Anthropology Final
tools
Worn front teeth suggest they were using front teeth as ___________.
Gombe; Tai Tai; females Gombe Gombe; Tai Tai; Gombe Kibale Mahale Tai
"The New Chimpanzees" Group-specific ("cultural") behavior supports subsistence -ant-eating at ________ and _____ (but not Kibale) -nut-cracking at _____ forest (____________ lead invention?) -wadge of fruit or leaves used as a sponge (_________) -predation activities differ ________ & _____ forest closed canopy at ______ provides escape routes for colobus monkeys so chimps must cooperate for kill success (individual success at ________) Other kinds of "cultural" behavior -Medicinal leaves (expel tape worm?) (__________ only) -Hand-clasp grooming (__________ only) -Leaf-clipping (before display vs. before resting) (_____) (new use = cultural shift) Chimpanzee "mind" -Do chimpanzees have some version of symbolic capacity? -Does their reaction to the death of a close associate suggest a degree of understanding and feeling that is similar to that of humans?
Customary Habitual
39 cultural behaviors (customary or habitual) -_________________--occurs in most or all members of one age or sex class -________________--less common but which still occurs repeatedly -Present -Absent
female-bonded "fission-fusion"; males 6
A common pattern of social grouping in Old World Monkeys is the ______________________ group. (daily contact) Humans last shared a common ancestor with OWM ~25 million years ago. Chimps have a "____________________" social group with strong bonds between resident __________. (and females now transfer to new groups) (less frequent contact) Humans last shared an ancestor with chimpanzees about ____ million years ago (Mya) We are much more related to chimps.
adaptive strategy plant animal allows few people to feed many; towns mega-societies; single
A consistent and central aspect of any culture is subsistence (a.k.a. ______________________) -Foraging— food collection of what the environment produces (a.k.a. "hunters and gatherers") -Horticulture—_______ food production with hand tools everyone must work because yields are low -Pastoral—__________ food production in which everyone must work -Agriculture—water management, terracing, fertilizer and harnessing animal (or mechanical) energy ____________________________________ people; provides the basis for larger social groups (__________, cities, nation-states) -Industrial, Commercial—very high levels of efficiency in food production and distribution allow ______________________ such as the U.S.A. (300 million people) to be part of a ________ political unit
Symbol
A representation that can only be understood through a social convention or rule created by people
"Cultural" -Not genetic -Not ecological -Can study the transmission process *39* behaviors of chimpanzees are cultural behaviors
A.Whiten, J. Goodall, W. C. McGrew, T. Nishida, V. Reynolds, Y. Sugiyama, C. E. G Tutin, R. Wrangham & C. Boesch 1999 "Cultures in chimpanzees" about:
Foraging Horticulture Pastoralism Agriculture Industrialism
Adaptive strategies: (Yehudi Cohen, 1974)
permanent -Irrigation -Terracing -Domesticated animals surplus; productivity density sedentism classes Government control use of force specialization Market
Agriculture control over nature The "cultivation continuum".... -Horticulture always has a fallow period....shifting plot -Agriculture uses a ________________ plot...intensive cultivation Permanent plots -> sedentary life -_____________...control of water -______________...control of topography -___________________________...plowing and field preparation....collect manure to fertilize Large __________ of food; higher _________________ for human energy input Increase _________ of population is possible Increase ____________ (decreased mobility) Social stratification is extreme (__________ = formally recognized differences in status and wealth) __________________ enforces individual behavior; mobilize the labor of many individuals for major projects; ________________ (not just persuasion as in horticulture) Labor ________________ (not everyone involved in food production) -craft specialists -administrators -government leader -military -religious specialist __________ & trade; money is a universal exchange unit Warfare (group-organized defense or attack & theft)
kinship Kinship culturally
All humans societies use __________ to organize social relationships and to classify people _________ is a uniquely human concept. Kinship is the result of ____________-defined relationships.
