Anthropology final

Zhoukoudian

H. Erectus in China, dates to 780kya, 40 individuals with characteristic H. erectus features, many artifacts (over 100,00), early tools were crude and shapeless-later tools are much more sophisticated, choppers, scalpers, points, awls, burins

Homo habilis

Has traditionally been considered the earliest species placed in the genus Homo. 2.5mya-1.7mya. Skull is more rounded and the face less prognathic. East and South Africa, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, Mary and Louis Leakey, "Handy man" 650cc, stone tools: Oldowan tradition. Smaller teeth with thinner enamel compared to Australopithecus; parabolic dental arcade shape. small stature, similar body plan to au.

Hominin

Hominins: Species that are regarded as human, directly ancestral to humans, or vey closely related to humans Shared traits of hominoids: no tail, Brachiation-adaptions, Y-5 molars, extended life history, large brains Human traits: big brains (encephalization), flat faces, small teeth, bipedalism The first diagnostic trait to show up was bipedalism and the first bipedal primates show up in Africa. Many species of bipedal primate were found in Africa from 7mya to about 1mya. Brain size did not dramatically increase until about 1.8mya. Large brain case (~1500cc), gracile supraorbital torus, no sagittal/occipital crest, short canines, small back teeth. Includes all human ancestors who existed after the evolutionary spilt from chimpanzees and bonobos, some six to seven mya. Lucy was the most complete and oldest hominid fossil with 40% preserved. The oldest hominid fossil is a fragmentary skull named Sahelanthropus tchadensis. Modern humans and any extinct relatives more closely related to us than to chimpanzees

What are so-called "invisible" tools?

However, the vast majority of tool use in primates (and, one can argue, in humans) is not with durable materials like stone. All of our extant Great Ape relatives have been observed using sticks, or leaves, or other materials for some secondary purpose (to wade across rivers, to "fish" for termites, or to absorb water for drinking). It is possible that the majority of early hominin tool use and manufacture may be invisible to us because of this preservation bias.

Know the connection between H. sapiens, Neandertals, and Denisovans. What contemporary populations carry DNA from these archaic groups?

In comparing Neandertal and modern H. sapiens genomes... African populations have nearly 0% Neandertal DNA. Outside Africa, populations have between 1-4% Neandertal DNA. East Asian population share more of their genome with Neandertals than any other group. A H. sapiens individual from 40kya had 6-9% Neandertal DNA. Suggests recombination degrades the Neandertal sequences over time.

What evidence points to the Pleistocene as an epoch characterized by repeated glaciations?

Isotope analysis from sediment and ice core show 15 major and 50 minor glacial advances

Homeostasis

It can be difficult keeping your core temperature and biochemical makeup within optimal parameters. This ideal "zone" is called homeostasis. Homeostatic regulation is challenged by stressors. Temperature, UV radiation, oxygen levels, environmental toxins. Your ability to biologically adapt is dependent up on your phenotypic plasticity. Some phenotypes change their expression dependent on stimuli. This is called polyphenism. We have a couple responses to challenge our homeostasis, 1)Adjustments: cultural and phenotypic plasticity 2)Adaptations: genetic changes due to natural selection

Lactase persistence

Lactose: a sugar found in dairy products. Lactase or Lactase-phlorzin hydrolase (LPH): an enzyme that breaks down lactose. Produced in children and fades by adolescence. LPH persistence occurs via a mutation found in populations whose ancestors were pastoralists. Europe and East Africa

Composite tools

Later Stone Age culture introduced elements seen across many cultures, including the construction of composite tools and even the use of strung decorations such as beads. These developments appear in the Later Stone Age of other regions, such as with the Balangoda of Sri Lanka and the Aurignacian tradition of Europe, both mentioned above. Based on the early date of the African artifacts, Later Stone Age culture may have originated in Africa and passed from person to person and region to region, with people adapting the general technique to their local resources and viewing the meaning in their own way.

Mousterian tools

Levallois technique: prepared discoid core, flake, then refine. Multiple stone tools from a single core, hafting, other cultural traits: painting, music, burials, language?

Au. sediba

1.97mya, mosaic features between Africans and Homo, 420-450cc, gracile mandible, small teeth with au. cusp-spacing, post crania: arboreal and bipedal traits. Malapa Fossil Site. Small brain size (au.) but gracile mandible (homo). Scientists have interpreted this mixture of traits (such as a robust ankle, but evidence for an arch in the foot) as a transitional phase between a body previously adapted to arborealism (tree climbing, particularly in evidence from the bones of the wrist) to one that adapted to bipedal ground walking. None of direct association, but some have argued that a modern hand morphology (shorter fingers and a longer thumb) means that adaptations to tool manufacture and use may be present in this species.

Blombos Cave

100-75kya Ochre processing kits: abalone shells, grinding stones, crushed bone, animal fat. Perforated small shell beads

Denisovans

100kya to 30kya. Remains found in Tibet and Siberia. Diverged from humans 1mya. Diverged from Neanderthals before 480kya. Differences from both Human and Neanderthal populations, though closer to Neanderthal. Genetic analysis suggests that they had adaptations that allowed them to live at high altitudes.

Neandertals

150kya to 35kya. Western Europe, Middle East, and Western Asia Only. Mainly Europe- as far as Uzbekistan. cold adapted. Brain-1500cc, brain case is long and low, occipital "bun". Brow ridges arch, infraorbital foramina, retromolar gap, mid face prognathism, Post-cranial - short limbs, barrel-chested, robust bones. Mousterian tools often constructed using the Levallois technique

Au. garhi

2.5 mya, Ethiopia, 450 cc, primitive stone tools, compared to gracile Australopithecines: larger hind dentition, longer limbs. Crude stone tools resembling Oldowan

Oldowan tools

2.6 mya, clear understanding of fracture mechanics, associated with genus Homo and au. garhi. The techno-complex is defined as a core and flake industry. Knappers were able to actively hold or manipulate the core being snapped which they could directly hit using a hammer stone. This technique is known as free-hand percussion which demonstrates an understanding of fracture mechanics. Lower Palaeolithic, the earliest stone tool culture.

Au. afarensis

2.9-3.9 mya, Tanzania, Kenya, Ethiopia, "Lucy" (3.2 mya), 420cc cranial capacity, reduced canines, molars (vs. apes), prognathic face, strong chewing muscles, sexual dimorphism, bipedal: pelvis, lower limbs, footprints (Laetoli)

H. naledi

335kya to 235kya. South Africa. 18 individuals from 300kya. Mix of modern and primitive traits. Sagittal keel, large supraorbital torus, curved phalanges, longer arms, well-developed frontal (modern), 500cc cranial capacity. Getting the remains into the cave system is suggestive of a symbolic thinking, use of fire, and other advanced cultural traits. Rising Star Cave. Reduced tooth size.

Border Cave

43kya Microliths, adhesives- innovation in hunting technology. Ostrich shell beads

phytoliths

65 million-year-old grass phytoliths (microscopic silica in plants) found in dinosaur coprolite in India revealed that grasses had been in existence much earlier than scientists initially believed. Small silica particles (phytoliths) from grasses have been found stuck to the molars of Gigantopithecus

Races vs. Clines

A cline is a gradation in the frequency of an allele/trait between populations living in different geographic regions. "There are no races, only clines" (Livingstone 1962). In the 1960's some biological anthropologists shifted focus from populations to the global distribution of individual traits (melanin, ABO blood type, Hbs allele) A clinal distribution still derives from genetic inheritance, but clines often correspond to some gradually changing environmental factor. Clinal patterns arise when selective pressures in one geographic area differ from those in another as well as when people procreate and pass on genes together with their most immediate neighbors. Race: The identification of a group based on a perceived distinctiveness that makes that group more similar to each other than they are to others outside the group. This may be based on cultural differences, genetic parentage, physical characteristics, behavioral attributes, or something arbitrarily and socially constructed. As a social or demographic category, perceptions of "race" can produce effects that have real and serious consequences for different groups of people. This is despite the fact that biological anthropologists and geneticists have demonstrated that all humans are genetically homogenous and that more differences can be found within populations as opposed to between them in the overall apportionment of human biological variation.

