AP Art History Review

EAST ASIAN ART

-Art in China dates back as far back as 10,000 BC, comprising of sculptures and simple pottery. Following this period was a series of art dynasties, each lasting as long as a few hundred years. Art in the Republic of China in Taiwan and other overseas Chinese communities can be considered Chinese art because they originate from the culture and heritage of China. -It ranges a variety of styles, including ancient pottery, wooden and bronze sculpture, and inked silk or paper.

EGYPTIAN 3100-332 BCE

-Extremely symbolic and representing a divine power, Egyptian artwork was often sculptural, or painting in relief. -Gods were portrayed as combinations of animal forms or natural elements, hieroglyphs were often incorporated in the artwork, and the canon of figures was formulaic with the intention of showing as much of the figure as possible. -The focus of art was on representing an un-earthly being, rather than representing reality. -The cycle of life and death was an undercurrent to every work of art created during this time period.

ROMAN 300 BCE-476 CE

-Inspired by the Greeks, Roman artists were extremely interested in perspective and foreshortening. -The city of Rome reflects the ambitions of a powerful empire through the continuous construction and development of monumental sculptures.

MESOPOTAMIA 3500-500 B.C.E.

-Mesopotamian art was intended to serve as a way to glorify powerful rulers and their connection to divinity -Art was made from natural resources such as stone,shells, alabaster and marble, and was often created as didactic pieces. -pieces were meant to embody the subject matter, rather than the creator.

PREHISTORIC 30,000-2500 B.C.E.

-Popular theme of fertility, food, basic human figures, and animals -Prominent use of megaliths, lintels. etc -Mostly cave paintings or portable figurines -Popular material: stone

ETRUSCAN

-The Etruscans enjoyed their wealth and the art reflects their sophisticated tastes. Sarcophagi, jewelry, sculptures and rock-cut chambers are defining works for the Etruscan time period. -The typical Etruscan style focuses on body gestures to communicate an idea, rather than on perfect and idealized form.

ANCIENT GREEK c. 850-323 BCE

-The overall look of Geometric art is highly reminiscent of the Mycenaean and Cycladic styles. -It is a reflection of a new willingness to depict the mortal human, rather than the divine, in their art. The Archaic figures begin to move and show expression. -The Classical period is know for its use of "contrapposto": The figure's hips and shoulders are aligned in opposite angles to create the most naturalistic, relaxed muscular position.

ISLAMIC, HINDI, AND BUDDHIST ART

-This category encompasses art produced in the seventh century and onwards by people residing in places inhabited or ruled by culturally Islamic populations. Islamic art does not necessarily include only religious art. It also includes elements from other aspects of Islamic society. Some Islamic theologians actively discouraged secular elements in art. -Indian art originates from India in the 3000 BC, ranging towards present time. Compared to Western art, Indian art is more ornate and sensuous. Strong design is characteristic of Indian art both in ancient and modern times.

21. Mortuary temple of Hatshepsut. Near Luxor, Egypt. New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty. c. 1473-1458 B.C.E. Sandstone, partially carved into a rock cliff, and red granite.

Attribution: Motuary temple of Hatshepsut. Near Luxor, Egypt. New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty. Circa 1473-1458 B.C.E. Sandstone, partially carved into a rock cliff, and red granite. Context: Constructed by Hatshepsuts royal architect Senenmut, the Motuary temple of Hatshepsut also known as Djeser-Djeseru ("Holy of Holies"). Hatshepsut initially ruled as regent for her step son Thuthmosis III but promoted herself to the role of pharaoh instead of passing power to him when he came to age. The temple is three stories high dedicated to her burial area, devoted not only to her funeral cult, but also to the cults of Amon and of other gods. Thus, guardians have been arranged on each story. The central ramps lead to the second and first terraces, the walls are supported by a row of square pillars. A statue of Horus as a falcon stands at each side of the entrance to the ramp. The bottom columns end with both sides depicting huge Osiris statues of the queen. The Hathor Chapel is found on the south side of the second level and the Anubis chapel is found to the north end of the second colonnade. The birth colonnade is on the right hand side of the ramp to the third level. At the birth colonnade, inscriptions written on the walls depict Hatsheptut's divine birth. Media-size: Made out of Sandstone and red granite. 97 feet tall x 121 feet wide

34. Doryphoros (Spear Bearer). Polykleitos. Original 450-440 B.C.E. Roman copy (marble) of Greek original (bronze).

Attribution: Doryphorus (Spear Bearer). Polykleitos. Original 450-440 B.C.E. Roman copy (marble) of Greek original (bronze). Context: The original was sculpted by the Greek sculptor Polykleitos. His wish was to create a sculpture encompassing the perfect balance and proportions of the human body. Doryphorus depicts a warrior going out to battle. He can be seen as an idealized version of a Grecian man- the type of man that people idolize and strive to be but can never reach. The original sculpture has never been uncovered; many suspect that it had been destroyed. The piece lives on through the multiple marble copies made by other sculptors. There are copies currently housed in the Minneapolis institute of Arts, the Munich Museum, and more. Media: The sculpture is 213 cm long; ratio of head to body is 1:7. The original Greek sculpture was carved from bronze. The many copies were mainly carved from marble.

16. Standard of Ur from the Royal Tombs at Ur (modern Tell el-Muqayyar, Iraq). Sumerian. c. 2600-2400 B.C.E. Wood inlaid with shell, lapis lazuli, and red limestone.

Attribution: Standard of Ur from the Royal Tombs at Ur (modern Tell el-Muqayyar, Iraq). Sumerian. c. -2600 2400 B.C.E. Wood inlaid with shell, lapis lazuli, and red limestone. Media: This piece has two sides. The end panels are covered with figurative and geometric mosaics which are made of: pieces of shell, lapis lazuli, and red limestone set into bitumen. Size: 8.5 Inches high by 19.5 Inches long Context: The mosaics represent life in early Mesopotamia. One side represents the "War Side" (which shows the defeat of some unknown enemy) while the other is the "Peace Side" (which shows the bounty of the land). This narrates a story from the bottom to the top. For example, the top register on each side depicts a king, who is larger in scale than the other figures (it represents/symbolizes his power). The Standard shows the two most important roles of an early Mesopotamian ruler: the warrior (protects people and secured access to water and natural resources) and the leader (served as an intermediary between the people and the gods.) Current location: The Standard of Ur is currently at the British Museum.