Louis Leakey; Jane Goodall
Ape field research _____________ obtained research funding from the National Geographic Society for ________________ (1960) Leakey (a paleoanthropologist) was interested in using information gathered from wild apes to help reconstruct the behavior of human ancestors
Lineage Unilineal descent; 60% Cognatic descent; 40% Bilateral descent hierarchically unilineage Clan
Assigne ____________-all of the descendants of a single founding ancestor (may be a matrilineage or a patrilineage) (a.k.a. unilineage) _________________________ (____% of cultures)...trace line of descent either through males or through females (but not both) ______________________ (_____% of cultures)...trace descent from both mother and father There's also Bilineal descent and Parallel descent, but don't have to know these ___________________ - a form of cognatic descent (what U.S. does) in which every biological ancestor and descendant is a socially recognized relative (other forms of cognac decent exist...bilineal, parallel, ambilineal) Descent can be ______________ organized ______________ - patrilineage or matrilineage ______- all members claim the same ancestor even if the exact genealogy is not known
Last Common Ancestor (LCA)
Behaviors shared by two distantly-related descendants suggest these behaviors were already present in the ____________________________________
Kin; hereditary subordinate wealth
Chiefdom ________-based groupings are still important but wealth and power of chief is often ________________ Numerous central authorities may be ___________________ to a paramount chief. Pressures to redistribute _________ help to reduce wealth differences but those with more power may act to increase it. Bella (Liberia), Kwakiutl (NW N. America) are examples
difficult-to-acquire
Chimpanzees vs Humans Kaplan et al. 2000 5 chimpanzee groups vs 10 modern human forager groups Methods of food acquisition Collected— fruits, leaves, flowers and other easily collected resources Extracted—resources embedded in protective context (roots, nuts, seeds, termites, honey) Hunted—vertebrate meat humans have shifted to dependence on Calorie-dense, large-package, skill-intensive food resources _______________________ Vertebrate meat 30-80% Extracted food
ant retrieval with stick nut cracking leaf sponge leaf clipping male cooperation during hunting medicinal leaves hand clasp while grooming reaction to death
Chimpanzees:
egalitarian Band Tribe power; wealth Chiefdom State
Elman Service 1971, 1975 More _______________... ______—same status; everyone is a food collector of approximately equal political rank _______—increase in group size & density; "leaders" evident but power differences are small Differences in ________ & _______ of individuals; classes, centralized rule ____________—kinship & descent now have more consequence for politics; *power differences are obvious* both between individuals and between groups; positions of power are *inherited by individuals* ______—*power differences* between individuals and between classes *can be extreme*; power is kept within groups ("classes"); sharp *class lines* (with class endogamy)
Sexual division Egalitarianism small Limited work week personal property land Polytheism
Correlates of Human Foraging -_________________ of labor -> the family is the unit of production -__________________...no formal leaders -No recognized status differences (beyond gender and age)... "every man does what every other man does...every woman does what every other woman does..." -Equal access to resources...rules for sharing meat are understood by all and carefully followed -Group size is ________ (20-100)... members are related by kinship or marriage -_____________________ (15-20 hours)...work until needs are met (Marshall Sahlins' "The original affluent society" (1972) -Limited ___________________.... nomadic lifestyle makes hoarding/accumulation impossible -Lack a concept of ______ and resource ownership -_________________—many supernatural beings with equal or almost equal influence over the material world (the supernatural world mirrors the egalitarian nature of human relationships).
-Foraging -Horticulture -Patoralism -Agriculture -Industrial-Commercial
Correlates of subsistence size and character of the social group Small-scale societies (band, tribe): Large-scale societies (chiefdom, state):
--
Cosanguine Descent from a common ancestor (genealogy) creates relationships with people who are consanguine relatives
Syncretism
Cricket the Trobriand Way ______________--people borrow elements of a foreign culture and combine them with native customs (blending old and new cultural elements) Trobriand cricket is distinctive from British cricket: Adding a large number of players Modifying bats; underarm throwing Adding dances and chants Behaviors previously used in warfare (e.g. spear throwing, war paint) are now used in cricket...a demonstration of cultural change
Finger bone
Denisovans Denisova Cave in Siberia David Reich 2008 Denisova Cave, Altai Mountains, SW Siberia (0 degrees C -> DNA preservation) ______________ (juvenile female) 2 teeth; C-14 dates to 39,000 ya (a new species) nuclear DNA shows more closely related to Neanderthal mtDNA sequence shows that last common ancestor (LCA)of amHS & Denisovans lived 1 Mya
-retromolar space -extreme wear -taurodontism
Derived dental traits in Neandertal:
-Unilineage -Clan -Phatry (composed of several clans) -Moiety (balanced opposition of clans or phratries) (one of two basic subdivisions of a tribe - balanced opposition)
Descent group hierarchically grouped:
-Exogamy rules -Post-marriage residency rules -Inheritance of property -Military and economic obligations, etc.