What is a haplotype and how does it help us trace the connections between ancient populations?

A haplotype is a set of genetic variants located on a single stretch of the genome. This unique combination of variants on a stretch of the genome can be used to differentiate groups who will have different combinations of variants. Some haplotypes may be more similar to one another. The more similar two haplotypes are, the more closely related they are.

Punch-blade technique

A variation of blade technology that occurred in the Upper Palaeolithic and onwards is the punch blade technique, in which one end of an intermediary tool, or 'punch', is placed on the core's platform while the other end is struck by the percussor.

Laetoli footprints

A well known example of trace fossils in Tanzania. In 1974 anthropologist Mary Leaky discovered fossilized animal tracks at Laetoli. A 27 meter trail of hominin footprints. 70 footprints were created when early humans walked in wet volcanic ash, more volcanic ash and rain fell, sealing the footprints. Analysis revealed they walked similarly to the way we walk today. Also indicates their gait involved more of a reflexed limb. Implies they had short legs. Footprints were made by a small group of Au. afarensis. Possibly two adults and one child, a family, one carrying a baby.

What is the difference between adjustments and adaptations? Be able to describe what happens under different climatic conditions.

Adjustments: cultural and phenotypic plasticity Adjustments: cultural and phenotypic plasticity

Know the features that are used to distinguish between Au. afarensis, Au. africanus, and Au. garhi.

Afarensis: reduced canines and molars, prognathic face, robust facial features Africanus: small canines, more rounded cranium, smaller teeth, sloping face, curved phalanges Garhi: larger hind dentition, longer limbed

Acheulean tools

Africa, Asia, Europe, 1.8mya- 50,000ya. H.erectus technology. Wider range of tools: hand axes, awls, scrappers, burins. Carefully worked biface tools- edges are scalloped (serrated) and both sides are symmetrical. Tool industry characterized by teardrop-shaped stone handles flaked on both sides.

What evidence may point to early tool use among australopithecines? Why is this evidence not conclusive?

Although not found in direct association with stone tools, potential evidence for cut marks on bones, found at Dikika, and dated to 3.39 mya indicates a potential temporal/geographic overlap between meat-eating, tool use, and this species. However, this evidence is fiercely debated. Others have associated the earliest tool finds from Lomekwi, Kenya, temporally (3.3 mya) and in close geographic proximity to this species. Currently, the oldest known stone tools, which form the techno-complex the Lomekwian, date to 3.3 mya. They were found at a site called Lomekwi 3 in Kenya. ut marks on fossilized animal bones may illuminate the functionality of stone tools. In one controversial study in 2010, researchers argued that cut marks on a pair of animal bones from Dikika (Ethiopia), dated to 3.4 mya, were from stone tools. The discoverers suggested that they be more securely associated, temporally, with Au. afarensis. However, others have noted that these marks are consistent with teeth marks from crocodiles and other carnivores.

Why do some anthropologists argue that H. habilis should be reclassified as an australopithecine?

Analysis of the relative strength of limb bones suggested that the species, though bipedal, was much more adapted to arboreal climbing than Homo erectus and Homo sapiens (Ruff 2009). This has prompted some scientists to question whether Homo habilis behaved more like an australopithecine—with a shorter gait and the ability to move around in the trees (Wood and Collard 1999). They also questioned whether the brain size of Homo habilis was really that much larger than that of Australopithecus. They have proposed reclassifying some or all of the Homo habilis fossils into the genus Australopithecus, or even placing them into a newly created genus (Wood 2014).

What are the ancestral and derived traits found on the skull of Sahelanthropus tchadensis?

Ancestral: smaller canines, more humanlike foramen magnum Derived: a long low cranium, a small ape-sized braincase, and relatively reduced prognathism

Lascaux

Another famous French cave with art is Lascaux, which isseveral thousand years younger at 17,000 years ago in theMagdalenian period. At this site, there are over 6,000painted figures on the walls and ceiling (Figure 12.17). Thepaint was made of a mix of mineral pigments in liquidbinder made from fat or clay. Scaffolding and lightingmust have been used to make the paintings on the wallsand ceiling deep in the cave.

Ardipithecus ramidus is considered by some to be a root species for what later hominin?

Au. afarensis

Know the traits that characterize Archaic H. sapiens.

Average Brain Size: 1,200 cc (1,500 cc when including Neanderthals) Skull Shape: Intermediate Forehead: Emerging Nasal Region: Wider nasal aperture and midfacial prognathism Chin: Absent Other Facial Features: Intermediate Other Skull Features: Projecting occipital bone, often called occipital bun in Neanderthals; intermediate thickness of cranial bone Dentition: Slightly smaller teeth; front teeth still large; retromolar gap in Neanderthals Postcranial Features: Robust bones of skeleton. •Archaic traits: bigger brain; midface prognathism; low, rounded brain-case (parietal/occipital expansion); larger nasal aperture. •Archaics are highly variable due to regional specializations and limited gene flow during glaciations.

Know the four hypotheses that explain the emergence of H. sapiens in the New World. What evidence supports these theories?

Beringia Hypothesis •Pleistocene glaciations caused sea level drops that revealed a land bridge to the New World. •Evidence of humans at 30,000 years ago on the Asian side of the land bridge (at Yana River). •Land bridge emerges between 25k and 11k years ago. But,glaciers blocked entry to the rest of North America until about 15k years ago - an "ice free corridor" emerged leading southward Pacific Coastal Route Hypothesis: •Humans followed the island chain at the northern extent of the Pacific Rim and then followed the coast south into the Americas. •Water transport would have been necessary for this hypothesis. •Gets us around the glacier difficulties of the Bering Land Bridge Hypothesis. •Would explain a lot of very early South American sites. •Cultural connection: stemmed lithics found in E. Asia, the west coast of N. America, and in Monte Verde, Chile. North Atlantic Ice Edge Hypothesis: •Lack of pre-Clovis culture in Asia, yet earliest finds in North America exhibit Clovis culture. •Solutrean culture from Western Europe is very similar to Clovis - perhaps populations from Europe followed the North Atlantic Ice Bridge across to the New World. •Would explain very early dates on the East Coast (e.g. Cactus Hill ~20kya, Meadowcroft ~19kya). Problem: Solutrean culture ended some 5,000 years prior to Clovis culture - is there an answer to this difficulty? •Polynesian Hypothesis: •Populations from Polynesia populated the New World, starting with S. America. •Experimental archaeology suggests it was possible. •Very early archaeological sites in western S. America could be explained by this route (Monte Verde 14,800-30kya).

Scientific racism

Between the 1800s and mid-1900s, and contrary to what you might expect, an increased use of scientific methods to justify racial schemes developed in scholarship. biological determinism. Morton- cranial measurements. By measuring cranial size and shape, he calculated that "Caucasians," on average, have greater cranial volumes than other groups, such as the Native Americans and "Negros."Paul Broca- skin color and intelligence. Sir Francis Galton- eugenics. Civilized and barbaric populations

Know the difference between bioarchaeology and forensic anthropology.

Bioarchaeology: the study of human remains excavated from archaeological sites. •Age, sex, stature, ancestry, disease, diet and behavior. •Focus on the biological and cultural context of remains. Forensic Anthropology: •Seeks to identify remains as part of a law enforcement investigation. •Recently interred individuals (~50 years). •Locate. •Document. •Analyze. •Antemortem patterns. •Postmortem patterns. •Identification.

