Anthropology Exam 2

Around 5,00 years ago, the early kingdoms of Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia developed state levels of political and social complexity. There have been a few theories as to some of the causes or reasons that led to state formation. Match the theory with the appropriate definition. -Hydraulic Systems_____ -Long Distance Trade____ -Population, War, and Circumscription_____ A.State level societies emerged at strategic locations in regional trade networks as points of supply or exchange in order to manage and control trade along these trade routes. B.Suggests one cause of state formation is the need to regulate hydraulic or water-based agricultural economies. C.Perspective that suggests that environmental circumscription can lead to increasing population, and ultimately warfare or resources and state formation.

-Hydraulic System- B.Suggests one cause of state formation is the need to regulate hydraulic or water-based agricultural economies. -Long Distance Trade- A.State level societies emerged at strategic locations in regional trade networks as points of supply or exchange in order to manage and control trade along these trade routes. -Population, War, and Circumscription- C. Perspective that suggests that environmental circumscription can lead to increasing population, and ultimately warfare or resources and state formation.

10.Match the following early Mesoamerican cities with the cultural group. La Venta El Mirador Tikal Teotihuacán Tenochtitlan Choices: A. Olmec B. Aztec C. Pre-Classic Maya D. Classic Maya E. Pre-Aztec

-La Venta- A. Olmec -El Mirador- C. Pre-Classic Maya -Tikal- D. Classic Maya -Teotihuacán- E. Pre-Aztec -Tenochtitlan- B. Aztec

23. Match the correct eastern US mound city with the correct waterway. Moundville- Etowah- Cahokia- Choices: A.Mississippi River B.Black Warrior River C.Etowah River

-Moundville- B. Black Warrior River -Etowah- C. Etowah River -Cahokia- A. Mississippi River

21.Match the eastern US mound city with the likely descendant Native group living today. Moundville Cahokia Etowah Choices: A.Choctaw B.Osage C.Muscogee Creek

-Moundville- Choctaw -Cahokia- Osage -Etowah- Muscogee Creek

19.Match the following cultural groups with their appropriate geographic location. Olmec- Maya- Aztec- Choices: A.Mesoamerican Coastal Lowlands B.Mesoamerican Highlands C.Mesoamerican Lowlands

-Olmec- A.Mesoamerican Coastal Lowlands -Maya- C. Mesoamerican Lowlands -Aztec- B. Mesoamerican Highlands

Mezhirich

15,000 years ago mammoth bone structures Ukraine

Environmental Knowledge

A reliance on available natural resources for their subsistence, rather than controlling the reproduction of plants and animals. They live in marginal environments that were of little interest to food-producing societies.

13. What is one explanation for the fall of Cahokia? A.A long-term drought that depleted food supplies. B. People decided to leave and establish another mound center because it was too hot in the city. C. A new trading route was developed that cutoff Cahokia, so the city was moved to the new trading route. D. Technically, Cahokia never collapsed because it is still occupied today.

A. A long-term drought that depleted food supplies. One of the explanations is a drought that lasted for like 30 years throughout the SW and SE United States around AD 1300.

7. In 1532 a small band of Spanish conquistadors led by ____________ arrived in northern Peru and ultimately collapsed the Incan Empire. A.Francisco Pizzaro B.Cabeza de Vaca C.Hernán Cortés D.Juan Ponce de León

A. Francisco Pizzaro In 1533, the Spanish took control over Cuzco and the Incan Empire fell. Pizarro is well known in Peru as the leader of the Spanish conquest. After his invasion, Pizarro destroyed the Inca state and initiated the decline of local cultures. The Incan polytheistic religion was replaced by Christianity and much of the local population was reduced to serfdom under the Spanish elite. The cities of the Inca Empire were transformed into Spanish Catholic cities.

In order for capitalistic economies to survive, they must grow profits from the buying and selling of products in markets. In the context of food and industrial agriculture, which of the following lead to the greatest profit for food companies? A.High yields and low OPEX B.Low yields and low OPEX C.Stable OPEX and high yields D.Stable yields and low OPEX

A. High yields and low OPEX High yields and low operating expenses (OPEX) lead to the greatest profit for food companies. This is often at the social, economic, environmental, and health expense of consumers of their goods and services. For example, high yields can be achieved by using agrochemicals (pesticides and fertilizers) at the expense of the environment and the chemicals retained in the food. Low operating expenses can be achieved through low wages, by using unskilled immigrant workers or by shifting manufacturing to developing countries.

