the names of a Greek God and Goddess. Hermes was a God of male sexuality among other things and Aphrodite goddess of female sexuality, love, and beauty.

increasing

The feminization of poverty isn't just a North American phenomenon the percentage of single parent usually female headed households has been ____________worldwide the figure ranges from about 10% in Japan between 10 and 20% in certain south Asian in Southeast Asian countries to almost 50% in certain African countries in the Caribbean among the developed western nations the United States maintains the largest percentage of single parent households around 30% followed by the United Kingdom Canada Ireland and Denmark over 20% in each globally households headed by women tend to be poor than those headed by men in the United States in 2016 such households were 5.4 times more likely than Married couple families to live in poverty nearly 6 and 10 poor children 59.5% lived in female headed families in the United States in 2016

was a middle- and upper-class ideology that developed as industrialization spread in the United States during the early 20th century.

The idea that women should NOT work outside the home

same-sex marriage

The most notable achievement has been the legalization of __________ __________ throughout the United States as of 2015. With reference specifically to transgender rights, states that have an active laws prohibiting discrimination based on sexual identity, such as Washington, Oregon, and Vermont, have larger shares of transgender people than two states without such laws. As of this writing, one unresolved issue affecting the rights of transgender Americans is whether public restroom and locker room access should be based on gender at birth or current gender identity.

gender sexuality

The video depicted the widespread male appreciation of Roberta's beauty. As confirmation, one heterosexual man told me he had recently been on the same plan as Roberta and had been struck by her looks. Another man said he wanted to have sex with her. These comments, it seem to me, illustrated striking cultural contrast about ________ and __________. In Brazil, Latin American country noted for its machismo, heterosexual men did not feel that attraction toward a transvestite blemished their masculine identities. Roberta close can be understood in relation to a gender identity scale that jumps from extreme femininity to extreme masculinity, with little in between. In Brazil, masculinity has been stereotyped as active in public, femininity as passive and domestic. The male-female contrast in rights and behavior is much stronger in Brazil than it is in North America. Brazilians confront them originally defined masculine roll the North American do.

positive variables

There appears to be a relationship between the countries rate of female labor force participation and its citizens feelings of well-being. The world happiness report which has been published annually since 2012 is an attempt to measure well-being and happiness in 158 countries. It measures are based on a set of six key variables and a series of lesser ones. the six variables that are related most strongly to a country sense of well-being are it's per capita gross domestic product (GDP, an indicator of its economic strength), social support, healthy life expectancy, freedom to make life choices, generosity and giving, and perceptions of corruption. The first five are ________ _________ as the increase so does the sense of well-being the last one perceptions of corruption, is a negative variable that is the less people perceive corruption the happier they are.

klinefelter's syndrome klinefelter's syndrome triple X syndrome triple X triple X turner syndrome turner syndorme

These chromosomal combinations don't typically produce a discrepancy between internal and external genitalia but there may be problems with sex hormone levels and overall sexual development. The XXY configuration, known as _________ ________, is the most common of these chromosomal combinations and the second most common condition after down syndrome caused by the presence of extra chromosomes in humans. Effects of _______ ____________ occur in about one of every 1000 males. One in every 500 males has an extra X chromosome but lacks the main symptoms of small testicles and reduce fertility. With XXX, also known as _______ _______ _________, there is an extra X chromosome and each cell of a human female. _______ ________ occurs in about one of every one thousand female births. They're usually is no physically distinguishable difference between _______ ________ woman and other woman. The same is true of XYY compared with other males. _______ _________ encompasses several conditions, of which 0X absence of one sex chromosome is most common. In this case, all or part of one of the sex chromosomes is absent. Girls with ________ _________typically are sterile because of nonworking ovaries and amenorrhea (absence of a mental cycle)

Roberta close

This chapters appreciating anthropology describes how Brazilian travesties (men dressing and acting like women) form a third gender in relation to Brazil's polarized male female identity scale. Transvestites, not uncommon in Brazil, or members of one gender usually males who dress as another female at the time of the case described a Brazilian man who wish to have gender reassignment surgery could not obtain the operation in Brazil. Individual seeking gender reassignment, such as _______ _________, travel to Europe for the procedure. In France, transvestites men dressing as women, regardless of nationality commonly are referred to as Bresiliennes (the feminine form of the French word for brazilian). So common are Brazilians among the transvestites in Europe. In Brazil, Benny heterosexual men do not have sexual relations with transvesties, with little stigma attached.

cultural meaning.