H. heidelbergensis

Bodo. At 600kya- one of the earliest H. heidelbergensis samples in Africa. 1250 cm3. East Africa, cut marks on the bone. Mix of ancestral and derived traits. Broken Hill or Kabwe 1: 130,000ya, a good example of H. heidelbergensis in Africa. Cranial capacity of 1280cm3. heavy brow, low vault, and occipital torus recalls H. erectus. Less angular occipital region, thinner cranial bones, cranial bases reflects a suite of derived archaic traits. Atapuerca 5- Sima de los Huesos. "Pile of Bones"- at least 28 H. heidelbergensis individuals (4000 bone fragments). 80% of all Mid. Pleistocene specimens are found here...Later individuals exhibit emergent Neanderthal characteristic (arching brow ridges; prognathism) "Cranium 5"= 1125 cm3

Pan troglodytes

Chimpanzees: Ranging across West and Central Africa. frugivorous diets, knuckle-walking, fission-fusion community (where groups breakup and reunite based on differences in food availability throughout the year), moderate sexual dimorphism; males are about 20% larger than females. Small brain case (~350cc), large robust supraorbital torus, sagittal crest or keel, occipital crest, long canines (diastema/honing complex), large molars (heavy enamel), prognathic maxilla, V-shaped or parallel dental arcade, robustzygomatics, robust muscle attachments. Humans share about 98% of our DNA with Pan

Liujiang hominin

China, mix of modern and archaic traits. high frontal, archaic occipital 67kya

Know the traits (cranial and post-cranial) that distinguish Neandertals from modern H. sapiens. What theories or rules help us make sense of some of those differences?

Cold adapted: Allen's rule- shorter limbs Bergmann's rule- increased mass to surface area Brain- 1500cc, brain case is long and low, occipital "bun" Brow ridges arch, infraorbital foramina, retromolar gap, mid face prognathism Post-cranial: short limbs, barrel-chested, robust bones

What anatomical modifications suggest bipedal locomotion in early hominins?

Cranium Positioned inferiorly (immediately under the cranium) so that the head rests on top of the vertebral column for balance and support (head is perpendicular to the ground. Shorter upper limb (not used for locomotion). S-curve due to pressure exerted on the spine from bipedalism (lumbar lordosis). Robust lumbar (lower-back) vertebrae (for shock absorbance and weight bearing). Lower back is more flexible than that of apes as the hips and trunk swivel when walking (weight transmission). Shorter, broader bowl-shaped pelvis (for support); very robust. Broad sacrum with large sacroiliac joint surfaces. In general, longer, more robust lower limbs and more stable, larger joints Large femoral head and longer neck (absorbs more stress and increases the mechanical advantage). Valgus angle of knee, positions knee over the ankle and keeps the center of gravity balanced over stance leg during stride cycle (shock absorbance). Distal tibia (lower leg) of humans has a large medial malleolus for stability. Rigid, robust foot, without a midtarsal break. Non-opposable and large, robust big toe (for push off while walking) and large heel for shock absorbance.

What is the difference between curated and expedient tools?

Curated is a core that has been chipped around to get a sharp edge while expedient is the outside flake that has been striked off and has a sharper edge

Be able to discuss the process of DNA extraction and analysis in ancient bone.

DNA often preserves in bone and teeth-particularly in cold climates 100-500mg bone powder Segments of endogenous aDNA are short due to degeneration Exogenous DNA from microbe and modern human contamination can be a problem. High throughout sequencing can establish the whole genome from these scraps

Be able to discuss the Shanidar site and its significance.

Discoveries of pollen in a grave at the Shanidar site in the 1960s led scientists to think that perhaps Neanderthals had deliberately placed flowering plants in the grave, an indication of ritual ceremony or spirituality so common in modern humans. But future investigations have raised some doubt about this conclusion. The pollen may have been brought in by burrowing rodents. Claims of grave goods or other ornamentation in burials are similarly debated, although possible. Discoveries of pollen in a grave at the Shanidar site in the 1960s led scientists to think that perhaps Neanderthals had deliberately placed flowering plants in the grave, an indication of ritual ceremony or spirituality so common in modern humans. But future investigations have raised some doubt about this conclusion. The pollen may have been brought in by burrowing rodents. Claims of grave goods or other ornamentation in burials are similarly debated, although possible. Found 40kya cranium 1600cc blow to the head and crushed eye socket. Right side of the body damaged- withered arm and broken legs. All of these injuries healed suggesting they cared for this person even though they couldn't contribute.

Know the dates that modern H. sapiens show up in different regions around the world.

Dispersed into the Near East 194,000ya Southeast Asia 100,000ya China 120,000ya Australia 56,000ya Europe 40,000ya

Au. anamensis

Earliest known Australopithecine. 4.2-3.8 mya, Turkana region Kenya, Middle Awash Ethiopia, 370cc, large canines, projecting cheekbones, primitive ear-holes, bipedal:tibia, femur, Primitive: upper limbs (arboreal)

Herto

East Africa, 160kya. Long cranial vault, 1450cc. Arching supra-orbital torus, occipital bun. Very little prognathism (modern appearance) Near modern- H. sapiens idaltu. Also in Ethiopia, a team led by Tim White (2003) excavated numerous fossils at Herto. There were fossilized crania of two adults and a child, along with fragments of more individuals. The dates ranged between 160,000 and 154,000 years ago. Features reminiscent of modern humans included a tall braincase and thinner zygomatic (cheek) bones than those of archaic humans. Statistical analysis by other research teams concluded that at least some cranial measurements fit just within the modern human range (McCarthy and Lucas 2014), favoring categorization with our own species.

Omo Kibish

East Africa, 195kya. 1250cc. Mix of cranial and post cranial elements representing several individuals. Again, a high degree of inter-individual variation. All remains show a mix of archaic (ancestral) and modern (derived) traits. Research separated by nearly four decades uncovered fossils and artifacts from the Kibish Formation in the Lower Omo Valley in Ethiopia. These Omo Kibish hominins were represented by braincases and fragmented postcranial bones of three individuals found kilometers apart, dating back to 195,000 years ago. One interesting finding was the variation in braincase size between the two more-complete specimens: While the individual now named Omo I had a more globular dome, Omo II had an archaic-style long and low cranium. In more recent fieldwork, an informative section of the Omo I pelvis was found in a re-excavation in 2001.

Homo erectus

Emerged in East Africa at 1.7mya- likely a new adaptive form based on early Homo from the same region (East Turkana) Likely the first hominin to leave Africa for Europe and Asia. Samples found in Java at 1.6mya and Southeastern Europe (Dmanisi) at 1.8mya. Average 900cc; range between 650cc and 1,100cc. Smaller teeth than Homo Habilis. Long, low skull with robust features including thick cranial vault bones and large brow ridge, sagittal keel, and occipital torus. Larger body size compared to Homo habilis; body proportions (longer legs and shorter arms) similar to Homo sapiens. Acheulean tools (in Africa); evidence of increased hunting and meat-eating; use of fire; migration out of Africa

Why is the timeline of H. erectus finds problematic for our understanding of emergence and dispersal of hominins?

First, there isn't an abrupt break between Australopithecus and Homo habilis or even between Homo habilis and Homo erectus. Characteristics we define as Homodon't appear as a unified package; they appear in the fossil record at different times. This is known as mosaic evolution. The fossil record for Homo erectus is much more abundant than that of Homo habilis, but it is also more complex and varied—both with regard to the fossils as well as the geographic context in which they are found.

What do we know about Denisovans? Why is their population of interest to paleoanthropologists?

Genetic analysis suggests that both Denisovans and Neandertals were organized into smaller populations. Accumulation of deleterious gene variants. Comparing synonymous with non-synonymous mutations. Low levels of heterozygosity. Indicates small population. May indicate higher levels of inbreeding.

What evolutionary trajectory does the site of Sima de los Huesos illustrate through its many finds?