9. The Ambum Stone. Ambum Valley, Enga Province, Papua New Guinea. c. 1500 B.C.E. Greywack.

Context:It was discovered in 1960s, and it is one of the earliest known Pacific works of art from 3500 years ago. Although function of such artifact is unknown, considering that Papuan's ancient mortals and pestles were in forms of birds, this ambum stone might as well be a pestle. However, this ambum stone has advanced level of figurative qualities than other pestles so other possibility is that it my have served as a sacred object. To support this, the ambum stone especially assembles a long-beaked echidna which is considered sacred and perceived with supernatural powers by present day people of the region where they are used as spirit stones in sorcery and other rituals Media:Greywacke Stone Size:20.0cm height x 7.50cm width x 14.0cm depth

18. King Menkaura and queen. Old Kingdom, Fourth Dynasty. c. 2490-2472 B.C.E. Greywacke.

D: 2490-2472 B.C.E P/S: 4th Dynasty Royal Sculpture A: Unknown P: None OL: Menkaura Valley Temple M: Greywacke T: Greywacke F: He represents the epitome of kingship and ideal human form. She represents the ideal female form. C: Both figures represent the ideal form for both genders. DT: Vertical Grid, counter balancing horizontals, stiff, artificial posture. M: Hs broad shoulders, taut torso, and muscular arms and legs, all modeled with subtlety and restraint, convey a latent length. In contrast, her narrow shoulders and slim body, whose contours are apparent under the tight fitting sheath dress, represents the Egyptian ideal femininity. As in standard for sculptures of Egyptian men, his left foot is advanced, although his weight remains on the right foot. Egyptian females are shown with both feet together. Although they stand together sharing a common base and back slab, and she embraces him, they remain aloof and share no emotion, either with the viewer or each other.

26. Athenian agora. Archaic through Hellenistic Greek. 600 B.C.E.-150 C.E. Plan.

DATE: 6th century BCE PERIOD/STYLE: Classical Greece ARTIST: organized by Peisistratos (r. 567 - 521 BCE) PATRON: Peisistratos ORIGINAL LOCATION: along the main road in Athens, the Panathenaic Way, northwest of the Acropolis MATERIAL: marble TECHNIQUE: carving of marble to the precision and excellence characteristic of Greek architecture FUNCTION: serve as the center of political and public life in Athens CONTEXT: Peisistratos, during his reign, attempted to assert his tyranny over Athens; this is exemplified by his destruction of the primitive Agora in another part of the city and the construction, he ordered, of a new Agora in the center of the city DESCRIPTIVE TERMS: was a large, open area surrounded by buildings of various functions, all utilized for commercial, political, religious, and military activity; buildings included the Peristyle Court, Mint, Strategeion (where Athenian generals convened), and multiple temples dedicated to the Olympian deities, with individual temples for Ares, Zeus, Apollo, and Hephaestus MEANING: The destruction of private homes, along the general construction of the new Agora served as a political statement to strengthen and consolidate Peisistratos' political influence before assertion of his tyranny. Also, the expansive range of temples to the Olympian gods and goddesses, as well as the Agora's relative proximity to the Acropolis, displays the cultural significance of the Greek religion. Furthermore, the central positioning of the Agora along the main road of Athens was a shrewd decision by Peisistratos, as it further supported his political legitimacy by displaying that the Agora was both a literal and figurative "heart" of the city-state

22. Akhenaton, Nefertiti, and three daughters. New Kingdom (Amarna), 18th Dynasty. c. 1353-1335 B.C.E. Limestone.

Date: 1353 BCE Period/Style: Egyptian Artist: Unknown Patron: Akhenaton Original Location: Amarna, Egypt Material: Painted limestone Technique: Sunken relief Function: Depict a family portrait possibly capturing a joyous moment from Akhenaton Context: Family of Akhenaton are basking in the sun rays of Aton, the sun god that Akhenaton makes up. He is also noted for leaving behind traditional Egyptian polytheism. Instead he encouraged worship around the god Aton. He attempted to leave the traditional religion, but not accepted. Descriptive Terms: Sunken relief, iconography Meaning: In the piece the depiction of the 2 larger human subjects create a sense of a couple, their relationship, and their domestic love. The piece also suggests that god is present. By looking closely into the sun, a cobra can be seen which is the symbol for a supreme deity, the only deity showing his monotheism during this time period. The ends of the suns rays near the 2 larger human subjects have hands on the end, this is a way live life to the people. Therefore giving them the breath of life. In the sculpture a very intimate moment was depicted; as Akhenaton makes a motion for his daughter to kiss him while Nefertiti is holding the other 2 children in the picture. Lastly, by including the whole family, the unknown artist is able to show that they would be ruling Egypt together.

186. Great Mosque (Masjid-e Jameh). Isfahan, Iran. Islamic, Persian: Seljuk, Il-Khanid, Timurid and Safavid Dynasties. c. 700 C.E.; additions and restorations in the 14th, 18th, and 20th centuries C.E. Stone, brick, wood, plaster, and glazed ceramic tile.

Date: c. 700 C.E Artist: Nizam al-Mulk Original location: Isfahan, Iran. Materials: Stone, brick, wood,plaster, glazed ceramic title. Function: To represent the Seljuk's powerful empire Context: In 1051, Isfahan became the capital of the Seljuqs, who arrived in Khwarazm and Transoxiana from central Asia in the eleventh century. Defenders of Sunnism, they aimed at the restoration of the Abbasid Caliphate. The conquest of Isfahan by Tughril Beg elevated the city's status, which was manifested in the rich architectural projects representing the Seljuk's powerful empire Descriptive details: The two towers flanking the southern iwan (a vaulted open room) and the large domes on the north and south rising above the horizon of Isfahan's silhouette and serving as visual landmarks. Meaning: The Seljuks wanted the world to know how powerful they were. Period/Style: Timurid and Safavid Dynasties Technique: architectural expression of the Seljuk rule in Persia (1038-1118).

15. Seated scribe. Saqqara, Egypt. Old Kingdom, Fourth Dynasty. c. 2620-2500 B.C.E. Painted limestone.

N: 15. Seated Scribe D: 2620-2500 BCE P/S: Old Kingdom A: Unknown Pa: Unknown OL: Saqqara, Egypt M: Painted Limestone T: Shaped Limestone F: Signify the high social status of scribes C: It shows how scribes were general wealthy and and respected members of society DT: Egypt, Limestone, Jewels, Saqqara, Old Kingdom, Scribe, and Wealth M: Scribes had to go through extensive training in order to become one and were respected by the level of work that they went through.

158. Silver and gold maize cobs. Inka. c. 1400-1533 C.E. Sheet metal/repousee, gold and silver alloys.

N: 158. Silver and Gold Maize Cobs D: 1400-1533 CE P/S: Incan Art A: Unknown Pa: Unknown OL: Inca Region M: Gold and silver alloys T: None F: The silver and gold cobs display the important resources of the area. C: The Andes region is very rich in precious minerals and used these items to decorate their possessions to display their wealth. DT: Inca. Gold, Silver, Cobs, Andes, Wealth, Power, Minerals, Resources M: The Incas had a very powerful dynasty until their fall to the Spanish Empire and these show the extraordinary wealth that the Incas owned and the immense control they had over their region.