This is the final key to Roberta closes ________ _________. She emerged in a setting in which male-female and version is part of the year's most popular festival. Travesties are featured prominently at rios carnival balls, where they dress as scantily as the real women do. They were postage stamp bikinis, sometimes with no tops. Photos of real women and transformed ones vie for space in the magazines. It is often impossible to tell the born women from the hidden man. Roberta close is a permanent incarceration of Carnaval a year round reminder of the spirit of carnivals past present and yet to come.

carnaval

Transvestites like Roberta call travesties in Portuguese, are particularly prominent in Rio de Janeiro annual __________when an ambience of ceremonial inversion rules the city. In the culturally accurate words of the American popular novel is Gregory McDonald's, because that's one of his books in Brazil and carnival time says everything goes topsy-turvy. Men to come woman; women become men; grown-ups become children; rich people pretend they're poor; poor people, Rich; sober people become drunkard; these become generous. Very topsy-turvy. Most notable in this costumed inversion, men dressed as women. ___________reveals and expresses normally hidden intentions and conflicts as social life is turned upside down. Reality is illuminated through a dramatic representation of its opposite

true

True or false: In the United States today, more than 40% of mothers are the primary or sole source of income in their homes.

masterbation

What do we know about variation in sexual norms from society to society, and overtime? A classic cross-cultural study found wide variation In attitudes about forms of sexual activity. Even in a single society, such as the United States, attitudes about sex very overtime and with Socioeconomic status, region, and rule versus urban residents, however, even in the 1930s, prior to the age of sexual permissiveness research showed that almost all American man 92% and more than half American woman 54% admitted to ___________. In the famous Kinsey report, 37% of men surveyed admitted having had at least one sexual experience leading to orgasm with another male. In a liter study of 1200 unmarried women, 26 percent reported same sex sexual activities.

-Obstacles to men's success at home are both material and cultural. -Women still do much more domestic work than men do. -The average man still earns more money than the average woman does, even in dual-earner households.

Which of the following are true about the division of labor by gender in the United States today?

In Victorian England, women's place was defined as in the home, and men were the exclusive breadwinners.

Which of the following examples best illustrates a case in which a society has a clear domestic-public dichotomy?

transgender, intersex, transexual, male, and female

Which of the following gender categories exist in the United States?

-Cross-cultural subsistence contribution of men and women are roughly equal. -women tend to do bulk of domestic chores

Which of the following statements about cross-cultural gender patterns in subsistence and domestic contributions are true?

The percentage of single-parent, usually female-headed, households has been increasing worldwide.

Which of the following statements about the feminization of poverty are true?

Women were recruited to work in factories during the world wars, and today many women are expected to work to help maintain family living standards.

Which statement best describes different attitudes and beliefs about women's work in America that have developed in response to differing economic needs in various decades?

Gender is a social category that includes people whose gender identities have no apparent biological roots.

Which statement best describes the gender categories currently recognized in the United States?

Men's and women's subsistence contributions tend to be about equal, but women tend to work longer hours because of their domestic responsibilities.

Which statement best summarizes cross-cultural gender patterns in subsistence and domestic work?

-because men move to women's homes after marriage -because women are the center of the social order

Why does the anthropologist Peggy Reeves Sanday consider the Minangkabau of West Sumatra, Indonesia, a matriarchy?

sexual dimorphism

Women live longer than men and have better endurance while men tend to be taller and weigh more. These biological differences between the sexes are called

patriarchy

You are an ethnographer observing village life in New Guinea. You find that intervillage warfare is almost constant, female infanticide is common, and men avoid sexual contact with women who are seen as dangerous and polluting. Which term most likely applies to this case study?

gender stratification

______ ________ describes an unequal distribution of rewards (socially valued resources, power, prestige, human rights, and personal freedom) between men and women, reflecting their different positions in a social hierarchy.

intersex transgender

______ people may have mismatched chromosomes and genitalia or some discrepancy between internal and external genitalia. Meanwhile, some ______ people have gender identities that contradict their biological sex at birth and the gender identity that society assigned them.

gender roles

_______ ______ are the tasks and activities a culture assigns by gender.

family violence domestic abuse

_______ ________ and _______ _______ of women are also widespread problems. domestic violence certainly occurs in nuclear family settings, such as Canada and the United States, as well as in more blatantly patriarchal contexts. cities, with their impersonality and isolation from extended kin networks, are breeding grounds for domestic violence, as also may be rural areas in which women lead isolated lives.

sexual dimorphism

_______ ________ refers to differences in male and female biology besides the contrasts in breasts and genitals. women and men differ not just in primary (genitalia and reproductive organs) and secondary (breasts, voice, hair distribution) sexual characteristics but also in average weight, height, strength, and longevity.