"Pile of Bones" - at least 28 H. heidelbergensis individuals (4000 bone fragments) 80% of all Mid. Pleistocene specimens are found here. Later individuals exhibit emergent Neanderthal characteristics. "Cranium 5" = 1125 cm 3. Denisovans are also more closely related to another set of fossils found in the cave Sima de los Huesos dated to 480 kya. Thus, the split between Neanderthals and Denisovans must have occurred before 480 kya.

Au. africanus

"The Cradle of Humankind" Limestone caves with well-preserved fossils. Taung Child, 3.3-2.1 mya, 400-500cc, small canines, no diastema, post cranial: bipedalism. A rounder skull and sloping face. possible early tool abilities.

East African Rift System

(EARS; Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, and Malawi. Specimen finds in limestone caves in South Africa and in Chad. Dates of these early relatives range from around 7 million years ago to around 1mya

orthognathic

(flat) face of our genus is well suited to accommodate our relatively small generalized teeth and processed diets. The face below the eyes is relatively flat and does not jut out anteriorly.

Know the morphological differences between the robust and gracile australopithecines.

Gracile: less exaggerated, smaller, and less robust features. Includes Au. afarensis, garhi, platyops, sediba, and prometheus. Robust: the specialized nature of the teeth and masticatory system, such as flaring zygomatic arches (cheekbone) to accommodate the large temporalis (chewing) muscle, indicated a shift in diet in these taxa. Paranthropus is usually referred to by scholars as the "robust" australopithecine, because of its defining distinct morphological features. These features include a large, broad, dish-shaped face, zygomatic arches that are forward facing, including a large mandible with extremely large posterior dentition. large posterior dentition (they are referred to as megadonts), hyper-thick enamel, thick robust jaws, and flared zygomatic arches. In general, the robust australopithecines have large temporalis (chewing) muscles, as indicated by flaring zygomatic arches, sagittal crests, and robust mandibles (jawbones). Their hind dentition is large (megadont), with low cusps and thick enamel. Within the gracile australopithecines, researchers have debated the relatedness of the species, or even whether these species should be lumped together to represent more variable or polytypic species. Often researchers will attempt to draw chronospecific trajectories, with one taxon evolving into another over time.

What sites show evidence of H. sapiens in Australia? What morphological and cultural features characterize these populations?

Madjedbebe Rock Shelter: •10,000 artifacts •Pigments •56kya The ochre were shaped into what the researchers called "crayons" to be held and used to mark other things. There were also plant and animal remains matching the tools used to process them. One notable find in this category is the partial upper jaw of a thylacine, or Tasmanian wolf, which was colored red Lake Mungo: •40kya Two individuals dating to around 40,000 years ago show signs of artistic and symbolic behavior, including intentional burial. The bones of Lake Mungo 1 (LM1), an adult female, were crushed repeatedly, colored with red ochre, and even cremated (Bowler et al. 1970). Lake Mungo 3 (LM3), a tall older male with a gracile cranium but robust postcranial bones, had his fingers interlocked over his pelvic region Kow Swamp: •20kya •Cranial modification. Kow Swamp, also in southern Australia, contained human crania that looked distinctly different from the ones at Lake Mungo (Durband 2014; Thorne and Macumber 1972). The Kow Swamp crania had extremely robust brow ridges and thick bone walls, but these were paired with globular features on the braincase (Figure 12.12). The frontal bones had extremely linear slopes from the brow to the top of the cranium, resembling intentional cranial modification seen in other parts of the world. If the crania were shaped on purpose, they are another sign of symbolic behavior, as the practice has linked to ideas of group cultural identity. By the time of the Kow Swamp people, between 9,000 and 20,000 years ago, cranial modification may have been a meaningful part of culture in southern Australia.

What does the trend toward canine reduction in hominins suggest?

Many species show reduction and/or loss of the canine and anterior premolars, with the resulting formation of a rodent-like diastema; this probably implies a herbivorous diet. This implies strongly that, over evolutionary time, the need for display and dominance among males has reduced, as has our sexual dimorphism. This implies a less sexually dimorphic social structure in the earlier hominins relative to modern-day chimpanzees and gorillas.

What are the morphological and cultural traits that distinguish moderns from archaics?

Material culture: •Artistic, symbolic, and decorative objects can indicate abstract thought. •Sophisticated tools, weapons, and craftwork can indicate learned/taught behaviors Brain Anatomy: •Expanded frontal and parietal lobes •Generalist-specialist niche

Be able to describe the origins of agriculture in the Old and New Worlds. What are the effects of agriculture on human populations?

Mesopotamia: 12kya South and East Asia: 10kya New Guinea: 10kya Mesoamerica: 10kya Andes: 8kya Sub-Saharan Africa: 5kya North America: 4kya The adaptations to foraging found in modern Homo sapiens may explain why our species became so successful both within Africa and in the rapid expansion around the world. Overcoming the limitations, each generation at the edge of our species's range would have found it beneficial to expand a little further, keeping contact with other bands but moving into unexplored territory where resources were richer. The cumulative effect would have been the spread of modern Homo sapiens across continents and hemispheres.

Fuyan Cave

Modern Hs teeth at 147kya

Dmanisi hominins

More "primitive", thinner supraorbital torus, small brain 700cc, pronounced prognathism, simple stone tools (Oldwan tradition), shorter 4'9" to 5'5", more gracile, similar limb proportions to African H. erectus

Anthropocene

New epoch beginning around 1950 with the nuclear age. The major event that marks the boundary is the warming temperature and mass extinction of nonhuman species caused by human activity. The proposed name for our current geologic epoch based on human-driven climate change.

Jebel Irhoud

North Africa, 315kya, 1350cc. High degree of variation at the site. Has a primitive supraorbital torus, an elevated frontal, a slight chin, and large teeth- a mix of derived and ancestral traits. High degree of inter-individual variation here and for most early AMH sites. The excavation of an exposed cave at Jebel Irhoud, Morocco, where hominin fossils were found in the 1960s and in 2007. Dating showed that they represent the earliest-known modern Homo sapiens. Instead of evolving in just East Africa, the Jebel Irhoud find revealed that early modern Homo sapiens had a wide range across Middle Pleistocene Africa.

How do we know Orrorin tugenensis was bipedal?

One of the most important elements discovered was a proximal femur, BAR 1002'00. The femur is the thigh bone and the proximal part is that which articulates with the pelvis—it is very important when studying posture and locomotion. This femur indicates that Ororrin was bipedal, and recent studies suggest that it walked in a similar way to later Pliocene hominins.

Orrorin tugenensis

Orrin meaning "original man". Pre-Australopith, 6-5.7 mya, Tugen Hills Kenya, small cheek teeth, thick enamel, apelike canines, bipedal adaptation (post-cranium), femur: valgus angle, angle of femoral neck, distal condyles. Potential toolmaking capability based on hand morphology, but nothing found directly. This is the earliest species which clearly indicates adaptation for bipedal locomotion.

What is the significance of the Taung Child find?

Others, such as Ernst Haekel and Eugene Dubois, insisted that we evolved in Eurasia, closer in affinity to orangutans, and where, until the discovery of the Taung Child in South Africa in 1924, all humanlike fossils (of Neanderthals and Homo erectus) had been found. The well-known fossil of a juvenile Australopithecine, the "Taung Child," was the first early hominin evidence ever discovered and was the first to demonstrate our common human heritage in Africa. It was not until adult specimens of the species began to be discovered at Sterkfontein Caves that scientific and public opinion began to be swayed. The most complete of these remains is best known as "Mrs. Ples" and was discovered in 1947. The Taung Child is also an excellent example of how understanding the morphology and physiology of teeth can reveal information about our evolution. For one, the canine teeth were relatively small compared to other apes. And there was little to no diastema (or gap) between the canines and incisors. Furthermore, the overall shape of the dental arcade was more rounded, or parabolic. Even though these features were related to deciduous teeth, they were overwhelmingly more humanlike than those seen in other apes. The discovery of the Taung Child in 1924 shifted the focus of palaeoanthropological research from Europe to Africa (although acceptance was slow).