30. Audience Hall (apadana) of Darius and Xerxes. Persepolis, Iran. Persian. c. 520-465 B.C.E. Limestone.

M: Limestone T: Stone masonary/ stone carving F: to act as a central location for subject nations to bring tribute and exchange gifts C: Tall central hall with 72 columns and stairs leading to the main enterance DT: Walls engraving with hundreds of figures which illustrate multiple ethnic groups paying tribute . Stairs leading up to the main central hall, over 20m high and 1000 sq foot. M: symbol of the kings power because gift exchange was one of the central elements in Persian style.

161. City of Machu Picchu. Central highlands, Peru. Inka. c. 1450-1540 C.E. Granite (architectural complex).

N: 161. Machu Picchu D: 1450-1540 CE P/S: Incan Art A: Unknown Pa: Unknown OL: Machu Picchu, Peru M: Granite T: Incan Art F: It was built as an estate for the Incan emperor Pachacuti. C: The Incan emperor used this city as a royal retreat for holiday and as a luxurious place to hold meetings with foreign dignitaries. DT: Machu Picchu, Granite, Inca, Lost City, Royal Retreat, Pachacuti, Luxury M: The city of Machu Picchu was used to show the raw power and influence over the area that they controlled.

164. Transformation mask. Kwakwaka'wakw, Northwest coast of Canada. Late 19th century C.E. Wood, paint, and string.

N: 164. Transformation Mask D: Late 19th century P/S: North American Art A: Kwakiutl Tribe Pa: Unknown OL: Northwest coast of Canada M: Wood, Paint, and String F: The masks were used for storytelling usually and also for rituals. C: The animal outer could be opened to show a human face which helped in storytelling as many dealt with animals. DT: Transformation, Mask, Animal, Storytelling, Myths, Wood, Paint, North American, Canada M: The people would transform into the animals that their masks depicted which helped add into the depth of the story.

44. Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater). Rome, Italy. Imperial Roman. 70-80 C.E. Stone and concrete.

N: 44. Roman Coliseum D: 70 AD P/S: Roman Empire (Roman Amphitheatre) A: Multiple Authors Pa: Emperor Vespasian ( From Spoils of war after conquest of Jerusalem) OL: Rome, Italy M: Limestone, Concrete, Tuff, Tiles, Mortar T: Use of concrete, elaborate support pillars F: Source of entertainment for the roman peoples C: Used as a place for entertainment for the peoples of Rome after the successful conquest of Jerusalem. DT: Ionic, Doric, Corinthian, Tremendous, Concrete, Mortar, Circular, Tunnels, Hypogeum, Arena M: Romans believed that in order to keep the people happy you had to give them "Bread and Circus" and this was their way of supplying the people with entertainment("Circus").

35. Acropolis. Athens, Greece. Iktinos and Kallikrates. c. 447-410 B.C.E. Marble.

N: Acropolis (The Parthenon) D: 447-424 B.C.E P/S: Height of Athenian Power/ Classical Greek Style A: Iktinos and Kallikrates Pa: Goddess Athena (deity built for) OL: Athens, Greece in the small fortress on top of the hill. M: Marble stone T: Ionic columns, elaborate friezes, religiously biased art, scale of construction, vertical columns and horizontally placed slabs of rock. F: Religious Temple to worship Athena (goddess of wisdom) C: During this time period Athenian power was at its strongest so they built structures to demonstrate this control and dominance. Just before introduction of Roman style on a large scale, so was able to keep from Roman style influences. The temples design was made to give it a heaven on earth feel, Gods and humans at same level, empowerment. DT: grand, religious, equal, balance, solid M: Its grand stature can be contributed to the period in which it was built because during 500-400 B.C.E Athenian power was at its peak and this is one of the many landmarks that demonstrated this power. This temple is also very significant because it was dedicated to the Athena, the Greek goddess of Wisdom. This luxurious temple is completely made out of marble and features simple stylistic techniques, such as vertical columns with horizontally laid stone to show balance and equality. Also there is a very unique and technical design on the horizontally laid stone which was most likely placed on there to give the temple a grand and unearthly feeling (to make it feel suitable for only the gods).

1. Apollo 11 stones. Namibia. c. 25,500 B.C.E. Charcoal on stone.

N: Apollo 11 Stones D: 25,500 - 25,300 B.C.E P/S: Patheolic Era A: Bushmen indigenous people PA: Unknown OL: Nile River M: Stone, charcoal, and ocher T: Rock painting F: Depict daily life C: Homo sapiens at the time were able to create symbolic art and have the capacity to percieve abstract art DT: Hand painted M: Drawing of an animal the person encountered

43. Augustus of Prima Porta. Imperial Roman. Early first century C.E. Marble.

N: Augustus of Prima Porta D: AD14 - AD 37 (real date unknown) P/S: Early Roman Empire. Classical Greek A: Unknown. Pa: Emperor Augustus. OL: Unknown (found in his wife's villa at Prima Porta). M: White marble. T: Marble sculpture. F: Used to send a political message and spread propaganda for the emperor. C: Original was dedicated to Augustus by the Senate and placed in a public place, probably to help spread support for him. Augustus was old at the time be he was portrayed as a young man in order to help strengthen his political message. Cupid was depicted at Augustus's feet to show his divinity. (Cupid was the son of the God Venus from whom Augustus's family was supposed to be descendants of). DT: Organic shapes and lines, extremely detailed, and roughly symmetric except for Augustus's raised arm and cupid at his feet. M: The meaning of this work was to spread Augustus's image in order to gain the support of the people.

189. Bahram Gur Fights the Karg, folio from the Great Il-Khanid Shahnama. Islamic; Persian, Il'Khanid. c. 1330-1340 C.E. Ink and opaque watercolor, gold, and silver on paper.

N: Bahram Gur Fights the Karg D: c. 1330-1340 C.E. P/S: 1256-1353 C.E. / Ilkhanid (Persia) A: Sultan Muhammad Pa: Shah Tahmasp OL: Tabriz, Iran M: Ink, watercolor, silver, and gold on paper T: painting F: To help illustrate the story of the Shahama (Book od Kings), a famous epic poem, and to show the power of the Iranian king Bahram Gur. C: The folio was a part of the Great Il-Khanid Shahama. The king Bahram Gur is depicted slaying a horned wolf. This painting shows the vibrant cosmopolitan nature of Ilkanid society because it not only shows the king wearing material from Europe, it is painted using Chinese styles. DT: dark, intimidating, hectic, noble M: Bahram Gur Fights the Karg shows the power of the Iranian kings and of the Ilkhanate.