gender identity sexual orientation

_______ _________ refers to whether a person feels, acts, and is regarded as male, female, or something else. One's gender identity does not dictate One sexual orientation. Man you have no doubt about their masculinity can be sexually attracted to women or to other men. Ditto women with regard to female gender identity and variable sexual attraction. ______ ___________ refers to a persons habitual sexual attraction to, and sexual activities with, persons of the opposite sex, heterosexuality; the same sex, homosexuality; or both sexes, bisexuality. Asexuality, indifference toward or lack of attraction to either sex, also is a sexual orientation. All four of these forms are found throughout the world. But each type of desire and experience holds different meanings for different individuals and groups. For example, male male sexual activity can be a private affair in Mexico, rather than public, socially sanctioned, and encouraged as it was among the Etoro of Papua.

women men father mother

_______ have two X chromosomes, and _______ have an X and a Y. the ________ determines a baby's sex because only he has the Y chromosome to transmit. the ________ always provides an X chromosome.

women

________ tend to have high status in matrilineal-matrilocal societies for several reasons. descent-group membership, succession to political positions, allocation of land, and overall social identity all come through female links. in negeri sembilan, Malaysia, matrimony gave women sole inheritance of ancestral rice fields. matrilocality created solitary clusters of female kin. _______ had considerable influence beyond the household. in such matrilineal contexts, women are the basis of the entire social structure. although public authority may be (or may appear to be) assigned to the men, much of the power and decision making may actually belong to the senior women.

women men men women

________ tend to live longer than _______ and have excellent endurance capabilities. in a given population, _______ tend to be taller and weigh more than _______ do. of course, there is a considerable overlap between the sexes in terms of height, weight, and physical strength, and there has been a pronounced reduction in sexual dimorphism in human evolution.

polygyny polyandry

_________ (multiple wives) is much more common than _______ (multiple husbands). furthermore, concerning premarital and extramarital sex, men tend to be less restricted than women are, although the restrictions were equal in about half the societies studied. double standards that limit women more than men are one illustration of gender stratification.

gathering hunt and fish

_________ generally is women's work. men usually _______ and ________, and there is no culture in which women are the primary hunters. however, women also do some fishing and may hunt small animals, as this is true among the Agta of the Philippines. gender status tends to be more equal when gathering is prominent than it is when hunting and fishing are the main subsistence activities.

patriarchy

__________ describes a political system ruled by men in which women have inferior social and political status, including basic human rights. Barbara miller, in a study of systematic neglect of females, describes women in rural northern India as "the endangered sex." societies that feature a full-fledged patrilineal-patrilocal complex, replete with warfare and inter village raiding, also typify patriarchy. such practices as dowry murders, female infanticide, and clitoridectomy (removal of the clitoris) exemplify ________, which extends from tribal societies such as the Yanomami to state societies such as India and Pakistan.

illness family related

a quarter of American workers report actual or threatened job loss because of an ______- or _______-_______ absence. the work-family balancing act is particularly challenging for low-wage workers. they tend to have the least workplace flexibility, the most uncertain work hours, and the fewest benefits, and they can least afford to take unpaid leave. the toll is especially hard on single mothers.

ann stoler

according to _____ ________ the "economic determinants of gender status" include freedom or autonomy (in disposing of one's labor and its fruits) and social power (control over the lives, labor, and produce of others).

feminization of poverty

alongside the economic gains of many American women, especially the college educated, stands an opposite extreme: the _________ of ________. this refers to the increasing representation of women (and their children) among America's poorest people. the average income of marriage-couple families is more than twice that of families maintained by a single woman. the median female headed one-earner family had an annual income of $41, 027 in 2016, compared with $87,057 for a married-couple household.

male rate

although the female labor participation rate has fallen since 1999, the ______ _______ has been falling too. more women then men enter the workforce each year, and this has been true for six decades. most dramatically, between 1964 and 1974, the number of employed American women grew by 43 percent, compared with 17 percent for men. although employment growth rate for both men and women slowed after the early 1980's, the female growth rate continued to exceed the male rate, and it still does.

gheg

among the _______ tribes of north Albania, "virginal transvestites" were biologically female, but locals consider them "honorary men." some Albanian adolescent girls have chosen to become men, remain celibate, and live among men, with the support of their families and villagers. and consider Polynesia. in Tonga the term fakaleitis describes males who behave as women do, thereby contrasting with mainstream Tongan men. similar to tonga's fakaleitis, samoan fa'afafine and Hawaiian mahu are men who adopt feminine attributes, behaviors, and visual markers.

planting, tending, harvesting crops

among the most important of these swing activities are _______,________, and _________ crops. some societies customarily assign more farming chores to women whereas others make men the primary farmers. among the tasks almost always assigned to men, some (e.g., hunting large animals on land and sea) seem clearly related to the greater average size and strength of males. others, such as working wood and making musical instruments, seem more arbitrary. women, of course, are not exempt from arduous and time-consuming physical labour such as gathering firewood and fetching water. in arembepe, Bahia, Brazil, for example, women used to transport water in 5-gallon tins, balanced on their heads, from wells and lagoons located at long distances form their homes.