Descent groups -Trace relationship through many generations (includes recognition of relationship to *people ego never met* Descent groups affect...
egalitarian
Elman Service (1962, 1971, 1975) Band = __________________ -power differences are small...there is no distinctive political organization or formal law (San, Netsilik, Mbuti ex.) (Foragers ex.)
-Band -Tribe -Chiefdom -State
Elman Service - identified types of political organization:
Horticulture
Food production (cultivation) using a digging stick, hoe and other hand tools...:
Agriculture (intensive cultivation)
Food production with high-yield technology such as irrigation and animal-assisted plowing:
-Large cranial capacity (> 1500 cc) but cranium is different from modern humans -long, low cranium -midline prognathism -occipital bun -browridges -retromolar space -large front teeth with excessive wear -no chin -large eyes -> large visual area brain (remainder of brain is actually smaller than it is in amHs...Pearce 2013) -Post cranial skeleton -short, stocky proportions -very muscular, very strong, curved long bones -hands have a powerful grip-large apical tips -thick-walled long bones -frequent evidence of damage to bones (a rugged lifestyle)
Homo neanderthalensis:
"Father of American Anthropology" first anthropology Ph.D. program; four-field anthropology Critic of "evolutionism" of Tylor Cultural relativism
Franz Boas "______________________________" 1858-1942 1881 Ph.D. physics (U. Kiel)....with studies in geography... 1883-4 went to Baffin Island, Canada to conduct geographic research on the impact of the physical environment on native Inuit migrations 1886 Ph.D. geography 1892-1893 Chicago World's Fair...set up exhibits of Inuit and Kwakiutl 1896 Curator & Lecturer American Museum of Natural History 1899 Professor of Anthropology, Columbia Univ. established the ____________________________________ in the U.S....a program founded on the concept of _______________________________ Like Tylor, understood differences in human behavior are learned from group participation _________________________________ (and his idea that all cultures progress through similar stages with European culture at the summit) _______________________ —cultures cannot be ranked as higher or lower... all humans see the world through the lens of their own culture...must seek to understand the way which culture conditioned people to understand and interact with the world in different ways...learn everything about a culture including language
"soldier-scholar" Sir Edward Burnett Tylor
General A.L.H.F. Pitt-Rivers "______________" (1827-1900) 1851—testing a new rifle Treatise on the instruction of musketry (1854) Considered how firearms technology had improved in successive steps.... "It may be said as a rule that simple forms have proceeded complex ones" Believed that museums would teach people that "evolution, not revolution, was nature's way" 1884 donation of 30,000 artefacts to Oxford University included the stipulation that the university would build a structure to house the collection (named after Pitt-Rivers) display the collection by function/form/type (not age or origin) hire a curator... ________________________... Oxford University Pitt-Rivers Museum
hostile; hostile peripheral small
Gibbon social organization -Social group - *pair-bonded adults* (who occupy and defend a territory plus the immature offspring of this pair) -Adult males are __________ to other males; adult females are __________ to other females -Maturing offspring are increasingly ___________________ then driven out of the group by the same-sex parent -Group size is always _______.
Chimps are human-like in behavior -Tool-using & tool-making -Predation and meat-eating -Close family ties including very indulgent mothering -Male competition for status -Male boundary patrols and territorial behavior -Warfare -Infanticide Longitudinal studies at Gombe Stream set a new research standard
Goodall Discoveries: 6 long-term study sites 156 years of observation
80; Israel; 130-40
Homo Neadertalis: ___+ sites in Europe, ________ & W. Asia Circa 400k-40 kya (fossils)...most are ___________ kya Homogeneous population with identifiable traits, limited time span and limited geographic distribution *In notes section of PP:* 2014: Prof Thomas Higham of the University of Oxford performed the most comprehensive dating of Neanderthal bones and tools ever carried out, which demonstrated that Neanderthals died out in Europe between 41,000 and 39,000 years ago.... a very cold period in Europe and is 5,000 years after Homo sapiens reached the continent.