188. Basin (Baptistère de St. Louis). Muhammad ibn al-Zain. c. 1320-1340 C.E. Brass inlaid with gold and silver.

N: Basin (Baptistere de St. Louis) D: c.1320-1340 C.E. P/S: Middle Ages A: Muhammad ibn al-Zain PA: Believed to be made for Mamluk a court official named Salar as a gift for his sultan but there is no inscription to identify him as so. OL: Egypt M: Brass inlaid with gold and silver T: Engraved silver inlay and gold leaf F: Used in 18th century France as a baptismal font for several royal children. C: Used to baptize Louis XIII of France which led to its naming. DT: Gleaming, story, metallic, intricate M: To depict life and possibly specific events in the artists time period and region

182. Buddha. Bamiyan, Afghanistan. Gandharan. c. 400-800 C.E. (destroyed in 2001). Cut rock with plaster and polychrome paint.

N: Buddha D: c. 400-800C.E. (destroyed by Taliban in 2001) P/S: Gandharan A: Kushan people of Gandhara PA: Unknown OL: Bamiyan, Afghanistan M: Cut rock with plaster and polychrome paint T: Carved out of cliffs F: To represent the Buddha to his people in that region. C: Created in front of several, until recently, unknown cave paintings DT: Powerful, aweing, majestic, desert M: To showcase the Buddha in all his glory to his followers.

3. Camelid sacrum in the shape of a canine. Tequixquiac, central Mexico. 14,000-7000 B.C.E. Bone. Pigment on rock.

N: Camelid Sacrum in the Shape of a Canine D: 14,000-7,000 B.C.E P/S: Prehistoric A: unknown Pa: unknown OL: Tequixquiac, central Mexico M: Camelid bone Sacrum T: no known technique, however it was carved F: The function has been discussed over the years the most likely reason of the carving is for religious reasons wanting to respect the animals around them (just speculation). C: This work was very significant for this region and this time period because it was one of the first known works of art. As well it showed that the people living in this region had started too developed intellectually and were aware of the surroundings around them. The inhabitants were interacting with the animal's native to their area. DT: The bone is a Camelid Sacrum, which is a bone located at the base of the spine or near the pelvic area of an animal that is in close relation to a Camel. M: As said before there is much speculation on meaning of the art work for example, people believe it may have been used as a hunting mask, as well as religious reasons.

48. Catacomb of Priscilla. Rome, Italy. Late Antique Europe. c. 200-400 C.E. Excavated tufa and fresco.

N: Catacomb of Priscilla D: c. 200-400 C.E. P/S: Late Antique Era/ Christian iconography and fresco style wall art A: Unknown Pa: None OL: Rome, Italy ( still located at same location) M: Paint on Roman conrete walls and groin vaults T: Organic lines, Symmetrical balance, Rhythm, Symbollic Pictoral objects F: Served as a burial site for significant individuals of the church, and was used to promote the Christian belief in life after death and salvation granted by Jesus Christ through the wall frescoes in the catacombs. C: Religious art workwas placed in these catcombs in order to express their belief of life after death. It was also used as a reminder and a warning to those who saw the dead bodies that the Christian religion offers salvation to those who believe and participate in its sevices. Finally some of the frescoes serve as important historical indicators that Jesus Christ was a real man who lived on this earth, with the oldest image of the Virgin Mother Mary residing in these catacombs we are given a view of the non-divine side of infant Jesus breast-feeding from his mother, further reinforcing the Christian belief that Jesus was God's son incarnate on earth. DT: simple, two-dimensional, religiously based theme, soft and organic lines. M: The meaning behind this is caused by the religious affiliation and demonstrates important events in biblical scripture. This leads to the more explained and religiously represented bond between religious beliefs and burial rituals due to the images depicted at a bural site. The images in the catacombs are believed to represent core Roman Catholic belief that through strong dedication to the religion those who have died can move on to heaven, so they would want to be buried somewhere with religious meaning (shown by the frescoes) further leading to the reason for building the catacombs.

153. Chavin de Huantar. Northern highlands, Peru. Chavin. 900-200 B.C.E. Stone (architectural complex); granite (Lanzon and sculpture); hammered gold alloy (jewelry).

N: Chavin de Huantar D: built around 1200 B.C. P/S: Chavin Art A: Chavin civilization Pa: no specific patron OL: Ancash region, Peru M: stone T: N/A F: religious site and the capital of the Chavin civilization C: Used for a religious center for ceremonies and events. However, its main functions changed as time pasted. DT: stone, rigid, organized, functional M: no specific meaning

185. Dome of the Rock. Jerusalem, Palestine. Islamic, Umayyad. 691-692 C.E., with multiple renovations. Stone masonry and wooden roof decorated with glazed ceramic tile, mosaics, and gilt aluminum and bronze dome.

N: Dome of the Rock D: 687-692 C.E P/S: Islamic/Umayyad A: Caliph Abd al-Malik P: Caliph Umar I OL: Jerusalem M: Gold dome, marble interior T: Islamic architecture F: Marks the coming of new religion to the city, sacred to both Jews and Christian C: First dome shrine built, during crusade became Christian shrine before returning to Islamic hands. DT: Persian tiles on the exterior and marble slabs interior, octagonal plan M: Represents a symbolic statement to both Jews and Christians of the superiority of the new faith of Islam.

38. Great Altar of Zeus and Athena at Pergamon. Asia Minor (present-day Turkey). Hellenistic Greek. c. 175 B.C.E. Marble (architecture and sculpture).

N: Great Altar of Zeus and Athena D: c.175 BCE p/s: Hellenistic A: Unknown P: Unknown OL: Pergamon, Asia Minor (present-day Turkey) M: Marble T: Colonnades, portrait sculptures F: Honor the Greek victories against barbaric warriors. Also a place of sacrifice C: The Greeks finally won countless victories against barbarians. DT: Godly, heroic, ideal, adventure; victorious M: The frieze sculptures show the fight of the gods (Greeks) and the giants (barbarians). Zeus defeats mother Earth, Gaia, which symbolizes the end of matriarchy government and culture. The win also represents a switch of a barbaric world to a more civilized one.

17. Great Pyramids (Menkaura, Khafre, Khufu) and Great Sphinx. Giza, Egypt. Old Kingdom, Fourth Dynasty. c. 2550-2490 B.C.E. Cut limestone.

N: Great Pyramids and Great Sphinx of Giza D: c. 2550 B.C P/S: Old Kingdom A: Citizens of Giza, Egypt PA: Pharaoh Khufu, Pharaoh Khafre, Pharaoh Menkaure OL: Giza, Egypt M: Soapstone T: Carved out from rock, construction F: To honor the pharaohs C: Created to honor the pharaohs and display their political power DT: Sculpture, Architecture M: To represent the enudrance of the land and the people of Giza throughout the invasions and times of trouble

156. Great Serpent Mound. Adams County, southern Ohio. Mississippian (Eastern Woodlands). c. 1070 C.E. Earthwork/effigy mound.