Pastoralism

Pastoralism is basically a branch of agriculture which is concerned with the raising of livestock. Pastoralism makes a significant contribution to the economy of the country by providing employment and income opportunities and also in supplying nutrition to the rural poor.

Ardipithecus ramidus

Pre-Australopith, 4.4 mya, Middle Awash region and Gone Ethiopia, 300-350cc, bipedal, ancestral traits: opposable hallux, derived traits: pelvis, root species for A. afarensis. Known of the earliest hominins. A partial female skeleton nicknamed "Ardi". Little differences between the canines of the males and females (small sexual dimorphism) Midfacial projection, slightly prognathic. Cheekbones less flared and robust than in later hominins.

Sahelanthropus tchadensis

Pre-Australopith, 6-7 mya, Chad, 360cc, larger canines than Homo, smaller Tham other NHP, vertical face, low prognathism, bipedal: foramen magnum and tibia. The oldest hominin fossil found in Northern Chad and dating to circa 7mya. Smaller teeth than in extant Great Apes, larger and pointier than in humans. Canines worn at the tips. A short cranial base and a foramen magnum (hole in which the spinal cord enters the cranium) that is more humanlike in positioning, has been argued to indicate upright walking.

Know the average cranial capacities for each of the major hominin groups

Sahelanthropus tchadensis: 360cc Orrorin tugenensis: NA Ardipithecus ramidus: 300cc to 350cc Ardipithecus kadabba: NA Australopithecus anamensis: 370cc Australopithecus afarensis: 380cc to 430cc Australopithecus bahrelghazali: NA Australopithecus deyiremada: NA Australopithecus garhi: 450cc Au. africanus: 400cc to 500cc Au. sediba: 420cc to 450cc Au. prometheus: 408cc Paranthropus aethiopicus: 410cc Paranthropus boisei: 500cc to 550cc Paranthropus robustus: 410 to 530 cc Kenyanthopus platyops: Difficult to determine, but appears within the range of 380cc to 430cc Homo habilis: 650 average; 510cc to 775cc Homo erectus: 900cc average; 650cc to 1100cc Archaic Homo sapiens (Neanderthals): 1,200cc, 1,500cc Neanderthals Modern Homo sapiens: 1,400cc Denisovans: NA Homo naledi: 500cc Homo floresiensis: 400cc

Know the date ranges for each of the major hominin groups

Sahelanthropus tchadensis: 7mya to 6mya Orrorin tugenensis: 6mya to 5.7mya Ardipithecus ramidus: 4.4 mya Ardipithecus kadabba: 5.2 mya to 5.8 mya Australopithecus anamensis: 4.2 mya to 3.8 mya Australopithecus afarensis: 2.9 mya to 3.9 mya Australopithecus bahrelghazali: 3.6 mya Australopithecus deyiremada: 3.5 mya to 3.3 mya Australopithecus garhi: 2.5 mya Australopithecus africanus: 3.3 mya to 2.1 mya Australopithecus sediba: 1.97mya Australopithecus prometheus: 3.7 mya (debated) Paranthropus aethiopicus: 2.7 mya to 2.3 mya Paranthropus boisei: 2.4 mya to 1.4 mya Paranthropus robustus: 2.3 mya to 1 mya Kenyanthopus platyops: 3.5 mya to 3.2 mya Homo habilis: 2.5 million years ago to 1.7 million years ago Homo erectus: 1.8 million years ago to about 200,000 years ago archaic Homo sapiens: 600,000-200,000 years ago (although some regional variation) Neanderthals: 150,000-35,000 years ago Denisovans: 100,000-30,000 years ago Homo naledi: 335,000-235,000 years ago Homo floresiensis: 100,000-60,000 years ago, perhaps as recently as 17,000 years ago

What were the mix of traits (biological and cultural) that define H. naledi? Why was this find so exciting for paleoanthropologists?

South Africa. 18 individuals from ~300kya. Mix of modern and primitive traits. ◦Sagittal keel. ◦Large supraorbital torus. ◦Curved phalanges. ◦Longer arms. ◦Well-developed frontal (modern). ◦Yet, 500cc cranial capacity. Getting the remains into the cave system is suggestive of a symbolic thinking, use of fire, and other advanced cultural traits.

Know the characteristics that define the major stone tool traditions. Also, know the hominin groups they are associated with.

Stone- tool (or lithic) technology is defined by the fracturing of rocks and the manufacture of tools through a process called knapping. The Stone Age lasted for more than 3 million years and is broken up into chronological periods called the Early (ESA), Middle (MSA), and Later Stone Ages (LSA). The ESA spanned the largest technological time period of human innovation from over 3 million years ago to around 300,000 years ago and is associated almost entirely with hominin species prior to modern Homo sapiens. Within stone tool assemblages, both flakes or cores (the rocks from which flakes are removed) are used as tools. Large Cutting Tools (LCTs) are tools that are shaped to have functional edges. There is only one known site thus far and, due to the age of the site, it is associated with species prior to Homo, such as Kenyanthropus platyops. Flakes were produced through indirect percussion, whereby the knappers held a rock and hit it against another rock resting on the ground. The pieces are very chunky and do not display the same fracture patterns as seen in later techno-complexes. The Oldowan techno-complex is far more established in the scientific literature. It is called the Oldowan because it was originally discovered in Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, but the oldest assemblage is from Gona in Ethiopia, dated to 2.6 mya. Because Oldowan knapping requires skill, earlier researchers have attributed these tools to members of our genus, Homo

Levallois tools

Technique used to construct Mousterian tools. Multi-step process that requires preparing the core, or raw material, in a specific way that yields flakes that are roughly uniform in dimension. Technique requires removing all edges of the cortex, or outside surface of the raw material, in a circle before removing the lid. Associated with Neanderthals. This technique involves the preparation of a core and sticking edges off in a regular fashion around the core. Then a series of similarly sized pieces can be removed, which can then be turned into different tools.

Altamira

The Cave of Altamira (/ˌæltəˈmɪərə/; Spanish: Cueva de Altamira[ˈkweβa ðe altaˈmiɾa]) is a cave complex, located near the historic town of Santillana del Mar in Cantabria, Spain. It is renowned for prehistoric parietal cave art featuring charcoal drawings and polychrome paintings of contemporary local fauna and human hands. The earliest paintings were applied during the Upper Paleolithic, around 36,000 years ago.[1] The site was discovered in 1868 by Modesto Cubillas and subsequently studied by Marcelino Sanz de Sautuola.[2]

Phenice Method

The Phenice Method (Phenice 1969) is traditionally the most common reference used to assess morphological characteristics associated with sex. The Phenice Method specifically looks at the presence or absence of (1) a ventral arc, (2) the presence or absence of a sub-pubic concavity, and (3) the width of the medial aspect of the ischiopubic ramus. When present, the ventral arc, a ridge of bone located on the ventral surface of the pubic bone, is indicative of female remains. Likewise the presence of a sub-pubic concavity and a narrow medial aspect of the ischiopubic ramus is associated with a female sex estimation. Assessments of these features, as well as those of the skull (when both the pelvis and skull are present), are combined for an overall estimation of sex.

What are some morphological differences between the crania of Pan troglodytes and Homo sapiens?

The average human brain is about three times the size of the average chimpanzee brain. This can be seen by looking at the back of the skull; human skulls have a rounded braincase that is much larger than that of a chimpanzee, to house their much larger brains. Chimpanzee skulls also have a noticeable ridge across the braincase where the neck muscles attach. Chimpanzees and other apes display what is known as "facial prognathism," where the face protrudes beyond the top of the skull. Human faces are relatively flat in comparison. a chimpanzee's skull has no forehead and has prominent brow ridges above the eye sockets, whereas a human skull has an obvious forehead and chin. The placement of the foramen magum underneath the skull allows the eyes to face forwards when the body is upright. In humans, the foramen magnum is positioned centrally, facing directly downwards, which allows the human body to be oriented vertically for bipedalism. In chimpanzees and other apes, the foramen magnum is positioned towards the back of the skull with the spinal cord exiting at a slight angle.

