ANTHROPOLOGY QUIZ 2

EJIDO

In Mexican system of government, an ejido is an area of communal land used for agriculture, on which community members individually possess and farm a specific parcel. The Mexican Revolution inspired the idea for the ejidos. One of the main objectives of the revolution was to break up large tracts of privately owned land into smaller sections and return the land to the peasants. The ejidos were agricultural land grants.

MARGARET MEAD

She was an American cultural anthropologist, whose reports about the attitudes towards sex in South Pacific and Southeast Asian traditional cultures shaped the 1960s sexual revolution. Mead was the first anthropologist to look at human development through a cross-cultural perspective. Also, in her field work on New Guinea, she demonstrated that gender roles differed from one society to another, and depend at least as much on culture as on biology.

MOKA

The Moka is a highly ritualized system of exchange in Papua New Guinea. Moka are reciprocal gifts of pigs through which social status is achieved. Moka refers specifically to the increment in the size of the gift. This is a form of competitive reciprocity.

INALIENABLE GOODS

These are goods that cannot be easily separated from one's own person. The value of something often rises because it is associated with a specific person. Inalienable goods also enhance a person's status and personality . Examples of this can be found with the Kula Ring on the Trobriand Islands and with The Potlatch in the Pacific Northwest.

ALIENABLE GOODS

These are goods that one can separate from his/herself. These goods are capable of being taken away or transferred.

BERDACHE

These were Native American Zuni men who chose to live their lives as female, through dress and social roles. In this culture, it is acceptable for these men to marry other berdaches, though if they are both sexually male, it is frowned upon to a greater degree.

CHIEFDOM

This came after Tribe in Service's classification system. It is a hypothetical form of sociopolitical organization in which political and economic power is exercised by a single person (or group of people) over many communities. Societies were deemed chiefdoms if they exhibited a centralization of power and authority at the expense of local and autonomous groupings.

TRIBE

This comes after Band in Service's classification system. It is a hypothetical form of human social organization based on a set of smaller groups (known as bands), having political integration and defined by traditions of common descent, language, culture, and ideology.

FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION

This is a rite of passage most common in northern and central Africa that can take multiple forms. It is a physical transformation that is necessary to become a woman in these cultures. It includes procedures that intentionally alter or cause injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons.

ALLYU

This is the traditional form of a community in the Andes, especially among Quechuas and Aymaras. Allyus were essentially extended family groups but they could adopt non-related members, giving individual families more variation and security of the land that they farmed. Ayllu were self-sustaining units and would educate their own offspring and farm or trade for all the food they ate. Their primary function was to solve subsistence issues, and issues of how to get along in family, and larger, units. Ayllus are distinguished by comparative self-sufficiency, commonly held territory, and relations of reciprocity.

NATURAL AVERSION THEORY

This theory was proposed by Edvard Westemnark. It states that when children are very young, they tend to develop aversions to having sexual relationships with people they are constantly around. An example of this is a marriage practice found in Taiwan and in parts of China too. It occurs when wealthy/middle class families adopt a daughter from a poor family in order to marry their son, and then raising them together until adulthood.

STATE

This was the most complex form of political organization in Service's classification system. It is characterized by a permanent population, a defined territory, a government and the capacity to enter into relations with other sovereign states. Service's system was similar to Morgan's theory of savagery; this stage would be civilization in that regard.

POTLATCH

A potlatch is a gift-giving feast practiced by the indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest Coast of Canada and the United States. It is their main economic system. This is a form of competitive reciprocity in which hosts demonstrate their wealth and prominence by giving away goods; they become a social weapon.

GENDER

Refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviors, and activities that a given society considers appropriate for men and women. There are many different types of genders, such as berdaches or Hijra. Hijra is a Hindu term referring to male-to-female transgender people. Gender is assigned to kids before they are even born, and is reinforced through things like toys, colors, and clothing.

MARRIAGE

(also called matrimony or wedlock) Is a social union or legal contract between people called spouses that creates kinship. Marriage often creates dependence and a social alliance between families. There are numerous factors that determine who one is allowed marry, and who they would want to marry, such as: incest taboos, gender, endogamy, and exogamy. In regard to incest taboo, people tend not to marry within their own nuclear family, though of course this varies among different cultures. While the Ju/Hoansi have similar incest rules to us, Egyptian pharaohs were known to marry their sisters. Many people will chose to marry a person of a specific gender because of personal feelings, though their are certainly cultures and societies where marriage between certain genders is forbidden. Endogamy is marrying within a specific group or social group, such as a class, caste, or race. Exogamy is the opposite, or marrying outside one's group.

RITE OF PASSAGE

An important event marking a stage in someone's life, especially birth, puberty and marriage. A Fulani woman's right of passage is to get facial tattoos--old-school style. These are very painful and difficult, and take hours to complete. It is something all girls must undergo in order to become women. They also can't cry out in pain during the process. In Sambia Initiation, men must consume semen to be considered male. This part doesn't happen anymore, but boys were also isolated from women for a few years and would have to endure beatings and other practices in order to be called men. Another common rite of passage is Female Genital Mutilation. This is most common in northern and central Africa and can take multiple forms. It is a physical transformation that is necessary to become a woman in these cultures.