N: Great Serpent Mound D: c. 1070 C.E. P/S: Mississippian (Eastern Woodlands) A: Unknown Pa: Unknown OL: Adams County, southern Ohio M: Earthwork/effigy mound T: Making mounds in the shape of a snake F: To direct spirits of the dead from burial mounds and subsurface graves to the North; Used to help understanding of astrology. Aid the natives during battle. C: The native people during this time were extremely spiritual and would believe that this Great Serpent would heal and even give them strength to have an advantage over other tribes. DT: Huge, spiritual, mounds, effigy, snake M: Unknown; believed to be a representation of the constellation Scorpio

165. Hide painting of Sun Dance. Attibuted to Cotsiogo (Cadzi Cody), Eastern Shoshone, Wind River Reservation, Wyoming. c. 1890-1900 C.E. Painted elk hide.

N: Hide painting of Sun Dance D: c. 1890-1900 C.E. P/S: Eastern Shoshone A: Cotsiogo (Cadzi Cody) Pa: N/A OL: Wind River Reservation, Wyoming M: Natural pigments like red ochre or chalk on deer hide. T: Free-hand painting, stenciling. F: Functioned to record history. C: Natives in this area were nomads and therefore relied heavily on the abundance of animals for their survival, in an effort to get more resources they honored and praised their deity's. DT: Deer hide, pigment, colorful, M: The Sun Dance was done to honor the native's main deity, it was performed to show appreciation for the resources they found on Earth and so that resources would keep being abundant.

163. Bandolier bag. Lenape (Delaware tribe, Eastern Woodlands). c. 1850 C.E. Beadwork on leather.

N:Bandolier Bag D:Circa 1850 A: Unknown Pa:Oklahoma Delaware OL: Oklahoma M:Hide, cotton cloth, glass beads, silk ribbon, wool yarn. T:Beaded, ribbon work F: Used mainly for decorative purposes, early ones had no pockets C:Decorative purpose for Native American Indians DT:Bead work, sewn, ribbon work M: Decorative

23. Tutankhamun's tomb, innermost coffin. New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty. c. 1323 B.C.E. Gold with inlay of enamel and semiprecious stones.

N: Innermost Coffin of Tutankhamun D: ca. 1323 BCE P/S: New Kingdom (Amarna Style) A: unknown Pa: unknown OL: The Valley of the Kings, Egypt M: beaten gold and inlaid with semiprecious stones such as lapis lazuli, turquoise, and carnelian T: made of wood, which was then heavily decorated on the outside with both paint and gold leaf F: During the 18th Dynasty the outer sarcophagus enclosed a series of inner coffins, the last of which would contain the royal mummy of the Pharaoh. The purpose of the King Tut sarcophagus was therefore the external layer of protection for the royal mummy of Tutankhamun. C: Was perfectly preserved when found in 1922. The coffin gives people insight on Ancient Egyptian burial customs, and expresses Egyptian power and affluence. Have influences of traditional ancient Egyptian art and of the Amarna style. DT: anthropoid (resembling human), ethereal, detailed, smooth M: It was sculpted in the image of Tutankhamun as Osiris, the god who presided over the judgment of the dead. He carries a crook and flail (worn by the god Osiris and the pharaoh), and wears the royal beard and a nemes head cloth - pharaohs wanted to imitate gods to connect to them and be like them. On either side of him, Isis and Nephthys spread their wings in a protective embrace

184. Jowo Rinpoche, enshrined in the Jokhang Temple. Lhasa, Tibet. Yarlung Dynasty. Believed to have been brought to Tibet in 641 C.E. Gilt metals with semiprecious stones, pearls, and paint; various offerings.

N: Jowo Rinpoche D: Brought to Tibet in 641 C.E. in the Yarlung dynasty P/S: Buddhist art A: Believed to be the celestial artist, Vishvakarman PA: Unknown OL: Made in India but now enshrined in the Jokhang temple. Lhasa, Tibet. M: Gilt metals with semi-precious stones, pearls, paint and various offerings T: Cast and filled with sacred relics F: Was a dowry of Queen Wengcheng for her marriage to King Songtsen Gampo in Tibet brought from China. C: Believed to be personally blessed by the Buddha to have the ability to grant your deepest wishes and quicken your path to enlightenment. It is Tibet's most treasured religious artifact. DT: Grand, luxurious, bejeweled, worshiped, blessed M: To represent the glory of the Buddha Siddhartha Guatama

25. Lamassu from the citadel of Sargon II, Dur Sharrukin (modern Khorsabad, Iraq). Neo-Assyrian. c. 720-705 B.C.E. Alabaster.

N: Lamassu from the citadel of Sargon II D: c. 720-705 B.C.E. P/S: Neo-Assyrian A: Unknown Pa: Assyrian rulers OL: Dur Sharrukin, modern day Iraq M: Alabaster T: Alabaster carving. F: Lamassu were used to protect the city from evil spirits. C: During this time period Assyria was the most influential and powerful empire in Mesopotamia, they created lamassu to demonstrate their power and also to be protected by them. DT: Inorganic, spiritual, protective, strong, natural, hybrid M: Lamassu were placed at the entrance of Sargon II's palace to protect him from both spiritual and mortal enemies.

47. Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus. Late Imperial Roman. c. 250 C.E. Marble.

N: Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus D: 250-260 AD P/S: Late Imperial Rome/Anticlassical A: Unknown Pa: Unknown OL: Tomb near the Porta Tiburtina M: Marble T: Drill work, figures out completely out of the background. F: Sarcophagus for burying a dead person. C: By the 3rd century burial of the dead was common and taking the place of cremation. DT: Intertwined, anticlassical, background-less, free-standing M: Meant to be a memorial of the battle between Romans and Barbarians, depicted the message of triumph over death.

154. Mesa Verde cliff dwellings. Montezuma County, Colorado. Anasazi. 450-1300 C.E. Sandstone.

N: Mesa Verde Cliff Palace D: 1150 - 1300 CE P/S: Southwest Native American art A: The Anasazi Pa: The Anasazi OL: Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado M: Sandstone, mortar, wooden beams T: The sandstone was shaped using harder stones and a mortar of soil, water and ash was used to hold everything together. F: It is thought that Cliff Palace was a social, administrative site with high ceremonial usage. It contains 200 rectangular rooms, mostly used for communal living. C: The Anasazi that constructed this cliff dwelling and others like it at Mesa Verde were driven to these defensible positions by "increasing competition amidst changing climatic conditions." Scattered in the foreground are large circular semisubterreanean structures, called kivas. These chambers were the spiritual centers of the Anasazi. Cliff Palace was abandoned by 1300; some believe a series of mega droughts interrupting food production systems is the main cause. DT: grand, monumental, unreal, natural world, rural, domestic M: The location was not accidental. The Anasazi designed Cliff Palace to take advantage of the sun to heat the pueblo during the winter and shade it during the summer.