sedentary "slash and burn"; planning private property Surplus; stratification "Leaders"; redistribution Symbolism; group-binding
Horticulture cf. Trobriand Islanders Compared to human foraging groups -More _______________, increase size & density of the group ("village") -Work as a group ("________________"); _____________ months & years into the future -Concept of _____________________ -___________ can be accumulated -> social _________________ begins "___________" emerge ("big man")—influence behavior rather than force behavior... Increase in status from food __________________ reduces differences _________________ continues to be important—myth & ritual -> ____________________ among individuals
synchronize Dance; chant Costumes; body decoration symbolically
Humans can ________________ behavior in group performance a large number of participants engage in coordinated behavior over an extended time interval ________ and _________ are uniquely human traits ______________ and ______________________ enhance the visual effect Dances and chants _______________ represent previous experience from another context
confiscate not
Hunting Gombe vs. Tai Gombe: Open woodland means a discontinuous canopy—harder for red colobus monkeys to escape Individual behavior; but more hunters -> more success Alpha male can ________________ the kill of a lower-ranking male or a female Tai: Closed canopy gives colobus monkeys more escape routes Role-specific behavior by multiple males is necessary for success -Driver -Blockers -Ambusher ("close the trap") Meat is shared among participants; a non-participating alpha male may _____ get any meat
cooperate smaller killed screaming excitement no; plant
Hunting by chimpanzees -Chimpanzee males hunt and may ________________ to enhance success (especially in the Tai forest) -Monkeys are ____________ and can escape by leaping to branches of nearby trees; chimpanzees are large...can only climb up and climb down tree trunks...can't leap to follow monkeys -Frodo___________ a monkey but the alpha male Freud confiscated the carcass (a dominant chimpanzee can take a desirable resource from a subordinate member of the group)...Frodo is prevented from having access -A community of _____________ chimps surrounds the hunters....the capture of a prey animal increases the _____________ of all members of the community -Chimpanzees do some sharing of meat (and ____ sharing of ______ foods)
Prey can be -very large -very dangerous -hard to detect (cf. seal under the ice) Use of "tools" (including poison) Planning, patience over long time periods Pervasive calm during all phases (cf. high emotional arousal of chimpanzees)
Hunting by humans (cf. chimps)
Vitamin D Sunburn Skin cancer Foate rickets
Jablonski N.G. & Chaplin, G. 2000 The evolution of human skin coloration Dual selective pressures -______________ synthesis -UVB destructive effects -___________-induced disruption to sweat glands -__________________ -__________ photolysis—a prime selective agent Lack of Vitamin D....__________....disease
Israel 60
Kebara, ________ _____ kya Many broken bones; curvature from the pull of powerful muscles
-Consanguine -Affine (marriage)
Kinship comes in 2 bonds: Descent from a common ancestor (genealogy) creates relationships with people who are ________________ relatives (related by blood). Marriage creates relationships with people who are __________ relatives
Saints Large cranial capacity but cranium is different from modern humans
La Chapelle aux _______ 1625 cc Homo neanderthalensis *In notes section of PP:* E. Pearce of the University of Oxford, England, was published in Proceedings of the Royal Society B, March 13, 2013. Neanderthals had larger eye sockets - and a larger brain area devoted to sight - than in modern humans. When the larger visual system is subtracted from total brain size, our extinct cousins actually had a smaller rest of the brain than did fossil Homo sapiens. the remaining brain area in Neanderthals was about 15% smaller than in fossil modern humans.