1. The Andean site of Chavín de Huantár was an important center for exchange and trade. What is one of the factors that lead to its economic importance? A. It is located north of modern day Lima at the confluence of two rivers major rivers with allowed for easy transportation for trade. B.It was located next to the largest anchovies fishery and was able to capitalize on that proximity. C.The site was situated high in the Andean Mountains, which allowed for the production of a llama industry. Llama production became the only source of industry. D.Early coastal sites set up political alliances with Chavín de Huantár, which in turn allowed for its growth as a regional trade hub.

A. It is located north of modern day Lima at the confluence of two rivers major rivers with allowed for easy transportation for trade. In term of exchange and influence, the site is located north of modern day Lima at the confluence of two rivers major rivers with allowed for easy transportation for trade. Additionally, it was nicely situated between high altitude areas and agricultural lands and could exploit both of those environments.

The first writing on cuneiform tablets presumably developed to handle recordkeeping for a centralized economy. In what part of the world did this early form of writing develop? A.Mesopotamia B.Indus River Valley C.China D.Egypt

A. Mesopotamia

4.Match the eastern US mound city with its closest contemporary city. A. Moundville B. Etowah C. Cakokia Choices: Tuscalosa Atlanta St.Louis

A. Moundville- Tuscalosa B. Etowah- Atlanta C. Cakokia- St. Louis

The presence of which of the following is one of the key distinguishing features of a state? A.Social stratification B. Authority of charismatic leaders. C.Gender differences in terms of access to resources. D.Leader generosity.

A. Social Stratification

Some alternatives to industrial agriculture (as presented in class) include: A.agro-ecology, agro-forestry, and local consumerism B.abstinence from food, agro-ecology, and agro-horticulture C.vegetarianism, rice cake eating, and sugar protesting D.local economies, online shopping, consumer purchasing power

A. agro-ecology, agro-forestry, and local consumerism

16. Early settlements along the coast of the Pacific in the Andean Mountain region relied heavily on which subsistence practice? A.anchovies B.corn/maize C.potatoes/manoic D.llama meat

A. anchovies The coast of Peru contains the most productive fishing all along the coast of North and South America. The largest catches of fish are anchovies, which supported dense populations within the earliest coastal sites with an absence of farming.

One result of the degradation of environment from agriculture is the issue of hypoxic zones. What are hypoxic zones? A.Hypoxic zones are those ecological areas that are deprived of adequate oxygen supply for plants and animals to survive. B. Hypoxic zones are locations along the Gulf Coast where shrimp industries have high yields and large profits. C. Hypoxic zones were a phenomenon in the 1970s before the use of pesticides and fertilizers. They are largely gone now. D. Hypoxic zone is a state of mind where one is zoned out and can't remember the answer to this question.

A.Hypoxic zones are those ecological areas that are deprived of adequate oxygen supply for plants and animals to survive. Hypoxic zones have been occurring in the gulf since the 1970s, and studies show that the main culprits are nitrogen and phosphorus from crop fertilizers and animal manure in river runoff. They flow downstream from farms far to the north and settle in at the mouth of the gulf and fertilize algae, which prospers and eventually starves other living things of oxygen.

18. Early Horizon cemeteries along the Paracas Peninsula in Peru used what form of mortuary practice? A.Mummified bodies were placed in bottle-shaped vaults and were dressed with clothing textiles and then wrapped with several layers of textile shrouds. B.Mummified bodies were buried in underground tombs (similar to Egypt). C.Bodies were put on elevated litters and left to decompose. After decomposing, they were placed into burial tombs. D.Mummified bodies were buried in earthen mounds that ancestors constructed.

A.Mummified bodies were placed in bottle-shaped vaults and were dressed with clothing textiles and then wrapped with several layers of textile shrouds.

Subsistence is a term that anthropologists use to define an _________________ strategy in which a society interacts with the environment to acquire food and other resources.