education professional

another important change since the 1960s is the increasing levels of __________ and _________ employment among women. in the United States today, more women than men attend a graduate from college. women will soon comprise the majority of college-educated workers in the U.S. labor force. back in 1968, women made up less than 10 percent of the entering classes of MD (medicine), and JD (law), and MBA (business) programs. the proportion of female students in those programs has risen to about 50 percent. nowadays, female college graduates aged 30 to 34 are just as likely to be doctors, dentists, lawyers, professors, managers, and scientists as they are to be working in traditionally female professions, as teachers, nurses, librarians, secretaries, or social workers. in the 1960s, women were seven times more likely to be in the latter than in the former series of professions.

similarities differences

anthropologists have discovered both _________ and __________ in the roles of men and women in different cultures. the predominant anthropological position on sex-gender roles and biology may be stated as follows: the biological nature of men and women (should be seen) not as a narrow enclosure limiting the human organism, but rather as a broad base upon which a variety of structures can be built.

indigenous Fijians

as anthropologist Niko beanies, who has conducted fieldwork in Fiji since 1980, notes, participation in rugby is mainly by men who are ________ __________

gender roles

as the workforce has changed, so, too, have ideas and attitudes about _______ _________. compare your grandparents and your parents. chances are you have an employed mother, but your grandmother (and especially your great grandmother) was more likely to have been a stay-at-home mom. your grandfather (and especially your great grandfather) is more likely that your father to have working gin manufacturing and to have belonged to a union. your father is more likely than any of his male forebears to have participated significantly in child care and housework.

human behavior

because anthropologists study biology, society, and culture, they are in a unique position to comment on nature (biological predispositions) and nurture (environment) as determinants of _______ ________. human attitudes, values, and behavior are limited not only by our genetic predisposition-which often are difficult to identify-but also by our experiences during enculturation. our attributes as adults are determined by both our genes and by our environment during growth and development.

flexibility less travel parental leave

both fathers and mothers increasingly are seeking jobs that offer __________, require _______ ________, and include paid _______ _________ (including paternity leave). the United States lags behind other developed nations in providing such benefits, which help workers build long-term careers, as they also fulfill family responsibilities. in fact, the United States is the only developed country that has not adopted mandatory paid parental leave politics. although a few states and local governments do offer such leave to their employees, most workers have to rely on an employer's decision to offer benefits. only about 11 percent of American private-sector employers offer paid leave specially for family reasons

constrained

both men and women are __________ by their cultural training, stereotypes, and expectations. for example, American culture stigmatizes male crying. its okay for little boys to cry, but becoming a man often means giving up this natural expression of joy and sadness. American men are trained as well to make decisions and stick to them. in our stereotypes, changing one's mind is more associated with women than with men and may be perceived as a sign of weakness. politicians routinely criticize their opponents for being indecisive, for waffling or "flip-flopping" on issues what a strange idea-that people shouldn't change their positions if they've discovered theres a better way. males, females, and humanity may be equally victimized by aspects of cultural training.

breadwinner domestic and child-care

both men and women increasingly are questioning the notion that the man should be the ________ while the woman assumes ________ and ______-_______ responsibilities. in the United States today, more than 40 percent of mothers are the primary or sole source of income in their homes. this includes both single mothers and married mothers. add to the rising percentage of female breadwinners the face that fathers increasingly are taking on caregiving activities traditionally done by mothers. seven percent of American families with children are father-only families. in general, American fathers spend significantly more time on child care and housework today than they did in the past. American fathers no do 4.6 more hours of child care, and 4.4 more hours of housework, per week than they did in 1965.

24-hour days

both women and men have to fit their activities into _________ _______ ________. if anything, women do slightly more subsistence work than men do. in domestic activities and child care, however, female labor predominates. in about half the societies studied, men did virtually no domestic work. even in societies where men did domestic chores, the bulk of domestic work was done by women. adding together their subsistence activities and their domestic work, women tend to work more hours than men do. furthermore, women had primary responsibility for young children in two thirds of the societies studied

outside

celebrities aside, women in our culture increasingly work ______ of the home in a wide variety of jobs-doctor, lawyer, accountant, professor-traditionally considered mens work. it is not true, however, that women have achieved equity in all types of employment. as of this writing, only 22 out of 100 U.S. senators are women. only four women have ever served on the U.S. supreme court.

attitudes

changing __________ about women's work have reflected economic conditions and world events. in the United States, for example, the "traditional" idea that "a woman's place is in the home" developed as industrialism spread after 1900. one reason for this change was an influx of European immigrants, providing a male workforce willing to accept low wages for jobs, including factory work, that women previously might have done. eventually, machine tools and mass production further reduced the need for female labor.