203. Night Attack on the Sanjô Palace. Kamakura Period, Japan. c. 1250-1300 C.E. Handscroll (ink and color on paper).

N: Night Attack on Sanjo Palace D: Second half of the 13th century P/S: Kamakura Period A: Unknown PA: Unknown OL: Japan M: Hand scroll T: Ink and color on paper F: Serves to present the battle of the 1159 Heiji Rebellion C: leaders Fujiwara Nobuyori and Minamoto Yoshitomo staged the coup, kidnapping emperor Go-Shirakawa, and setting the palace on fire. DT: Chaos, destruction, inflamed, rebellious, disorder, confusion, pandemonium M: Inspired by interests of new national leadership and threats of foreign invasion

33. Niobides Krater. Anonymous vase painter of Classical Greece known as the Niobid Painter. c. 460-450 B.C.E. Clay, red-figure technique (white highlights).

N: Niobides Krater D: c. 460-450 B.C.E. P/S: 5th to 4th centuries B.C.E./Early Classical A: Anonymous Greek painter known as the Niobid Painter Pa: Unknown OL: Unknown M: Clay T: Red-figure F: Calyx kraters were used to dilute wine with water. C: The early Classical was characterized by the beginning of the development of motion, but the characters still retain some stiffness, evidence of previous times. This vase may have been influenced by the murals of the Greek painter Polygnotus, although this cannot be confirmed because all of Polygnotus's works have been lost. DT: Violent, military, contrasting, slightly stiff M: This krater shows the power of the gods. It shows that they were vengeful if humans boasted or insulted them but would aid the humans if the humans respected the gods.

46. Pantheon. Imperial Roman. 118-125 C.E. Concrete with stone facing.

N: Pantheon D:118-125 C.E. P/S: Roman A: ordered to be built by Emperor Hadrian Pa: Roman Gods OL: Rome M: Roman concrete and marble T: N/A F: served as a place to worship Roman Gods C: Created in order to replace the original Pantheon buil in 80 A.D. Used to show the power of the emperor and the importance of Roman Gods in Roman society. DT: symmetric and geometric, oculus, detailed and percise M: used as a place for worship of the Roman Gods

28. Peplos Kore from the Acropolis. Archaic Greek. c. 530 B.C.E. Marble, painted details.

N: Peplos Kore D: 530 B.C.E. P/S: Archaic period, Attica style A: Unknown, most likely a citizen of Greece P: Possibly the goddess Athena OL: Athens, Greece M: Marble T: Sculpture F: The most commonly believed function of the figure was to serve as a statue of the goddess Athena C: This figure was named after the characteristics that describe it. A Peplos is a Greek costume of rectangular clothe and a kore is a clothed, female figure. The figure is believed to be a representation of the Greek goddess Athens, and many examples prove this to be true - the sculpture was once fully painted, and the figure originally held a bow and arrows, both contributing to the possibility that the figure could have been a depiction of a goddess. Also, the fact that she is fully clothed and that the kore was a commonly sculpted figure during that period shows that women were hardly displayed in art as nude figures during that time. DT: Symmetrical balance shown through posture, organic, curvy lines, rough texture felt by the hardness of the marble, archaic smile suggests that she did not live in world full of emotion, but rose above that level to a more divine state of being. M: Strong evidence and analysis have shown that the Peplos Kore was probably a replication of the figure of the Greek goddess, Athens. The intended message behind the erection of this figure was to most likely promote the worship of this goddess and encourage the practice of the state religion throughout the area. The fact that a representation of a Greek goddess was incorporated into form of a kore, a standard female figure that was widely erected throughout Greece during the Archaic period, shows that the artist felt it quite necessary to make the goddess's presence felt throughout the region.

160. City of Cusco, including Qorikancha (Inka main temple), Santo Domingo (Spanish colonial convent), and Walls at Saqsa Waman (Sacsayhuaman). Central highlands, Peru. Inka. c. 1440 C.E. Sandstone.

N: Qorikancha (City of Cusco) D: 1200 AD A: Inca citizens Pa: It is said to have been constructed under the direction of the Inka ruler Viracocha about 1200 AD, and later embellished by the Inka Pachacuti OL: Cusco, Peru M: Built from large stone blocks finely cut and fitted together without mortar. The temple walls were lined with some 700 solid-gold sheets. T: Masonry F: It was the focal point of religious activities within the city Context: The religious complex of Qorikancha contained the Temple of the Sun which was not only the most sacred site in the Inca religion but was considered the very center of the Inca world. The site was also known as the Golden Enclosure and was dedicated to the highest gods in the Inca pantheon such as the Creator god Viracocha, the moon goddess Quilla and especially to Inti, the god of the sun. The Christian monastery of Santo Domingo was built on top of the complex in a deliberate attempt to signify that one religion had been replaced by another. DT: sacred, forgotten, ruins, elaborate , masonry M: The lay-out of the site, as seen from above, actually resembled a sun with rays shining out in all directions. These were the sacred ceque lines - physical and cosmic roads - of which there were 41 which led to an impressive 328 sacred sites. Cuzco itself was deliberately laid out to represent a jaguar and Coricancha was located at the tail. In typical Inca symmetry the second most important sacred site in the city - Sacsahuaman - was located at the head. Coricancha was also built where the city's two great rivers of Huantanay and Tullamayo met.

4. Running horned women. Tassili n'Ajjer, Algeria. 6000-4000 B.C.E.

N: Running Horned Woman D: 6000-4000 BCE P/S: Prehistoric Cave Painting A: unknown Pa: n/a OL: Tassili n' Ajjer, Algeria M: pigment on rock T: Cave painting F: to describe a ceremonial tradition or to identify a religious significant figure C: At this time, people knew little of their surrounding world, and relied on these religious deities to provide for their basic needs. It was found in a cave, so the artist(s) intended to protect the art which indicates it was valued. DT: organic lines used on the body, rough texture, large scale painting, no depth M: to show the significance of religion in early societies and the important the hunter gatherers played on society

41. Seated boxer. Hellenistic Greek. c. 100 B.C.E. Bronze.

N: Seated Boxer D: c. 100 B.C.E P/S: Hellenistic Greece A: Unknown Pa: Unknown OL: Discovered on the slopes of the Quirinal, Rome. M: Bronze statue inlaid with copper. T: Lost wax technique. F: Possibly made to be votive/dedicated by a victorious boxer. C: Rome had been conquered by Alexander the Great of Greece, after his death (Hellenistic Period) this art focused on realism. DT: Stiff, free-standing, rigid, ready, victorious, proportionate M: Votive demonstrating the appreciation for fighters which was a way of entertainment and distraction in Hellenistic Greece.