Adaptive. Each adaptive strategy refers to the main economic activity of members of that society and influences how societies are organized in terms of political structure, social structure, gender roles, food consumed, etc.

During the Neolithic Revolution, several factors converged in order for domestication of plants and animals to have happened. Which of the following are those factors?

All of these. The Neolithic is the name given to the cultural period in which the first signs of domestication are present. All of these factors converged in order for the domestication of plants and animals to have occurred.

The Faulkner County Urban Farm Project

An educational garden located behind the Faulkner County Library that is used to teach sustainable food growing practices. Food grown in the garden is donated to volunteers and a local food pantry.

Conway Locally Grown

An online farmers market that coordinates with local farmers to provide synthetic fertilizer and pesticide free fruits, vegetables, eggs, poultry, beef, pork, lamb, and dairy. All products are produced within 150 miles.

The earliest state level societies emerged in which region? A.Mesoamerica B.Mesopotamia C.Southeast Asia D.Sub-Saharan Africa

B. Mesopotamia Mesopotamia is the geographic region often referred to as the "Middle East" and known agriculturally as the Fertile Crescent.

17. What prestige item was crafted by inhabitants of the Valley of Oaxaca and traded with other Mesoamerican chiefdoms? A.iron axes B.mirrors C.colossal heads D.standard weights

B. Mirrors. Yes, mirrors! While stone, feather, and metalwork were a part of long distance trade, mirrors were an important trading item.b

9. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of the Teotihuacán state? A. complex architecture B. large-scale irrigation C. a mature, syllabic writing system D.careful city planning

C. a mature, syllabic writing system

An influential theory that incorporates three factors working together instead of a single cause for state formation includes A.Regional trade networks, food scarcity, and warfare. B.Intensive food production, population pressures, and large hydraulic works. C.Environmental circumscription, increasing population, and warfare D.Warfare, environmental circumscription, and the advent of an early writing system

C.Environmental circumscription, increasing population, and warfare The combination of environmental circumscription, increasing population, and warfare states that whenever these things exist, state formation will begin by setting limitations or boundaries set on a space or area. These can be physical limitations, such as an environmentally productive area within a river valley, desert oasis, or a small island or they can be social limitations, such as blocking expansion of an area or access to resources.

14.Which of the following statements about the Olmec is NOT true? A.They lived along the Gulf coast of modern Mexico. B.They built earthen mounds grouped around a plaza. C.They carved massive stone heads. D.They were the first Mesoamerican empire.

D. They were the first Mesoamerican Empire. The Olmec were never an empire, but developed into a chiefdom society.

Which of the following was used by V. Gordon Childe to describe the major transformation of human life toward the first cities and states and the accompanying social institutions? A. Information Revolution B. French Revolution C. Industrial Revolution D. Urban Revolution

D. Urban Revolution

Why do state level societies collapse? A. Environmental degradation through unsustainable practices, such as deforestation, erosion from over-farming, and soil exhaustion. B.Disease and malnutrition within the population. C.Dramatic environmental change, such as a prolonged drought. D.Any one of them or a combination of all of them. E.Invasion and competition by neighboring groups. F.Unprecedented famine related to overpopulation.

D.Any one of them or a combination of all of them. All of these factors could threaten economies and political institutions at the state level system and lead to a social and political collapse of a society.

Which of the following is a true statement about intensive or industrial agriculture? A.Intensive agriculture can actually promote greater ecological diversity. B.Intensive agriculture is not ecologically destructive when it is done with fuel-efficient machinery. C.Intensive agriculture has a significant impact on the environment, but this impact is very localized and can be controlled. D.Intensive agriculture has significant environmental impacts, such as deforestation, water pollution, and reduction of ecological diversity.

D.Intensive agriculture has significant environmental impacts, such as deforestation, water pollution, and reduction of ecological diversity.

15. Earthen mounds that form some of the earliest cities in the eastern woodlands have been constructed in the eastern United States for well over 5,000 years, yet many of them do not exist today. Choose the best reason why this is the case. A.The mounds were very small and didn't last over time. B.They were built purposely to only last during the time of occupation. C.Many of the mounds were removed with occupants abandoned the city. They used the earth to make new mounds in new cities. D.They have been destroyed, flattened by plowing, or hemmed in by urban development.