matrilineal descent

cross-cultural variation in gender stratification is also related to rules of descent and postmarital residence. many horticultural societies have _______ _______ (descent traced through females only) and matrilocality (residence after marriage with the wife's relatives). in such societies, female status tends to be high. matriliny and matrilocality disperse related males, rather than consolidating them. by contrast, patriliny and patrilocality keep male relatives together, which is advantageous when warfare is present.

computer science engineering

despite the many gains, female employment continues to lag noticeably in certain highly paid professions, such as ________ _______ and ________. in those fields, the percentage of female graduates has actually declined, to about 20 percent from 37 percent in 1980. by mid-career, twice the number of women as men leave their jobs in computer science, often because they perceive an uncomfortable and unsupportive workplace environment. nearly 40 percent of women who left science, engineering, and technology jobs cited "a hostile macho culture" as their primary reason for doing so, versus only 27 percent who cited compensation.

women's movement

economic changes following world war 2 also set the stage for a __________ ________, marked by the publication of Betty Frieda's influential book the feminine mystique in 1963 and the founding of NOW, the National Organization for women, in 1966. among other things, the movement promoted expanded work opportunities for women, including the goal (as yet unrealized) of equal pay for equal work.

gender stratification

economic roles will influence ______ ________ (the unequal distribution of social value by gender). in one cross-cultural study, Sanday found that ______ _______ decreased when men and women made roughly equal contributions to subsistence.

cross-cultural generalizations

exeptions to _______-________ generalizations may involve societies or individuals. that is, a society like the Hidatsa can contradict the ______-______ ________ that men build boats by assigning that task to women. or, in a society where men usually build boats, a particular woman or women can contradict that expectation by doing the male activity. the table shows that in its sample of 185 societies, certain activities ("swing activities") are assigned to either both men and women.

Yanomami

faced with scarce resources, the patrilineal-patrilocal cultivators such as the ________ often raid other villages. this favors patrilocality and patriliny, customs that keep related men together in the same village, where they make strong allies in battle.

5.8 4.4

from 2014 to 2024, the growth in the female labor force is projected to be _______ percent, versus _______ percent for men. women will continue to comprise a growing share of the American workforce. the gender gap in male to female employment has narrowed significantly since 1950, when two-thirds of workers were men. by 2000, that gap had narrowed to 7 percentage points. by 2024, the gender gap will be only 5.6 percentage points.

domestic public domestic

gender status also is more equal when the _______ and ______ spheres are not sharply separated. (________ means within or pertaining to the home).

masculinity femininity

given the "rich and various constructions of gender" within the realm of cultural diversity, Susan Bourque and Kay Warren note that the same images of _________ and _________ do not always apply.

women

how did this growth occur? among the baby boomers (born between 1946 and 1964) who entered the American labor force in large numbers during the 1960s was a large influx of _________. female labor-force participation kept growing during the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s, even during economic downturns. the rate of female participation peaked at 60 percent (of working-age American women) in 1999. thereafter, it has declined, particularly during the severe recession of 2007-2009. since 2008, the rate has declined further to 56.7 percent, and it is projected to fall to 55.8 percent by 2024.

obstacles

however, just as there are lingering barriers to women's progress in the workplace, ________ remain to men's success at home. the reasons for this are both material and cultural. material factors include the facts that women still do much more domestic work than men do, and the average man still works longer hours outside the home and earns more money than the average women does, even in dual-earner households. there is a cultural lag as well. a stereotype that lingers is that of the incompetent male homemaker. for decades, clueless husbands and inept fathers have been a staple of television sitcoms-especially those produced after large numbers of women began to enter the workforce. women still tend to think they are better homemakers than their husbands. former princeton professor Anne-marie slaughter cites examples of American women who maintain deeply entrenched stereotypes about their own homemaking superiority and men's (lack of) domestic capabilities-from kids to kitchens.

inconsistently

ideas about proper gender behavior are changing just as ___________ as are the employment patterns of men and women. todays tv shows may feature characters who display nontraditional gender behavior and sexual behavior, while old beliefs, cultural expectations, and gender stereotypes linger.

male-dominated

in 1970, more than 60 percent of occupations were so ______-________ that 80 percent or more of their workers were male. today that kind of occupational segregation has been reduced substantially. only about a third of occupations have that degree of overrepresentation by males. at the same time, the share of occupations in which women make up 80 percent or more of workers has remained relatively constant at 10 percent.

foraging societies

in _______ ________, gender stratification was most marked when men contributed much more to the diet than women did. this was true among the Inuit and other northern hunters and fishers. among tropical and semitropical foragers, by contrast, gather usually provides more food than hunting and fishing do.