GENDER STRATIFICATION

Differences in economic potential, political power, and status based on gender. Men are typically given advantages in most of these fields. For example, men are usually paid more than women for the same exact jobs. Also, the presidency has been completely dominated by men. On the other hand, most nurses are female.

ENDOGAMY

Endogamy is marrying within a specific group or social group, such as a class, caste, or race. The advantage of endogamy is that few outsiders are brought into the group, therefore, inheritance and property are not dissipated among too many people. Also, such as with the caste system, in order to retain one's status, they must marry within their own caste level.

EXOGAMY

Exogamy is the opposite of endogamy, and is marrying outside one's group. The advantage of exogamy is that outsiders are constantly brought in, which might be desirable, for example if the group needs more workers. Also, the exchange of spouses across groups serves as a means to form alliances.

MARCEL MAUSS

He was a French sociologist and anthropologist who wrote a book called The Gift about reciprocity. His main argument is that there is no such thing as a "free" gift, for all gift-giving requires obligation. He studied a lot about what power an object holds that compels someone to give something in return. Overall, he concluded that one does not just give a physical object, but a piece of themselves.

SEXUAL DIMORPHISM

Is the phenotypic difference between males and females of the same species, meaning that there are evident differences between the male and female of the species. The main differences are the presence and/or absence of reproductive organs. However, more obvious differences are often secondary sex characteristics, such as size differences in males and females, or behavior.

SEX

Refers to the biological and physiological characteristics that define men and women. In recent years, people have come to realize that there are more than just 2 sexes. Also, sex does not necessarily determine gender.

KULA RING

This is a ceremonial exchange system conducted in Papua New Guinea. The Kula ring spans 18 island communities, but on the Trobriand Islands, the exchange is monopolized by the chiefs. All Kula valuables are traded purely for the purposes of enhancing one's social status and prestige. Kula valuables do not stay in the hands of the recipients for a long time; rather, they must be passed on to other partners within a certain amount of time, this is how they are constantly circling around the ring.

POLYGYNY

This is a form of polygamy with one man marrying multiple wives. In those cultures, polygyny may be reserved for only the wealthiest men, for it can be costly and complicated. The economic status of women is usually a main factor that determines how widespread polygyny is in a culture. One of the strongest appeals of polygyny is its economic aspect, for a man with several wives has more land, can produce more food, and can achieve a higher status due to all this wealth. The problems with polygyny are often competition and jealousy between wives.

REDISTRIBUTION

This is a way of collectively pooling one's resources. Redistribution refers to a system of economic exchange involving the centralized collection of goods from members of a group followed by the redivision of those goods among those members. It is a form of reciprocity. Two examples of this would be The Potlatch and America's system of taxation.

MONOGAMY

This is being faithful to only one person. In the majority of cultures, polygamy is accepted as a form of marriage, though when one examines individual couples, it becomes evident that the majority of them are monogamous. Serially monogamous is when one has gone through a number of monogamous relationships. The divorce rate is very high as a result of this.

BAND

This is the 1st part of Service's classification. Service was part of the multi-lineal evolutionary school, and believed that evolution went from simple to complex. His classification system makes comparisons on a global scale easy to do, and possible. A band is a hypothetical type of human social organization consisting of a small number of people (usually no more than 30 to 50 people) who form a fluid, egalitarian community and cooperate in activities such as subsistence, rituals, and care for children and elders.

RECIPROCITY

This is the act of giving gifts. It is a way of establishing social relationships and of re-establishing friendships. Typically, there is mutual expectation, the gift-giving must go both ways, though the magnitudes of the gifts vary from culture to culture. There are 3 main types of reciprocity: balanced reciprocity, general reciprocity, and aggressive/competitive reciprocity. BR is more formalized and follows the idea that if I give you a gift, later on you will give me a gift back. An example of this is found with the Trobriand islanders trading in Kula ring. In GR there is no immediate or long-term expectation that one will reciprocate the gift. An American example would be parents investing money in their kids and supporting them, not expecting anything in return usually. A/CR is characterized by being more generous than anyone else, to the point where it becomes a social weapon in order to gain a higher social status. An example of this is The Potlatch, in which a host invites the whole community to a feast. The objective is for him to give away valuable possessions and to see who can give away more. If he gives more, he'll have the most power. Everyone benefits from this, though.

HONOR KILLING

This is the homicide of a member of a family or social group by other members due to the perpetrators' belief that the victim has brought shame or dishonor upon the family or community. Common reasons for this usually include: refusing to enter an arranged marriage, being in a relationship that is disapproved by their relatives, having sex outside marriage, becoming the victim of rape, dressing in ways which are deemed inappropriate, or engaging in homosexual relations. The murders are sometimes performed in public to warn the other women within the community of possible consequences for engaging in what is seen as illicit behavior.

BRIDE WEALTH

This is when a prospective husband, usually with the help of his relatives, must provide a substantial sum of money or highly valued goods to his future wife's family before a marriage can be contracted. This practice typically supports the institution of polygyny. Bride wealth enables the husband to have economic, domestic and marital rights over his wife.

BRIDE SERVICE

This is work or services done by a groom for his wife's family instead of paying a bride price. Bride service is usually for a set period of time, often years. It is a common practice in societies that have little material wealth and strong rules requiring sharing that prevent the accumulation of wealth.