Human hunting is skill intensive Use a wealth of information make context--specific decisions Human hunters cover a very large spatial area
Louis Leibenberg, 1990 The art of tracking: The origin of science ____________________________________ both during the search phase & the encounter phase ______________________________ (ecology, seasonality, current weather, expected animal behavior, fresh animal signs) to _________________________; multivariate mental models of encounter probabilities guide the search and are continuously updated as conditions change _________________________________________________.. 200-1000 sq. km. in a year 35+ Ache men had hunted over 12,000 sq. km. Male chimpanzees cover 10 sq. km. in a lifetime
pigment pinnacle Point Shellfish ochre blade tools
Marean et al. (12 authors) 2007 Early human use of marine resources and ____________ in South Africa during the Middle Pleistocene Nature (449: 905-908) __________________, South Africa 164,000 years ago Systematically harvesting ____________ from the coast...coastal exploitation Presence of _______ Presence of small _______________ could have been used as part of projectile weapons Blade = length is 2X width
Eisenberg spatial interaction individual boundary
Marriage and Social Groups What is a group? What species live in groups? "A social group is composed of animals that interact regularly, know one another individually, spend time nearer to one another than to non-members and are often hostile toward non-members." (_____________, 1983) -___________ proximity -regular ___________ (high frequency of communication) -____________ recognition (tolerance) -xenophobia (___________ maintenance)
legitimacy
Marriage and its functions are almost "universal" but exceptions exist... Gough, E. K. - "The *Nayars* and the Definition of Marriage." J. of the Royal Anthropological Institute 89: 23-24. -Children raised within matrilineal households (tarawad) -women have multiple lovers without concern for sexual fidelity or male parental responsibility -ritual acts define _____________ (tali ritual)
Exogamy Endogamy Monogamy Polygamy Polygyny Polyandry
Marriage rules: _____________=rules which specify that range and categories of relatives who are forbidden marriage and sexual partners ("incest taboo") ____________=rules that channel individuals into marriages within particular categories and groups (identifies preferred marriage partners) ___________=one man, one woman _____________ __________= one man, several wives __________= one woman, usually brothers as multiple husbands
1-6%
Modern inhabitants of New Guinea (Melanesians) have ______% Denisovan genes
-foraging groups -industrial economies
Monogamy and the nuclear family is characteristic of:
meat; plants
Mousterian tools: Smithsonian--Isotopic chemical analyses of Neanderthal bones also tell scientists the average Neanderthal's diet consisted of a lot of ______. Scientists have also found plaque on the remains of molar teeth containing starch grains—concrete evidence that Neanderthals ate ________.
William King
Neandertal 1 : 1856 type specimen *in notes section of PP:* Neander Valley Feldhofer cave 1856 Geologist _________________ suggested the name Homo neanderthalensis Fossil is in Smithsonian Height: Males: average 5 ft 5 in (164 cm); Females: average 5 ft 1 in (155 cm) Weight: Males: average 143 lbs (65 kg); Females: average 119 lbs (54 kg)
99.5% sequence differences newer, derived
Neandertal Genome Project Neanderthal genome is _____ identical to moderns.... what traits led to modern humans being the last hominin around? Researchers found ___________________________ that would have affected proteins....Neanderthals had the ancestral state and modern humans had a ______, ________ state (new alleles that emerged after the evolutionary split from the common ancestor we shared with Neanderthal) 1-4% the genomes of non-Africans is derived from Neanderthals ...Europeans and Asians have similar amounts of Neanderthal DNA... Africans have no evidence of Neanderthal genome There was a small amount of gene flow between anatomically modern Homo sapiens and Neanderthal but it took place after departure from Africa but before spread around the world.
globular; back of skull
Neandertals had a _____________ ("en bombe") _______________ where modern Homo sapiens do not
Svante Paabo Feldhofer 4X Vindija 700; 370 hybridization 20.4; 1/3
Neanderthal DNA 1997 ______________—mtDNA from arm bone ______________ cave— -mtDNA of Neanderthal is _____ as distant from modern Homo sapiens as Europeans from New Guineans -Mezmaiskaya Cave (Russia) (2000) 2006 Svante Paabo et al. Nature (Max Planck) -38k fossil nuclear DNA from ____________ (Croatia) -Y-chromosome (nDNA) -split 516,000 ya 2006 Edward Rubin et al. Science -Using Vindija nDNA ...divergence from amHs - lineage about began _____ kya and complete at _______ kya -No _____________________ On average, Neanderthal mtDNA genomes differ from each other by_____ bases and are only _______ as diverse as modern humans (Briggs et al. 2009).