Fijiana

in contrast to the success of the men's rugby team, the Fijian women's team- the _________-managed only an eighth place finish out of 11 teams participating. this less-than-stellar result is not surprising given Fijian attitudes towards female players. besnier and brownell report that many Fijians view female rugby players as "tomboys"-women who act too masculine by being independent, aggressive, and loud, and who often are assumed to be lesbians. besnier heard stories of female players who had been beaten by their fathers or expelled from their family homes-an especially unhappy fate in a kin-based society.

resources

in densely populated areas of the Papua New Nuinea highlands, male-female avoidance is associated with strong pressure on ____________. men feel all female contracts, including sexual acts. they think that sexual contact with women will weaken them. indeed, men see everything female as dangerous and polluting. they segregate themselves in men's house and hide their precious ritual objects from women. they delay marriage, and some never marry. by contrast, the sparsely populated areas of papua New Guinea, such as recently settled areas, lack such taboos on male-female contacts. the image of woman as polluter fades, male female intercourse is valued, men and women live together, and reproductive rates are high.

prestige wealth

in stateless societies, gender stratification often is more obvious in regard to ________ than it is in regard to ________. in her study of the Ilongots of northern Luzon in the Philippines, Michelle Rosaldo described gender differences related to the positive cultural value placed on adventure, travel, and knowledge of the external world. more often than women, Ilongot men, as headhunters, visited distant places. they acquired knowledge of the world outside, amassed experiences there, and returned to display their knowledge, adventures, and feelings in public oratory. they received acclaim as a result. Ilongot women had inferior prestige because they lacked external experiences on which to base knowledge and dramatic expression.

asexuality

indifference toward or lack of attraction to either sex

single women

it is not mainly _______ _______ working today, as was the case in the 1950's. the current U.S. labor-force participation rate of parents with children under age 18 is about 70 percent for mothers and 93 percent for fathers. even with children younger than age 3 years, about 62 percent of mothers now work outside the home.

minimal infrequent

matrilineal-matrilocal systems tend to occur in societies where population pressure on strategic resources is _______ and warfare is _________.

40 percent 11 percent

more than ______ _______ of women in the labor force had college degrees in 2016, compared with ______ ______ in 1970. women now occupy more than half of professional and managerial positions. by 2016, more than a third of lawyers were women, compared with fewer than a tenth in 1974.

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

on august 11, 2016, in ____________, _________, the island nation of Fiji won its first ever olympic metal. That gold medal, in men's rugby sevens, was awarded after Fiji trounced Great Britain, its former colonial master, by a score of 43 to 7. In Fiji, a southwest pacific nation of some 900,000 people, rugby is immensely popular, specifically, Fijians excel at rugby sevens, a rapid game played by seven participants per side in just 14 minutes.

interferes

people everywhere have work and family obligations, but ideas about how to balance those responsibilities have changed considerable in recent years. Americans, both men and women, increasingly report that work _________ with family-not the other way around. some 46 percent of working men and women report that job demands sometimes or often interfere with their family lives, up from 41 percent 15 years ago.

female mobility

pregnancy, childbirth, lactation (nursing), and carrying infants interfere with ______ ________, including her food gathering. however, among the Agta of the Philippines, women not only gather; they also hunt with dogs while carrying their babies. still, given the effects of pregnancy and breast-feeding on mobility, it would be problematic for women to be the primary hunters.

nature nurture

questions about ________ and _________ emerge in the discussion of human sex-gender roles and sexuality. men and women differ genetically.

gender stereotypes

related to gender roles are ______ ________, which are oversimplified but strongly held ideas about the characteristics of males and females.

indigenous fijans indo-fijans

rugby is the national sport of Fiji, where its fans include men, women, and Fijians of all ethnic backgrounds. there are, however, dramatic differences in rugby participation between men and women, and between Fiji's two main ethnic groups: _______ ________ and ____________. the latter are descendants of immigrants from India who came to the island as indentured servants or free migrants during the 19th and 20th centuries, when both Fiji and India were British colonies.

gender

sex differences are biological, but _________ encompasses all the traits that a culture assigns to and inculcates in males and females. _________, in other words, refers to the cultural construction of whether one is female, male, or something else.

bisexuality

sexual attraction to both sexes

heterosexuality

sexual attraction to the opposite sex

homosexuality

sexual attraction to the same sex

resist

slaughter discusses how, even when men seek, or a willing to play, a prominent domestic role, women may ___________. the same woman who says she wants her husband to do more at home may then criticize him for not "doing things right" when he does pitch in. as slaughter points out, "doing things right" means doing things the women's way. practice, of course, does make perfect, and women still do a disproportionate share of housework and child care in the 21st century america. if the women is the one who usually does the domestic work, and if she assumes she can do it better and faster than her husband, she probably will do so. a stereotype can become a self-fulfilling prophecy. often reinforced by material reality.