D.They have been destroyed, flattened by plowing, or hemmed in by urban development.

Catal Huyuk

Early urban culture based on sedentary agriculture; located in modern southern Turkey; was larger in population than Jericho, had greater degree of social stratification.

Egalitarian

Everyone has equal access to valued resources and status. There are few differences in wealth and power among foraging groups.

Tor F. Jericho, the earliest known town, is located in central Turkey.

False.

11. T or F. The Moundbuilders who built the mounds and cities in the eastern United States are now extinct. Their demise is a great mystery in North American archaeology.

False. The descendants of the Moundbuilders are still with us and most of them live right next door in Oklahoma (formerly Indian Territory) as they were forcibly removed there in the 1830s.

6. T or F. The former cities of Moundville, Etowah, and Cahokia are all on private property and cannot be visited.

False. All three of these sites are publicly accessible archaeological parks!

2. T or F. Of the three eastern US mound cities discussed in class, Moundville is the largest (in terms of number of mounds), most populous (in terms of number of people), and was most influential along the Mississippi River Valley.

False. Cahokia is one of the most important pre-Columbian sites in the New World and is the largest Native American site north of Mexico. It was the largest community north of Mexico and covered about 6 square miles, 120 mounds, and 10-20 thousand people.

3. T or F.The Mayan urban center of Tikal was the last remain Mayan cities before the decline of the Empire.

False. Chitzen Itza was the last urban center and fared better because of the limestone geology and collapsed sink holes in the Yucatan. Because of these features, deep groundwater was accessible during droughts.

T or F. As demonstrated in the research of Dr. Richard Lee with San (!Kung) groups in the Kalahari Desert in South Africa, foraging societies typically are of poor health, usually only eat hunted meat, and require much more labor than farming societies.

False. Dr. Lee's study demonstrates that foraging societies average 2-3 days a week in subsistence activities (about 17 hours), which is much less than those living in farming and industrial societies. Additionally, foragers eat mostly vegetable foods and are quite healthy overall. (p. 113-114)

T or F. Compared with foraging societies, intensive agriculture has a very low energy budget with a diverse set of foods.

False. Foragers like the San Bushman of Africa have a low energy budget with a diverse and nutritionally sustainable diet. This is in contrast to the high carbohydrate starchy foods and very limited agricultural diet of today, which is predominately products made with rice, potatoes, or corn.

T or F. While most ancient states were created using slave labor, the institution of slavery today is non-existent.

False. It is a common misconception that slavery no longer exists today. The institution of slavery continues in pre-industrialized and modern nations in various forms. Somewhere around 30 million people are enslaved today.

5. T or F. The site of Machu Pitchu was one of the wealthiest cities along the edge of Lake Titicaca. It's primary export was copper.

False. Tiwanaku was a major economic city and was very prosperous as an important trade hub on the southern shores of Lake Titicaca. The main item traded was copper and copper items.

T or F. Most contemporary foragers live in remote areas, completely cut off from contact with other modern, agricultural, and industrial communities.

False. While we tend to evaluate foraging societies individually, all modern foragers are under the control of nation-states and are influenced by forces of globalization and political environment.

T or F. The use of monocropping in industrial agriculture provides a mechanism to diversity yields.

False. Monocropping lowers diversity of food yields. It creates a dependence on a limited number of crops that can lead to risk of starvation if a crop fails. Monocropping does not provide a back up plan if a crop fails.

12. T or F. Teotihuacán and Çatal Hüyük are two of the earliest towns in the Middle East.

False. Teotihuacán is in Mesoamerica.

22. T or F. Writing never developed among the early states in Mesoamerica, so there is no reliable archaeological evidence that records these states' histories.

False. Hieroglyphs are a form of writing that first developed during Olmec times.

Technological Mastery

Foragers are often knowledgeable about hundreds of plant and animals species, such as seasonal growth and migration pattern, various strategies to hunt within close range, and the knowledge to properly process collected and hunted food.

San (!Kung)

Foragers of southern Africa located predominately in what is today the arid country of Botswana.

Inuit

Hunters of seals and whales who use modern technologies, such as snowmobiles and rifles.