Richard E. Green; Svante Paabo toe non-African; African
Neanderthal Genome Project 2010 ____________________,...(+50 names]....and _________________. A Draft Sequence of the Neandertal Genome. Science, 2010; 328 (5979): 710-722 First draft of the genome of a 38,000 year-old Neanderthal (Vindija, Croatia)...60% of a male Neanderthal's genome Prufer et al. 2014 The complete genome sequence of a Neanderthal from the Altai Mountains. Nature 505, 43-49 (02 January 2014) doi:10.1038/nature12886 2010 discovery of a _______ bone of female Neanderthal (at Denisova cave, sediments 50-60 kya) provided the complete genome *In notes section of PP:* Richard Green U. Calif. Santa Cruz The Neanderthal sequence was compared to those of five modern humans from France, China, Papua New Guinea, as well as Africans from the San and Yoruba groups. Tests indicated that Neanderthals shared more derived alleles with _____________ modern humans than with __________ modern humans
red har; fair skin melanocortin 1 receptor (MRC1)
Neanderthal had __________ and ____________ Neanderthal genome included the gene for the _____________________ (_______)
*Games* with rules *Language* to discuss events of the past...to help plan for the future *Magical thinking* (throwing magic; war paint that "protects" the player; weather magic) A sense of *how humans "ought" to behave* "the home team always wins" chief will "pay" the visiting team for losing Dance and chant Costumes Body decoration
New kinds of behavior appear in human groups
Nomadism Transhumance
Nomadism vs. Transhumance ________________—the entire group moves with the herd through the year...trade for crops _________________—part of the group moves with the herds (shepherds and goatherds) but most stay in the home village (grow crops)
advantageous; Vitamin D amino acid
Pale skin may have been _________________ to Neanderthals living in Europe because of the need to synthesize adequate ______________ under conditions of low solar radiation melanocortin 1 receptor (MRC1) ....changes an ____________...the resulting protein is less efficient...MCR1 variants in modern humans -> red hair and fair skin
Nomadic Brainpower; push Living on land; 25%; 20 interdependence
Pastoralism ____________ lifestyle—must constantly move animals to find new areas to graze—limits the accumulation of material culture (but pack animals enable more moveable goods than foragers) __________________ applied to the management of animals (______ animals to do what they may not want to do); high level of organization skills evident when moving camp _________________ that is not good for agriculture; large geography needed which limits population density — pastoralists occupy _____% of the world's land yet only ____ million people are pastoral (a small percentage of world population) Insecurity of this adaptive strategy is tempered by ______________________ of individuals living in dispersed groups ("group" is now an abstract concept...not all individuals know one another personally)
cellulose
Pastoralism: How do humans survive in environments that grow only grass? (______________ is indigestible to humans) By herding ruminant animals that are able to turn cellulose into meat, milk and blood Ruminant animals have a multi-chambered stomach with microorganisms that turn cellulose into digestible carbohydrate
Political Organization
Political Systems: ___________________- the exercise of power
rare but exists as fraternal polyandry
Polyandry is ________.
-Horticulture -Pastoralism (although the majority of marriages may be monogamous)
Polygyny is characteristic of:
-Assigns sexual rights -Establishes parental *responsibility for children* -Organizes domestic groups including a gender division of *labor* (creates an economic unit) -Establishes *intergroup alliances* and exchanges (cooperation among groups) -provides emotional support
Rules of marriage:
Europe Africa (Blombois Cave, South Africa); ochre
Sally McBearty and Alison Brooks 2000 The emergence of symbolic representation ...seemingly appeared first in ___________ with the arrival of anatomically-modern Homo sapiens 40-45 kya But... Even earlier evidence of symbolism and planning exists in ___________ - Block of ________ with incised marks at 71,000 years Evidence of ochre on shell beads extends to 100,000 years
founder fist; textbook First professor of anthropology progressive acquisition and addition
Sir Edward Burnett Tylor (1832-1917) a __________ of social anthropology 1871 Primitive Culture, Volume 1 & Volume 2 Origins of Culture Religion in Primitive Culture 1881 Anthropology: An introduction to the study of man and civilization. Macmillan & Co. The ________ anthropology _____________ 1895 _____________________________________ at Oxford Univ. Cultural complexity can be explained as the result of evolution. Cultural knowledge is marked by ______________________________________ Moving from simple to complex is a general principle of human thought and action Firearms Navigational instruments other forms of human knowledge...mathematics, religion, subsistence
equatorial few years
Slash and burn cultivation mostly practiced in the tropics High temperature and high rainfall in ______________ regions limit the accumulation of humus...soils are not fertile. Clear site of brush and trees...stacked, dried, set fire Ashes add minerals to the soil....but only for a ___________________....cultivation site must be rotated...field must return to natural vegetation Crops are intermixed... each with different nutrient requirements...dispersal of each plant type reduces disease and pests (Maya...corn, beans, squash in the same hole)