Malala Yousafzai

sometimes, thankfully, such abuse fails in its attempt to silence female voices. consider _______ _________, (born in northern Pakistan) who at the early age of 9 years embarked on her ongoing career as a forceful and persuasive advocate for female education. her courageous early work, including public speaking and a blog for the BBC (started when she was 11), criticized the Taliban for its efforts to block girls' education and prompted the Taliban to issue a death threat against her. in October 2012, a gunman shot ________ (then age 14) three times on a school bus as she was traveling home from school. she survived, and has continued to speak about the importance of education for girls. in 2014 she became the youngest person ever to receive the Nobel peace prize.

domestic-public dichotomy

strong differentiation between the home and the outside world is called the ________-_______ _______ or the private-public contrast. the outside world can include politics, trade, warfare, or work. often when domestic and public spheres are clearly separated, public activities have greater prestige than domestic ones do. this can promote gender stratification, because men are more likely to be active in the public domain than women are. cross-culturally, women's activities tend to be closer to home than mens are. another reason hunter-gatherers have less gender stratification than farmers and herders do is that the _______-________ _______ is less developed among foragers.

automation robotics

thanks to __________ and _________, jobs have become less demanding in terms of physical labor. with machines to do the heavy work, the smaller average body size and lesser average strength of women are no longer significant impediments to blue-collar employment. but the main reason we don't see more modern-day roses working alongside male riveters is that the US workforce itself has been abandoning heavy-goods manufacture. in the 1950s, two-thirds of American jobs were blue-collar, compared with less than 14 percent today. the location of those jobs has shifted within the world capitalist economy. developing countries, with their cheaper labor costs, produce steel, automobiles, and other heavy goods less expensively than the United States can, but the United States excels at services. the American mass education system has many deficiencies, but it does train millions of people for service and information-oriented jobs.

female

the American expectation that proper _______ behavior should be polite, restrained, or meek poses a challenge for women, because American culture also values decisiveness and "standing up for what you believe in."

official support

the Fijiana also received little ________ ________, with few corporate sponsors, unlike the men's team, which employs the sponsorship of the country's major companies. when besnier visited the Fijiana at their training camp in march 2016, he found the women put up in a christian camp, five people to a room, while the men's team was lodged at a luxury resort. prior to the Olympic Games, there was even an attempt to replace some of the actual Fijiana national team with women from netball, who were more "feminine acting" even though they knew little about rugby.

patrilineal-patrilocal complex

the _________-________ complex characterizes many societies in highland papua New Guinea. women work hard growing and processing subsistence crops, raising and tending pics (the main domesticated animal and a favorite food), and doing domestic cooking, but they are isolated from the public domain, which men control. men grow and distribute prestige crops, prepare food for feasts, and arrange marriages. the men even get to trade the pigs and control their use in ritual.

rugby

the addition of ________ to the roster of Olympic sports for the Rio summer games offered Fijians an opportunity to excel in a venue where previously Fiji had been woefully unrepresented. only two Fijian athletes had qualified to participate in the games between 1956, when Fiji officially entered the Olympics, and in 2016, when it won its gold medal.

hormonal physiological

the chromosomal difference is expressed in _________ and __________ contrasts. humans are sexually dimorphic, more so than some primates, such as gibbons (small, tree-living asiatic apes), and less so than others, such as gorillas and orangutans.

generalities universals

the data in the table illustrate cultural _________ rather than _________. for example, the table reports a general tendency for men to build boats, but there are societies that contradict the rule. One was the Hidatsa, a Native American group in which the women made the boats used to cross the Missouri River. (traditionally, the Hidatsa were village farmers and bison hunters on the North American plains; they now live in North Dakota). another exception is that pawnee women worked word; this is the only Native American group that assigned this activity to women. (the pawnee, also traditionally plains farmers and bison hunters, originally lived in what is now central Nebraska and central Kansas; they now live on a reservation in north central Oklahoma.)

pioneer women

the economic roles of men and women have changed and changed again over the course of American History. nineteenth-century _______ _________ worked productively in farming and home industry. as productions shifted from home to factory, some women, particularly those who were poor or unmarried, turned to factory employment. young white women typically worked outside the home only for a time, until they married and had children. the experience was different for african American women, many of whom, after abolition, continued working as field hands and domestic workers.

patriarchy violence

the gender inequality spawned by ________ and ________, which continues into the 21st century, can be deadly. anyone who follows current events will have heard of recent cases of blatant abuse of women and girls, particularly in the context of warfare and terrorism, for example, in Bosnia, Syria and Nigeria. in all of these places, rape has been used as a weapon of war or as a punishment for transgressions committed by the victim's male relatives. in Afghanistan, Pakistan, and elsewhere, girls have been prevented from, or punished for, attending school. in 2014, Boko Haram, a Jihadist rebel group in northern Nigeria, which also opposes female education, kidnapped nearly 300 schoolgirls, whom they subjected to abuse and forced marriages.