Why is the Bodo hominin significant?

The bodo cranium, a Homo erectus cranium from Middle Awash Valley, Ethiopia, shows cut marks made by stone tools, indicating an early example of possible defleshing activity in our human ancestors (White 1986). At 600kya, one of the earliest H. heidelbergensis samples in Africa. 1250cm3. Mix of ancestral and derived traits.

Pleistocene

The cooling and drying trend accelerates at the end of the Pilocene. 16O analysis of ice cores suggests repeated cycles of glacial and interglacial periods. Land bridges at the glacial maximums. Expanding grasslands in Africa. Larger brains in Homo allowed for a more efficient mode of subsistence on the savannah. Middle Pleistocene: a period of long climatic fluctuations between 780-125mya. Isotope analysis from sediment and ice cores show 15 major and 50 minor glacial advances. Ice locked up much of the available water-resulting in the expansion of deserts in Africa and ice-locked northern latitudes. Sea-levels dropped 150m. The Pleistocene epoch—between 1.8 million years ago (mya) and 11,000 years ago (kya); illustrated in Figure 7.7—was a time of great climatic upheaval. The Middle Pleistocene, roughly between 780 kya and 125 kya, is the time period in which archaic Homo sapiens appear in the fossil record—a time that witnessed some of the most drastic climatic changes that have been seen in human existence. During this time period, there were 15 major and 50 minor glacial events in Europe alone!

Holocene

The current epoch. Began around 10kya during the warming period after the last major ice age. Growing human population and natural global climate change. Defined by the cyclicity of increasing and decreasing ice sheets at the poles. The epoch of the Cenozoic Era starting around 12kya and lasting arguably through the present.

Know the mix of ancestral and derived traits in Au. sediba. Why is this mosaic of characteristics significant?

The discoverers have argued that Au. sediba shows mosaic features between Au.africanus and Homo, which potentially indicates a transitional species, although this is heavily debated. A small brain size(Australopithecus-like; 420 cc to 450 cc), but gracile mandible and smallteeth (Homo-like). Similarly, the postcranial skeletons are also said tohave mosaic features: scientists have interpreted this mixture of traits (such as a robust ankle, but evidence for an arch in the foot) as a transitional phase between a body previously adapted to arborealism (tree climbing, particularly in evidence from the bones of the wrist) to one that adapted to bipedal ground walking. Au. sediba shows a modern hand morphology (shorter fingers and a longer thumb), indicating that adaptations to tool manufacture and use may be present in this species.

Be able to discuss the origins of the "race" idea. How do we know this is a cultural construct? What has the concept been used to do?

The earliest classification systems used to understand human diversity are evidenced by ancient manuscripts, scrolls, and stone tablets recovered through archaeological, historical, and literary research. The Ancient Egyptians had the Book of Gates, dated to the New Kingdom between 1550 B.C.E. and 1077 B.C.E. The Roman philosopher Pliny the Elder (23‒79 C.E.) also wrote about different groupings of people in his encyclopedia Naturalis Historia (Figure 13.3). In his opinion, all people fit under one of three categories: civilized peoples, barbarians, and monstrous individuals. The most well-known of early documents is perhaps the Bible, where it iswritten that all humankind descends from one of three sons of Noah: Shem(the ancestor to all olive-skinned Asians), Japheth (the ancestor to pale-skinned Europeans), and Ham (the ancestor to darker-skinned Africans).Similar to the Ancient Egyptians, these distinctions were based on behavioral traits and skin color. Finally, there is also the "Great Chain of Being," conceived by ancient Greek philosophers like Plato. Race is not useful in describing human diversity. Traits used to mark "races" are continuous in their variation - so, racial categories are defined by culture, power, economics - not science. ◦Humans have much less genetic diversity than other primates and mammals - i.e. we are relatively homogeneous in our genetic makeup. Notional social hierarchies that rank people by race have no basis in fact.

Which is the first australopithecine species on record?

The earliest known Australopithecine is dated to 4.2 mya to 3.8 mya .Australopithecus anamensis

Know the three models of human distribution.

The first model, the Out-of-Africa Hypothesis, states that modern humans originated in Africa, replacing archaic populations found elsewhere in the Old World. Theorists including Christopher Stringer (1996) argue that each archaic population comprised a separate species, making interbreeding between populations impossible. Admixture resulting from gene flow would not have been possible according to this model. The second, called the Multiregional Continuity Hypothesis, states that modern Homo sapiens are directly derived from Homo erectus and evolved in place after Homo erectus left Africa and populated areas in Asia and Europe. Milford Wolpoff argues that interbreeding between regions and across regional boundaries contributed to gene flow that maintained Homo sapiens as a single species throughout the Old World, despite regional variation. The third model, dubbed the Assimilation Hypothesis, draws from the strengths of both previous models, attempting to recognize some of the evidence that was not previously addressed and blending the fossil and DNA evidence together into one cohesive view. In this model, modern humans originated in Africa, spreading outward into Asia and Europe and interbreeding with more archaic forms they encountered along the way. For example, while the Out-of-Africa model argues that interbreeding would have been impossible, many fossils have been found with what appear to be a mixture of archaic and more modern traits, suggesting interbreeding between populations, such as Neanderthals and modern humans. DNA evidence increasingly also suggests that, while limited, interbreeding between modern Homo sapiens and Neanderthals or modern Homo sapiens and Denisovans occured in at least three instances. While this is more interbreeding than allowed under the Out-of-Africa Hypothesis, it is considerably less than modeled in the Multiregional Continuity Hypothesis. The Assimilation Hypothesis, argued by Eric Trinkaus (2006, 2007) and others, represents an attempt to incorporate all lines of evidence, although new research will tell whether it can capture the full complexity revealed in the next generation of hominin studies, such as that revealed by ancient DNA.

When did modern H. sapiens make it to Europe? What cultural traits characterize European populations?

The first modern human expansion into Europe occurred after other members of our species settled East Asia and Australia. Pestera cu Oase (Romania): •40kya •Mix of both modern and Neandertal traits. Cro-Magnon Rock Shelter •28kya •Buried with 300 pierced seashells •Rectangular orbits •Gracile •Genetic diseases, extreme wear patterns.

Why do contemporary populations have lower levels of Neandertal DNA than ancient H. sapiens?

The percentage decreases each time humans breed and have children

Know the morphological changes associated with H. erectus.

These hominins were equipped with bigger brains and large bodies with limb proportions similar to our own. Perhaps most importantly, their way of life is now one that is recognizably human, with more advanced tools, hunting, use of fire, and colonizing new environments outside of Africa. Homo erectus showed increased brain size, smaller teeth, and a larger body. Although the head of Homo erectus was less ape-like in appearance than the australopithecines, neither did it resemble modern humans. the erectus skull was long and low like a football, with a receding forehead, and a horizontal ridge called an occipital torus that gave the back of the skull a squared-off appearance. The cranial bones are thicker than those of modern humans, and some Homo erectus skulls have a slight thickening along the sagittal suture called a sagittal keel. Large, shelf-like brow ridges hang over the eyes. The face shows less prognathism, and the back teeth are smaller than those of Homo habilis. Instead of a pointed chin, like ours, the mandible of Homo erectus recedes back. Homo erectus shows evidence of being fully committed to life on the ground. This meant long, powerfully muscled legs that enabled these hominins to cover more ground efficiently. Many experts think that hominins around this time had lost much of their body hair, were particularly efficient at sweating, and had darker-pigmented skin—all traits that would support the active lifestyle of such a large-bodied hominin. Homo erectus males were only slightly larger in body size than females. Decreased sexual dimorphism suggests that the lifestyle of Homo erectus may have been different from that of earlier hominins.