Share with other hunters (egalitarian) Carry to a home base -> flow of food to non-hunters provision offspring, mates, extended kin and group members...everyone knows what share they will receive Sexual division of labor with everyone carrying out assigned role calmly and cheerfully Symbolism, mythological explanation, ritual behavior
Social aspects human hunting (cf. chimps)
central Agriculture Complex laws not specialized Classes social
State a single __________ authority _________________ allows increased density of population __________ interactions need central management Codified ______ Individuals _______ involved in food production provide specialized labor for craft production, markets, trade, defense Individuals have power in _________________ areas (e.g. administrator, soldier, priest) __________ with sharp class lines (and class endogamy)-ruling elites retain power within their groups ("classes"); power differences between individuals and between classes can be extreme; ____________ inequality became institutionalized Ancient Maya, Ancient Egypt (theocracy); secular (U.S., Russia) for example
--
Symbolic representation in anatomically modern Homo sapiens (amHs) -Chauvet Pont-d'Arc cave 30,000-33,000 ya -El Castillo cave, NW Spain 40,800 ya
-Comparing children to chimps and orangutans -Humans have many cognitive skills not possessed by their nearest primate relatives. The cultural intelligence hypothesis argues that this is mainly due to a species-specific set of social-cognitive skills, emerging early in ontogeny, for participating and exchanging knowledge in cultural groups. -We tested this hypothesis by giving a comprehensive battery of cognitive tests to large numbers of two of humans' closest primate relatives, chimpanzees and orangutans, as well as to 2.5-year-old human children before literacy and schooling. -Supporting the cultural intelligence hypothesis .......children and chimpanzees had very similar cognitive skills for dealing with the physical world but that the children had more sophisticated cognitive skills than either of the ape species for dealing with the social world.
The Cultural intelligence Hypothesis Hermann et al. 2007
Kayasa kayos cultural change and evolution; no
________—obligatory, competitive activity between village groups is a traditional part of Trobriand culture When warfare was outlawed by colonial administrators, competitive games continue __________ in a new format Human groups provide many examples of ________________________.... chimpanzee groups provide ___ evidence of sequential evolution
-from foraging to food production....the "Neolithic Revolution" -from small-scale societies to large-scale societies... the "Urban Revolution"
Tipping points of cultural change:
--
Tracing the evolution of cultural change in humans -from foraging to food production -from small-scale societies to large-scale societies
no formal Descent head; persuasion Horticulture; pastoral
Tribe have ___________________ government and no way of enforcing political decisions...leadership ____________ groups of related individuals (lineages/clans) are mechanisms for uniting humans into larger units There is a village _________ (a leader) who leads by example and _______________ (influence not command)...prestige ___________________ and __________ cultures are organized as Tribes Trobriand Islanders (Papua New Guinea), Basseri (Iran) have tribal organization
quantity New Coordination "ratchet effect"
Trobriand islanders The _________ of cultural behavior is enormous _____ kinds of behavior appear in human groups ___________________ of group behavior Prestige leaders...mobilize labor Synthesizing old and new Culture change -> cultural evolution Boesch and Tomasello call this the "___________________"
-Marriage and the family -Multigenerational *descent groups* -New forms of social and political organization
Uniquely human groupings:
EPAS1
Variant in the ________ gene allows Tibetans to thrive in the oxygen thin air on the Himalayan plain...a variant derived from Denisovans
Horticulture Permanent shelters "leader" "prestige" food
Village life __________________... growing plant food (yams) using labor-intensive techniques that require everyone to work Growing food for sisters (Trobriand islanders are matrilineal) ________________________ -> village A "__________" who.... -works for "__________".... -masterminds the planning of a cricket match -cajoles other group members to grow more food -directs individuals in specific tasks (clear the field, chant a magic spell that will keep rain away) -distributes food at the end of the match... gives ________ away!!!
-Behavior "capabilities and habits" -Learned "acquired by man" -Shared by a group "as a member of society" -Intergenerational (passed from one generation to the next) -much of this intergenerational transfer occurs during childhood Human culture also includes: -Cumulative -> Cultural Evolution (additive and revisionist)
What is culture?
Culture...taken in its widest...sense, is that complex whole which includes *knowledge*, belief, arts, morals, law, *custom* and many other *capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.* Sir Edward Burnett Tylor, 1871
What is culture?
-Quantity -Reach -Coordination...cooperation -Evolution -Human cultures have more content and more evolution than ape cultures -Human cultures are possible because of -Ultrasociality -Immature humans learn more -Bigger brains (more storage) -Built to learn from other humans.....Tomasello calls this cultural intelligence -Adult humans teach much more -Symbolic encoding
What makes human culture distinctive?
Striding bipedalism Tool use and handpower Brain size & brainpower Dentition is unusual among primates Speech/language Cultural dependence
What traits distinguish humans from all other species?