202. Shiva as Lord of Dance (Nataraja). Hindu; India (Tamil Nadu), Chola Dynasty. c. 11th century C.E. Cast bronze.

N: Shiva as Lord of Dance (Nataraja) D: c. 11th century p/s: Hindu (Chola Dynasty) A: Unknown P: Unknown OL: Tamil Nadu, India M: Cast Bronze T: Sculpting F: Praise Shiva C: Nataraja is a depiction of the god Shiva as the cosmic dancer who performs his divine dance to destroy a weary universe and make preparations for the god Brahma to start the process of creation. DT: Hindu, creation, reincarnation, bronze, loose, green, balanced, M: Nataraja combines a single image Shiva's roles as creator, preserver, and destroyer of the universe and conveys the Indian conception of the never-ending cycle of time. Shiva's dance is set within a flaming halo. The god holds in his upper right hand the damaru. His upper left hand holds agni. With his lower right hand, he makes abhayamudra. The dwarflike figure being trampled by his right foot represents apasmara purusha, Shiva's front left hand, pointing to his raised left foot, signifies refuge for the troubled soul. The symbols imply that, through belief in Shiva, his devotees can achieve salvation

8.Stonehenge. Wiltshire, UK. Neolithic Europe. c. 2500-1600 B.C.E. Sandstone.

N: Stonehenge D: 3000 B.C. P/S: Global prehistory (circular monument) A: Celtic Priests Pa: unknown OL: located in England M: Sarsen Stones T: Symmetry F: Used as a giant clock for the seasons most likely or could be an ancient burial site C: The rocks are lined up so on the summer solstice light shines right through the middle to display the time of year. DT: Stone, circular, pillars, symmetric, inorganic, burial ground, solstice, and religious. M: Their society was based on agriculture, so the knowledge of the seasons was crucial to their survival. Stonehenge served the same purpose as a sundial.

31. Temple of Minerva (Veii, near Rome, Italy) and sculpture of Apollo. Master sculptor Vulca. c. 510-500 B.C.E. Original temple of wood, mud brick, or tufa (volcanic rock); terra cotta sculpture.

N: Temple of Minerva and sculpture of Apollo D: 510-500 B.C.E. P/S: Ancient Greek A: Architect unknown, Sculptor of statues: Master sculptor Vulca P: Unknown OL: Etruscan Society M: The Temple of Minerva and the sculpture of Apollo was built most likely from wood, mud, brick, or tufa (volcanic rock), and stone as the flooring. Because of the materials used the buildings didn't not serve the elements well. Leading to the destruction of all temples. T: Much of the technique used was described in, De Architecture by Vitruvius. The building laid on a thick stone layer with tufa, wood, etc., for the walls and roofs. This particular temple is the foundation that lead to the understanding of all similar temples. The building had to parts a wide room that contained columns then a back section split in to three parts. Many terracotta sculptors would line the buildings, evidently some of these sculptors did survive. F: A place of worship to the female Goddesses Minerva. This was a new style of worship to have a temple specific to the god or goddesses. C: No remaining Etruscan Temples all destroyed, however many assumptions are made about the layout of them. As well the Apollo statue although damaged did survive in good condition. DT: colorful, ornate, weak

157. Templo Mayor (Main Temple). Tenochititlan (modern Mexico City, Mexico). Mexica (Aztec). 1375-1520 C.E. Stone (temple); volcanic stone (The Coyolxauhqui Stone); jadeite (Olmec-style mask); basalt (Calendar Stone).

N: Templo Mayor D: 14th century P/S: Huastec Art/Post classic period of Mesoamerica A: Aztecs Pa: N/A OL: Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan M: stone T: N/A F: dedicated to both Huitzilopochtli, the god of war, and Tlaloc, the god of rain and agriculture. C: built as the main temple in the Aztec capital DT: large, complex, organized, symmetric M: used to worship the Aztec gods

40. Alexander Mosaic from the House of Faun, Pompeii. Republican Roman. c. 100 B.C.E. Mosaic.

N: The Alexander Mosiac D: c.100BCE P/S: Late Hellenistic A: Philoxenos of Eretrea(only believed to be) Pa: n/a OL: Pompeii, Italy M: Small mosaic tiles T: Tesserae mosaic F: To portray the Battle of Issus C: Made in the House of Faun which was the Largest house found in Pompeii. The house is thought to be built shortly after the Roman conquest of Pompeii and the mosaic proves the wealth and power of the most likely Roman ruling class inhabitant of the home.4 DT: Mosaic, Battle, Roman, Ruling class M: : It is believed to show the Battle of Issus between Alexander the Great and the Persian King Darius III in the year 333BCE

191. The Ardabil Carpet. Maqsud of Kashan. 1539-1540 C.E. Silk and wool.

N: The Ardabil Carpet D: 1540 C.E. P/S: Safavid Dynasty/Persian A: Unknown P: Shaykh Safi (Sufi leader) OL: Funerary mosque of Shaykh Safi al-Din, Ardabil, Iran. M: Knotted pile of wool and silk. T: Made on a loom, knotted. F: Decoration that is highly prized. C: Was a matching pair made for shrine of Safi al-Din Ardabil, enlarged in late 1530s. DT: Rich geometric patterns, scrolls, floral flourishes, golden medallion dominates carpet, cartouches (rectangular-shaped spaces for calligraphy) M: The design of the Ardabil carpet and its skillful execution is a testament to the great skill of the artisans at work in northwest Irain in the 1530's.

190. The Court of Gayumars, folio from Shah Tahmasp's Shahnama. Sultan Muhammad. c. 1522-1525 C.E. Ink, opaque watercolor, and gold on paper.

N: The Court of Gayumars D: c. 1522-1525 C.E. P/S: 16th century/ Safavid (Persia) A: Sultan Muhammad Pa: Shah Tahmasp OL: Tabriz, Iran M: Ink, watercolor, and gold on paper T: painting F: To help illustrate the story of the great king Gayumars and to display his fabled glory for a copy of the Shahama, a famous epic poem. C: The folio was a part of the Shahama of Shah Tahmasp, a collection of works from various artists to illustrate the epic poem by Firdawsi. The manuscript was later disassembled when it fell into the hands of the west and the pages were auctioned off separately. DT: colorful, light, airy, peaceful M: The Court of Gayumars shows the power of the first king of Iran, Gayumars.

39. House of the Vettii. Pompeii, Italy. Imperial Roman. c. second century B.C.E.; rebuilt c. 62-79 C.E. Cut stone and fresco.