What evidence leads some paleoanthropologists to argue that H. sapiens in East Asia followed a different evolutionary path than H. sapiens in Africa and H. sapiens in Europe. What model does this support?

These pioneers could have used two connections to the Middle East, or West Asia. From North Africa, they could have crossed the Sinai Peninsula and moved north to the Levant, or eastern Mediterranean. Finds in that region show an early modern human presence. Other finds support the Southern Dispersal model, with a crossing from East Africa to the southern Arabian Peninsula through the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb

The australopithecines as a group are reliably dated by using what dating technique?

These tufts may be dated using absolute dating techniques, such as Potassium-Argon dating. This means that it is possible to know a relatively refined date for any fossil if the context of that find is known. Similarly, comparisons between the faunal assemblages of these stratigraphic layers have allowed researchers to chronologically identify environmental changes. Loy: Volcanic tuff or other volcanic strata is used for K-Ar dating.

Why did H. floresiensis have such a short stature?

This phenomenon, called insular dwarfing, is due to limited food resources on an island, which can create a selective pressure for large-bodied species to be selected for smaller size, as an island would not have been able to support their larger-bodied cousins for a long period of time.

What is the significance of Nariokotome Boy (WT-15000)?

This small skull fragment led to the discovery of what is arguably the world's most complete early hominin fossil—a youth identified as a member of the species Homo erectus. Now known as Nariokotome Boy, after the nearby lake village, the skeleton has provided a wealth of information about the early evolution of our own genus, Homo. This is the most complete hominin fossil from this time period ever found. Much of the information about the body form of Homo erectus comes from the Nariokotome fossil of the Homo erectus youth. the best explanation for this discrepancy between the dental and skeletal age is that Homo erectus had its own distinct growth pattern—reaching maturity more slowly than chimpanzees but faster than Homo sapiens. This suggests that the human life history pattern of slow maturation and lengthy dependency was a more recent development.

Horticulture

With respect to the history of these regions, during the early phases of settlement horticulture was the primary method of crop cultivation. Typically performed on a small scale, horticulture is based on manual labor and relatively simple hand tools rather than the use of draft animals or irrigation technologies. Common in horticulture is swidden, or the cutting and burning of plants in woodland and grassland regions. The art or practice of garden cultivation and management.

Isolation by distance model

Worldwide genetic variation conforms to the isolation by distance model. High degree of genetic diversity in Africa. Less genetic diversity in Africa. Least genetic variation: Northern Europe, southern tip of South America. Founder effect, bottlenecked populations, ecological niches.

H. floresiensis

aka The Hobbits. Island of Flores 100kya - 17kya. Similar morphology to H. erectus. Sagittal keel, supraorbital torus, nuchal torus, no mental eminence (chin). Small stature 3'. Cranial capacity 400cc. Stone tools

What is the evidence that Neandertals sometimes cannibalized each other?

bite and teeth marks on skeleton bones in caves

What is scientific racism? Why did biological anthropologists adopt populations and clines as a way to understand human diversity?

classification systems after 1800 became more polygenetic (viewing all people as having separate origins) rather than monogenetic (viewing all people as having a single origin). While by no means the first or only scholars globally to use observation and experimentation to understand the world around them, early scientists living at the end of the medieval period in Europe increasingly employed more experimentation, quantification, and rational thought in their work. This is the main difference between the work of the ancient Egyptians, Romans, and Greeks, and that of workers like Isaac Newton and Carl Linnaeus in the 1600s and 1700s. binomial nomenclature (i.e., how all organisms can be named by their genus and species, such as Homo sapiens or Pan troglodytes) binomial nomenclature (i.e., how all organisms can be named by their genus and species, such as Homo sapiens or Pan troglodytes) Despite these useful contributions to the biological sciences, Linnaeus still subdivided the human species into four varieties, with overtly racist categories based on skin color and "inherent" behaviors. ◦Biological determinism ◦Morton ◦Cranial measurements ◦Paul Broca ◦Skin color and intelligence ◦Sir Francis Galton ◦Eugenics ◦Civilized and barbaric populations.

Skhul Cave

cranial and post cranial elements 122kya

Paranthropus boisei

discovered in 1959 by Mary Leakey. the "robust" au. adaptations to diet of hard or tough foods, large posterior dentition, thick enamel, robust jaws, flared arches, 2.4-1.4 mya. Large broad, dish-shaped face, zygomatic arches that are forward facing, including a large mandible with extremely large posterior dentition. Could have made and used stone tools. 500cc to 550cc. Indications of very large chewing muscles, flaring zygomatic arches and a large sagittal crest. Evidence of high variability and sexual dimorphism, with estimates of males at 1.37 meters tall and females at 1.24 meters. Diet high in C4 foods such as grasses and sedges.

prognathic

faces which jut out anteriorly under the eyes in the earlier hominins, are less pronounced than in those of living Great Apes, yet are more pronounced than in early Homo.

Solutrean tools

from 21 kya to 17 kya. marked by further innovation in delicate tool work.

Archaic H. sapiens

go by many names. Replaces H. erectus in many areas (exceptions in Asia where premoderns coexist with H. erectus. H.erectus traits: thick cranial bones, large supra-orbital torus, large face, low forehead, angled occipital region, lower face prognathism. Archaic traits: bigger brain, mid face prognathism, low rounded brain case (parietal/occipital expansion) larger nasal aperture. Are highly variable due to regional specializations and limited gene flow during glaciations. Many early sites show a mix of acheulean and later prepared core techniques. Schöningen spears- 400kya

Bergmann's rule

increased mass to surface area. Predicts that as average environmental temperature decreases, populations are expected to exhibit an increase in weight and a decrease in surface area. Also, within the same species of homeothermic animals, the relative length of projecting body parts increases in relation to the average environmental temperature. For a broadly distributed monophyletic group, species and populations of smaller size tend to be found in environments with warmer climates and those of larger size tend to be found in ones that are colder.

Clovis tools

is the first example of a widespread culture across much of North America between 13.4 kya to 12.7 kya. Clovis points were fluted with two small projections, one on each end of the base, facing away from the head. Clovis sites also contained the remains of mammoths.

megadont hominins

large posterior dentition. An organism with extremely large dentition compared with body size

Collectors

larger groups that tend to stay in one place, hunting and gathering further afield. Sites characterized with storage areas, middens, cemeteries, and burial mounds

Misliya Cave

mandible and teeth 194kya

Manuports

manuport is a natural object which has been moved from its original context by human agency but otherwise remains unmodified. The word derives from the Latin words manus, meaning "hand" and portare, meaning "to carry". Examples include stones or shells moved from coastal or riverine areas or pebbles found in alien geological contexts. Manuports have also been used to support the theory of the Bering Land Bridge.

Allen's rule

notes that longer, thinner limbs are advantageous for the radiation of excess heat in hot environments and shorter, stockier limbs assist with the preservation of body heat in cold climates. A measure of crural index of individuals from various human population provides support for Allen's rule since this value is lower in individuals from colder climates than it is for those found in hot climates. Due to thermal adaptation, homeothermic animals have body volume-to-surface ratios that vary inversely with the average temperature of their environment. In cold climates, the anticipated ratio is high and it is low in warm climates.

What traits characterize the Dmanisi hominins? How are they different from other erectus populations? What conclusions might we draw from these traits?

show smaller body sizes than the Nariokotome boy's. Even the Nariokotome skeleton itself has been reassessed to be quite a bit shorter (predicted to be closer to 5 feet 4 inches when fully grown, rather than over 6 feet), although there is still disagreement about which measurement is more accurate. One explanation for the range of body sizes could be adaptation to a range of different local environments, just as humans today show reduced body size in poor nutritional environments (Anton and Snodgrass 2012). There are several surprising things about the Dmanisi fossils. Compared to African Homo erectus, they have smaller brains and bodies. However, despite the small brain size, they show clear signs of Homo erectus traits such as heavy brow ridges and reduced facial prognathism. Paleoanthropologists have pointed to some aspects of their anatomy (such as the shoulders) that appear rather primitive, although their body proportions seem fully committed to terrestrial bipedalism. One explanation for these differences could be that the Dmanisi hominins represent a very early form of Homo erectus that left Africa before increases in brain and body size evolved in the African population.