Economic Exchange

Individuals or groups pass value-based objects back and forth in predictable ways around a system of generalized reciprocity.

Which of the following is a true statement about intensive or industrial agriculture?

Intensive agriculture has significant environmental impacts, such as deforestation, water pollution, and reduction of ecological diversity.

The description of the San (!Kung) relationship to the government of Botswana is an example of which of the following?

It demonstrates how more and more foragers have come under the control of nation-states and are now influenced by the forces of globalization.

Abu Hureyra

Located in Syria and has earliest known domesticated cereal, rye dated to 10,000 bc. Was submereged under water in dam of Euphrates River and had rectangular mud-brick walls. Exotic material arriving through trade.

Political and Social Organization

Loosely organized groups of people (bands) related by kinship or marriage and with informal leadership and flexible membership.

In Dr. Lee's studies, why did San (!Kung) have lower rates of disease than the rates of industrialized societies?

Mobility. The San (!Kung) were highly mobile. They never lived in one place for very long and lived in small groups. As such, diseases could not easily flourish among a population. If it did, a small group would be infected rather than in a large epidemic of an urban population.

New South Cooperative

Provides Arkansas grown produce to local restaurants, retailers, and individual consumers. As individual consumers a box of regionally grown produce is available every week.

An increased interdependence between farms and corporations.

Results in a control the manufacture of machines, sales, processing of food, and transportation of food.

An increase in the use of technology.

Results in a replacement of human labor with machines and an increase in the use of unsustainable fossil fuels for energy.

An increase in high levels of specialization of crop production known as monocropping.

Results in a single crop grown every year rather than rotating and diversifying crops.

An increase in government agencies.

Results in bureaucratic oversight needed to create and manage farm production policies.

An increase in the overproduction of products.

Results in food waste deposited into landfills.

An increase in competition.

Results in small farmers not able to compete with larger farmers, which ultimately forces consolidation under large corporate farming.

Pastoralist societies exist throughout the world, although the species of animals that define each subsistence strategy are variable. Match the pastoralist group with the preferred species. Samis of the Nordic region Aymara of the Andean region Navajo of the Southwestern US Maasai of east Africa

Samis of the Nordic region= reindeer Aymara of the Andean region= llama and alpacas Navajo of the Southwestern US= sheep Maasai of east Africa= cattle

Settlement Patterns

Seasonal mobility where some groups unite during productive seasons and then split apart when seasonal resources dwindle.

The description of the Maasai and contemporary issues with mobility is an example of which of the following?

The complex balance that exists between state-level societies and indigenous peoples way of life.

The presence of bull symbolism at Çatal Hüyük suggests which of the following?

The possibility of a symbolic ideology of deep antiquity back into the Upper Paleolithic.

Why do most domesticated grains have a tougher axis and more brittle husk than wild grains?

The practices of harvesting and processing grain gradually selected for these characteristics. Grains of wheat, barley, and other cereals occur in bunches at the end of a stalk. In wild grains, the axis is brittle and breaks apart easily in the wind, whereas in domesticated plants the axis is tough and doesn't come apart. This allows for more controlled harvesting and less waist falling off or being blown away.

In recent times, many foraging groups have been exposed to the idea of food production but have never adopted it. Why?

Their own economies provided a perfectly adequate and nutritious diet, with a lot less work.

Agta

This foraging society is located in modern day Philippines where women (not men) contribute substantially to hunting duties.

Aborigines

This society has been practicing foraging strategies for 50,000 when they first occupied the continent.

24. T or F. Many archaeologists believe that a combination of social, political, military upheaval, along with environmental degradation, contributed to the collapse of the Mayan Empire.

True.

T or F. Neolithic is a period of time where food production intensifies toward large-scale cultivation and animal domestication beginning around 12,000 years ago.

True.

T or F. The issue with long distance trade as an explanation for the formation of states is that long distance trade also was developed in other societies that did not reach state level status.

True.

T or F. A market exchange economy is critical to the development of the state because of the need to trade with groups when crops failed and food shortages were present.

True. Because agriculturalists were sedentary and limited to a specialized crop, when those crops failed, trade with neighboring groups was necessary for survival (p. 122).