Mousterian tools close meat 40,000
What's new behaviorally? __________________ are quick to make from a prepared core As a spear tip could only be used in a thrusting spear...must get ________ to prey....dangerous Chemical analysis of bone suggests dependence on ______....big game hunters Burial of the dead with ceremonial objects indicates symbolic capacity Care of sick & aged indicates new social capacity In Europe, replaced by anatomically modern Homo sapiens by __________ kya *In note section of PP:* Mithen...they had a "domain intelligence". That is, their brains were capable of doing certain things like making fire or making and using tools, but did not have the interconnections and mental fluidity that developed in Homo sapiens. They did not paint on walls, they did not make huts, and the author believes they could not speak in words. They used holistic song and dance to communicate, comfort their young, and develop interpersonal connectedness that strengthened their tribes. Neanderthals were always on the precarious edge of survival and when Homo sapiens showed up they disappeared.
99.9% Versatility
While Neanderthals hunted big game in Europe... 135,000 to 90,000 years ago cyclical mega droughts in Africa (glacial advance in northern latitudes) reduced the population of modern humans to a very small number (a genetic bottleneck....all contemporary modern humans are ________% similar) Refuge areas in Africa included coastal regions and evidence of shellfish harvesting...predicting the timing of the tides was a new cognitive skill...._______________ of diet is a marker of our species New kinds of tools....including a throwing spear -> safer kills
mother; father; both
Who is a relative? -May trace descent through the _________ (cf. alloprimates) or __________ or _______. -The rules for tracing descent vary across cultures but there are always rules
Tai
_____ forest shows greater variety of cultural behavior than any other study site
Jablonski; Chaplin Light; Dark light skin cooling folate; dark Africa
______________ N.G. & ____________, G. 2000 The evolution of human skin coloration Journal of Human Evolution ______ (australopiths) -> ______ (Homo sp.) -> 6 M years ago: After the split from chimpanzees early hominin ancestors probably retained the long hair and _____________ we still see in modern chimpanzees 4 ½ -2 M years ago: hominins move onto the savannah -Dissipate heat through evaporative ___________ (sweat glands increase, hair is no longer protective) -Excessive sun on hairless skin -> loss of ________ (birth defects) evolution of ______ skin color to prevent folate photolysis (avoid neural tube defects such as spina bifida and anencephaly) *In notes section of PP:* Light skin color with fur followed by loss of fur (apparent "hairlessness" and sweat glands) 2 Mya to present: multiple hominin migrations out of ______ begin....only the last migration was Homo sapiens (perhaps as recently as 60 kya?) Less than 40,000 years ago: anatomically modern Homo sapiens arrives at latitudes above 50 degrees...in areas of low UVB radiation light skin color may have re-emerged to ensure adequate Vitamin D synthesis... Human populations that moved from low latitudes to high latitudes multiple times may have alternating periods of dark and light skin pigmentation
Foraging 99%
______________-how humans survived for ____% of human existence WT-15,000 "Nariokotome boy" 1.6 Mya Lake Turkana, Kenya - forager Homo lineage began with a dietary shift Substantially larger brain (900 cc) (energetically expensive) Short gut means less transit time for food & implies a nutrient-rich diet...cut marks on fossil animals bones suggest meat Modern body proportions (long legs) suggest long distance travel on the ground (perhaps running down prey animals)
Marriage not
________________- an exclusive and permanent bond between individuals (most often between at least one man and at least one woman) which is governed by culture-specific rules Non-human animals do _____ have marriage
Adaptive strategies
_________________ - system of economic production (patterns of subsistence)
Ultrasociality
______________—enhanced flow of information
Mammals; mammals
_____________— most ___________ do not live in groups but those that do are marked by spatial proximity, social interaction, individual recognition & xenophobia Old World monkeys (Last Common Ancestor lived 25 Mya) -A single stable group with daily contact among all members -Female-bonded -Female philopatry/ Male emigration Chimpanzees (LCA 6 Mya) -Bi-level society known as "fission-fusion" -Foraging party (composition changes daily) -Community (stable composition; "strangers" are attacked) -Male-bonded community -Male philopatry/Female emigration -Less frequent contact among members of the community who share and defend a territory...recognizing and remembering individuals not seen for weeks or months demonstrates *greater cognitive ability* What about humans groups?