Foragers

small groups that move camp often- as local resources become scarce. In areas with low seasonal fluctuations, population density for foragers is about one person per four square miles. foraging, or the search for resources in the environment.

Microliths

small stone tools. An adhesive made from tree bark was found on some of the microliths. The researchers hypothesize that hunting technology moved from large crafted spearheads to smaller bone arrow points that were adhered to shafts and even tipped with poison for more effectiveness.

Atlatl

the first known boomerang (spear thrower). A handheld spear thrower that increased the force of thrown projectiles.

Lomekwian tools

the oldest known stone tools. 3.3 mya, pre-homo, chunky, flake technology. Is associated with species prior to Homo, such as Kenyanthropus platypus. Flakes were produced through indirect percussion, whereby snappers held a rock and hit it against another rock resting on the ground.

Gloger's rule

the trend related to lighter skin pigmentation further from the equator. This rule states that within the same species of mammals the more heavily pigmented individuals tend to originate near the equator while lighter-pigmented members of the species will be found in regions further from the equator. Rule applies latitudinally; however, it does not appear to hold for certain human populations near the poles.The high reflectivity of light off of snow and ice, which is common in polar regions, necessitates the darker skin tone of these individuals to prevent folic acid degradation just as it does for individuals within equatorial regions. The consumption of vitamin D-rich foods, such as raw fish, permits the Inuit to reside at high latitudes with darker skin tone while preventing rickets.

What are the traits used to distinguish early Homo (H. habilis) from previous hominin groups?

there is substantial disagreement among paleoanthropologists about the fossils classified as Homo habilis, including whether they come from a single or multiple species, or even whether they should be part of the genus Homo at all. Homo habilis has a somewhat larger brain size-an average of 650 cubic centimeters (cc) compared to less than 500 cc for Australopithecus. Additionally, the skull is more rounded and the face less prognathic. However, the postcranial remains show a body size and proportions similar to Australopithecus. As described in the publication, the new fossils had smallermolar teeth that were less "bulgy" than australopithecine teeth.Although the primary specimen was not yet fully grown, an estimateof its anticipated adult brain size would make it somewhat larger-brained than australopithecines such as A. africanus. The hand bones were similar to humans' in that they were capable of a precision grip.

How can one tell if you are looking at human bone vs. non-human bone vs. material that is not bone?

•Difficult to discern when fragmentary. •Variety: 206 separate bones. •Layered structure: •Mineral and organic structures. •Cortical bone. •Trabecular bone. •Microscopic structure: osteons. •Knowledge of bone morphology, development, and composition. •General morphology. •Cortical bone density. •Arrangement of the osteons. •Epiphyseal plates. •Chemical ratios.

What early cultural artifacts are associated with H. sapiens populations in Africa?

•East Africa •Herto, ~160kya There were fossilized crania of two adults and a child, along with multiple fossils from the site. The facial fragments of more individuals •Long cranial vault,1450cc •Arching supra-orbital torus, occipital bun. •Very little prognathism (modern appearance) •Near modern - H. sapiens idaltu (Afar for "elder")

How can one estimate stature, age, sex, and ancestry from the bones?

•Morphological differences. •Sexual dimorphism. •Robusticity. •Mastoid process. •Occipital muscle attachments. •Shoulder girdle. •Phenice Method. •Ventral arc. •Subpubic concavity. •Ishiopubic ramis.

What is the significance of the Jebel Irhoud find?

•North Africa •Jebel-Irhoud (315kya) •~1,350 cc •High degree of variation at the site. •Irhoud 1 has a primitive supraorbital torus, an elevated frontal, a slight chin, and large teeth - a mix of derived and ancestral traits. •High degree of inter-individual variation here and for most early AMH sites. Our key evolutionary changes from the archaic Homo sapiens of the previous chapter to our species today happened 100,000 years earlier than what we had thought. In addition, the new information suggests that our home region covered more of the vast African continent instead of being concentrated in the east.

What is a biological profile and how can it help you identify remains?

•Sex •Ancestry. •Age. •Stature. •Individualizing characteristics. •Trauma. Pathology.

What is the Anthropocene? What is the argument for adopting this terminology? How do we know these changes are related to human activity? What is driving the pace of change? What can be done to ameliorate the worst effects of this epoch?

•The geological epoch during which humans had an indelible impact on the earth's geological, biological, and climatological systems. •Holocene atmospheric carbon dioxide averaged ~270 parts per million (ppm). •At 1800 levels were at 280ppm. •By 1950, 310ppm. •Today = 411ppm. •This is the highest concentration in all of human history (last 2.5my). •CO2 levels correlate with global temperatures. •This is the primary driver of global warming today.•Our ability to adapt, and adapt quickly, to a changing natural environment is the hallmark of our species. Today, we put increasing amounts of effort into adapting to changes that we are responsible for. •Sea level rise is accelerating - currently twice as fast as pre-1990 levels (IPCC). •The western US is experiencing 7 times more wildfires than in the 1970s (IPCC). •Every region in the US has experienced an increase in heavy precipitation events in recent decades (IPCC).•Individually we can make an impact on how easy or rough the next chapter will be in our collective story. If interested, here are some things to consider ... •Plan to have fewer kids. •Eat less meat (or none at all). •Switch to fuel efficient, hybrid, or electric cars. •When possible, buy clean energy. •Invest in sustainable industries, and divest from non-sustainable ones. •Consider a career in environmental sustainability.

How can you tell the difference between antemortem trauma, perimortem trauma, and post-mortem trauma?

•What happened after death? •Scavengers. •Rodent gnawing. •Thermal damage. •Root etching. •Weathering. Cut marks.

What does the high degree of genetic uniformity tell us about ancient H. sapiens populations?

◦Founder effect: human populations out of Africa were founded by small groups of people. ◦Young species: Humans are at most 300kyo. Chimpanzees are ~8myo.

Be able to discuss the sickle cell trait as an adaptive response.

◦Malaria: a zoonotic disease spread by the Anopheles mosquito. ◦445,000 deaths due to Malaria in 2016. ◦The sickle cell trait spread throughout the population - providing resistance. ◦HbAA - no resistance. ◦HbSA - resistance. ◦HbSS - sickle cell anemia.

Describe the biological roots of skin tone. How is skin color adaptive? What does it suggest about ancestral populations?

◦Melanin is a dark brown pigment produced through the oxidation of amino acids. ◦Produced in melanocytes located in the epidermis. ◦ All humans have the same number of melanocytes, the amount and type of melanin produced varies. ◦Eumelanin: dark brown. ◦Pheomelanin: pink to red. ◦Each one of us has a slightly different "mix." ◦Natural selection plays a part in determining the skin tone for populations. ◦Gloger's rule: proximity to the equator and changes clinally as one moves north or south. ◦What dark melanin does for you: ◦Protects against skin cancer: kind of... not really. ◦Protection against sun burn and sun stroke. ◦Enhanced ability to sweat (protects the eccrine glands). ◦Protects against deterioration of folic acid. ◦What light melanin does for you: ◦Enhanced vitamin D synthesis in northern and southern latitudes. ◦Protects against rickets.

What were the positive and negative effects of hybridization with Neandertals on H. sapiens?

◦Negative: Potential genetic incompatibilities - could explain Neandertal genomic "deserts" in the human genome. Possibly hybridization led to male infertility. ◦Positive: Conferred immunity to northern diseases. Adaptation to new diets. Skin color - more conducive to vitamin D production in darker, northern latitudes.