T or F. The most significant contrast between Mesopotamian and Mesoamerican food production involved animal domestication. Large game animals were mostly absent in the New World.

True. In Mesopotamia, large game animals played a significant role with domestication. Besides the llama and alpaca in the Andean region, domesticated large game animals were not present in the New World.

T or F. A simple definition of industrialism is the use of machinery to produce goods.

True. Industrialism is the mass production of commodities using machines within the system of capitalism.

T or F. The Basseri of Iran are nomadic pastoralists. They use sheep and goats, live in temporary settlements, and have a migratory range of over 300 miles.

True. The Basseri are on example of pastoral nomads who follow a seasonal migratory pattern that can vary from year to year. Pastoral nomads exist predominately in North Africa and the Middle East.

8. T or F. The Nazca lines of Peru are large geoglyphs of zoomorphs, anthromorphs, and phytomorphs.

True. The designs are shallow lines made in the ground by removing naturally occurring reddish pebbles and uncovering the whitish/grayish ground beneath the pebbles.

T or F. The Turkana of eastern Africa are an example of pastoralist societies who practice transhumance where certain individuals, rather than the whole group, migrate with the herds.

True. Transhumance, or semi-nomadic, is a form a movement among pastoralists and exists with groups residing in both Europe in the high altitude Alps and in Africa. Only certain individuals migrate with the herd and those not migrating remain in year round settlements with permanent houses.

T or F. Horticulture can support sedentism but requires more labor than foraging.

True. Horticulture can support sedentism because of the surplus of food gained from this subsistence strategy.

20. T or F. An important feature of the pre-classic Mayan site El Mirador is the presence of roads (sacbe) the link major ancient cities throughout the region.

True. Sacbe means "white road" in Mayan and connected neighboring sites several miles away.

Dolni Vestonice

Upper Paleolithic; 27,000 BP to 23,000 BP; Czech Republic; site of earliest known potter's kiln; 3 separate sites; about 100 ppl; venus figurines, animals, and some weapons

In the Middle East, a shift in subsistence strategies around 12,000 years ago led to a dependence on domesticated foods as subsistence switches from food collection to food production and the control over the reproduction of plants and animals. What is the term that defines an economy that developed that linked groups through seasonal movements and trade patterns across the landscape?

Vertical Economy. Middle Eastern food production arose in the context of four environmental zones in what anthropologists call a vertical economy. The geography in the Fertile Crescent allows for a food production tied to a vertical economy. A vertical economy is linked environmental zones that, although close together in space, contrast with one another in altitude, rainfall, overall climate, and vegetation.

Labor Roles and Expectations

While not universal, men often hunt whereas women and young children typically contribute by gathering.

Ganj Dareh

Zagros Mountains, SW Iran - 7900 BC, Domestic goat in a natural habitat area

Modern foragers are not Stone Age relics, living fossils, lost tribes, or noble savages. Still, to the extent that foraging has been the basis of their subsistence, contemporary and recent hunter-gatherers

can illustrate links between a foraging economy and other aspects of society and culture, such as their sociopolitical organization. Using modern foraging societies (and realizing that they are not static cultures), models can be developed to better understand the evolution of subsistence strategies and adaptations of early humans.

What are the three sisters?

corn, beans, squash

Yellow River China

dogs, chickens, pigs, millet

Central America

dogs, turkeys, corn, beans, squash

South American Andes

llama, alpaca, cuy, squash, potatoes, quinoa, beans

A horticultural system of cultivation is characterized by

periodic cycles of cultivation and fallowing. Horticulture is a type of plant cultivation that differs from agriculture. Horticulturalists employ a strategy based on a simple level of crop production and rotation without soil preparation, fertilizers, irrigation, or large beasts of burden.

Yangtze River China

pigs, dogs, water buffalo, rice

What three elements are necessary for animal domestication?

restricted movement, regulated breeding, and controlled feeding

Africa

rice, millet, sorghum

Middle East

sheep, goats, cattle, pigs, wheat, barley

Eastern North America

squash, marsh elder, goosefoot, sunflower

A __________ is a form of social and political organization that has a formal central government and a division of society into classes.

state (State level political systems first appeared in societies with large-scale intensive agriculture.)