extra domestic domestic

the original coding of the data in the table probably illustrates a male bias in that ____________ activities received much more prominence than __________ activities. think about how female domestic activities could have been specified in greater detail. one wonders whether collecting wild honey is more necessary or time-consuming than nursing a baby (absent from the table). also, notice that the table does not mention trade and market activity, in which either or both men and women are active.

steadily

the percentage of women in the U.S. workforce increased __________ during the second half of the twentieth century. in 1950, there were about 9.4 million female workers, representing one-third of employed Americans. by 2000, that number had risen to 66.3 million-46.5 percent of the labor force. by 2016, 74.6 million American women comprised 46.8 percent of the labor force. the U.S. bureau of labor statistics projects that the number of working women will rise to 77.2 million by 2024, for a 47.2 percent share.

world war 2

the rapid population growth and business expansion that followed ______________ created demand for women to fill jobs in clerical work, public school teaching, and nursing (traditionally defined as female occupations). inflation and the culture of consumption also have spurred female employment. when demand and/or prices rise, multiple paychecks help maintain family living standards.

feminist scholarship

there is a well established field of ________ ________ within anthropology. anthropologists have gathered systematic ethnographic data about similarities and differences involving gender in many cultural settings. anthropologists can detect recurrent themes and patterns involving gender differences. they also can observe that gender roles vary with environment, economy, adaptive strategy, and type of political system.

foraging societies

warfare, which also requires mobility, is not typical of ______ _________, nor is interregional trade well developed. warfare and trade are two public arenas that can contribute to status inequality of males and females among food producers.

prestige systems actual power

we must distinguish between _______ _______ and _______ _______ in a given society. high male prestige does not necessarily mean that men wield economic or political power.

sex-linked

we've seen that certain gender roles are more ______-______ than others. men are the usual hunters and warriors. given such tools and weapons as spears, lives, and bows, men make better hunters and fighters because they are bigger and stronger on the average than are women in the same population. the male hunter-fighter role also reflects a tendency toward greater male mobility.

judged differently

when American men and women display similar behavior-speaking their minds, for example-they are ______ _______. a man's assertive behavior may be admired and rewarded, but similar behavior by a woman may be labeled "aggressive"-or worse.

birth village

when a woman lives in her own _____ ______, she has kin nearby to protect her interests. even in patrilocal polygynous (multiple wives) settings, women often count on the support of their cowives and sons in disputes with potentially abusive husbands. unfortunately, settings in which women have readily available social support network are disappearing from today's world. patrilineal social forms and isolated families have spread at the expense of matriliny. many nations have declared polygyny illegal. more and more women, and men. find themselves cut off from their extended family and extended kin.

primary

when women ask their husbands for "help" around the house or with the kids, they are affirming the feminine role as _________ homemaker and child-care provider. the husband is viewed as merely a helper, rather than as an equal partner. slaughter argues that Americans need to conceive and implement a whole new domestic order full gender equality would mean equality both at work and at home there is still work to be done on both fronts. men and women need to commit to and value a larger male domestic role, and employers need to make it easier for their employees to balance work and family responsibilities.

women

with the spread of women's rights and human rights movements, attention to abuse of__________ has increased. laws have been passed, and mediating institutions established. brazil's female-run police stations for battered women provide an example, as do shelters for victims of domestic abuse in the United States and Canada. a series of "ladies only" facilities, including trains and entry lines, can be found throughout India. but patriarchal institutions do persist in what should be a more enlightened world.

indo-fijians

women aren't the only Fijians who are discouraged from rugby. ___________ also faced multiple barriers to participation in the sport. indigenous Fijians contend that ___________ have slight physiques that make them unstable for rugby's roughness. even __________ parents discourage their sons from playing, fearing injury by larger and rougher indigenous Fijians. in this ostensibly multicultural society, it is not uncommon for indigenous Fijians (57 percent of the population) to resent the Indian-derived minority (38 percent) because of its business success. ___________fear physical expressions of this resentment on the playing field.

husbands wives

workforce participation by American __________ has been falling while that of American _________ has risen. in 1960, 89 percent of all married men worked, compared with 32 percent of married women-a gap of 57 percent. that gap had narrowed to 13 percent by 2016, as full-time cash employment of husbands declined to 74 percent, while that of wives stood at 61 percent. the gender gap in pay also has narrowed. women earned 83 cents for every dollar a man earned in 2015; compared with 64 cents in 1980. the pay gap is even less among young adults: working women aged 25 to 34 make 90 percent of what their male counterparts make.