N: The House of the Vetti D: c. second century B.C.E. rebuilt c. 62-79C.E. P. Imperial Roman A: Unknown Architects Pa: The Vetti Brothers (Aulus Vettius Conviva and his brother, Aulus Vettius Restitutus) OL: Pompeii, Italy ( Ancient Rome) M: Cut stone and fresco T: (wall paintings: first, second, third and fourth style) F: provide sheltering for the Vetti brothers (also serves as an example of daily life in Rome since the house was so well preserved) C: The house was built atop the remains of an earlier house that survives, in part, in the form of the wings (alae) and a doorway. The plan of the House of the Vetti has two large central halls (atria) and, significantly, lacks an office space (tablinum). Entry to the house was gained from the east by way of a vestibule that granted admission to the larger atrium. The stone-lined basin for collecting rainwater (impluvium) lies at the center of the atrium. DT: alae, atria, tablinum, impluvium M: To convey the wealth of the brothers

183. The Kaaba. Mecca, Saudi Arabia. Islamic. Pre-Islamic monument; rededicated by Muhammad in 631-632 C.E.; multiple renovations. Granite masonry, covered with silk curtain and calligraphy in gold and silver-wrapped thread.

N: The Kaaba D: 631 - 632 C.E. P/S: 476 - 1453 C.E. / Byzantine and Islamic Art A: It is believed by Muslims that Ibrahim and his son Ismail built the Kaaba, later modified by others Pa: rededicated by Muhammad OL: Mecca, Saudi Arabia M: Granite, covered in silk and cotton, gold calligraphy, and silver coated thread T: granite masonry and calligraphy F: This shrine marks the place of hajj (pilgrimage) for Muslims and the direction that they should pray in. Muslims who make the hajj walk around the Kaaba in hopes of touching the Black Stone C: The Kaaba has been modified throughout history by different rulers. Muhammad was exiled from Mecca in 620 C.E. but returned about 10 years later. When he returned, having rooted the religion of Islam elsewhere, he took Mecca and the Kaaba, destroying the pagan icons there. The Black Stone is said to be a gift from the angel Gabriel. The caliphs after him expanded the area and mosque around it to accommodate more people or to expand its functions. The silk covering, or kiswa, was added by the seventh century C.E. DT: geometric, dark, elegant, grand M: Shows the power of Islam and its perpetual nature.

24. Last judgment of Hu-Nefer, from his tomb (page from the Book of the Dead). New Kingdom, 19th Dynasty. c. 1275 B.C.E. Painted papyrus scroll.

N: The Last Judgment of Hu-Nefer D: c.1275 BCE p/s: New Kingdom, 19th dynasty; traditional Egyptian A: Unknown P: Hu-Nefer OL: New Kingdom of Egypt M: Vegetable gum painted on papyrus scroll T: twist perspective F: Final judgment of the deceased C: The Book of the Dead was a collection of funerary spells and prayers used in Egypt. Anubis is the god of embalming; Maat is the goddess of truth and right; Ammit devours sins; Thoth is the god who records preceedings. DT: Abstract figures; conservative; traditional; hieroglyphs M: Anubis leads Hu-Nefer into a hall of judgment. Anubis adjusts the scales to weigh Hu-Nefer's heart against Maat's feather. Ammit, half-lion and half hippopotamus, awaits the decision of the scales. Hu-Nefer is awarded eternal life from Thoth.

193. Terra cotta warriors from mausoleum of the first Qin emperor of China. Qin Dynasty. c. 221-209 B.C.E. Painted terra cotta.

N: The Terracotta Army D: 210 B.C.E . P/S: Qin Dynasty A: unknown craftsmen Pa: Qin Shuihuangdi OL: Xi'an province of china (Qin Shihuangdi's Tomb) M: Terracotta, soft clay, bronze (weapons), "yellow earth" (white grit, quartz sand, meia, feldspar) T: Kneading, carving, scraping, pasting, firing, glazing, coloring F: To protect the emperor in the afterlife (belief that inanimate object animate themselves in the afterlife) C: Placed in tomb with the emperor, all are facing away from the emperor and placed in linear, military formation. Proportion of figures were life like DT: proportionate, glazed, smooth, rigid M: Form of funerary art whose purpose was to protect the emperor in the afterlife; portray the army that unified China, and convey the wealth and power that the emperor had.

181. Petra, Jordan: Treasury and Great Temple. Nabataean Ptolemaic and Roman. c. 400 B.C.E.-100 C.E. Cut rock.

N: The Treasury and Great Temple D: circa 312 B.C. P/S: Classical/Nabataean, Ptolemaic and Roman. A: Nabataeans P: Aretas IV Philopatris OL: Petra, Jordan M: Cut rock, monumental tomb facades are cut into pink sandstone cliffs. T: Greek architecture with roman distinctions. F: Metropolitan city and show prosperity. C: Site was unknown to western world until 1812, DT: Stone carvings, camel carvans and betyls (the famous god blocks) set in niches, Sculptures of mythological figures associated with afterlife. M: Serves as a funerary tomb for the wealthy and the dead are guided by the gods/goddesses of the dead.

10. Tlatilco female figurine. Central Mexico, site of Tlatilco. 1200-900 B.C.E. Ceramic.

N: Tlatilco Female Figurines D: 1200-900BCE P/S: Pre-Classical period of Pre-Colombian Mesoamerican art A: Unknown people of the Tlatilco region PA: none OL: Central Mexico at site of Tlatilco(The word tlatilco comes from the Nahuatl language which is the language of those who found the ruins of tlatilco; Tlatilco means "the place of hidden things")) M: Ceramic, 3-12 inches tall F: Used as a symbol of fertility, maternity and as a charm for women. C: The tlatilco people had been noted for high quality pottery pieces and had a chiefdom center and complicated burials with grave offerings using ritual and utilitarian ceramics. DT: Matriarchy, fertility, symbol, charm, exaggerated sexual features M: Believed to be a symbol of fertility/maternity and suggest a rare possibility of a more matriarchal society.

32. Tomb of the Triclinium. Tarquinia, Italy. Etruscan. c. 480-470 B.C.E. Tufa and fresco.

N: Tomb of the Trinclinium D: c. 470 B.C.E. A: Etruscan Civilization Pa: N/A OL: Tarquinia, Italy M: tufa and fresco T: carving F: The Tomb of the Triclinium was built as a burial chamber. C: It is so named because its frescoes may have once featured three couches like triclinums, dining rooms from ancient Greece and Rome. The frescoes depict a banquet and people dancing to music. It is a single large chamber DT: flat figures, lively, checkered ceiling and floors M: This hints at the cheerful burial rituals of the Etrucans, celebrating a last meal with the deceased.

201. Travelers among Mountains and Streams. Fan Kuan. c. 1000 C.E. Ink and colors on silk.

N: Travelers Among Mountains and Streams D: Around 11th Century B.C.E P/S: Shanshui hua - landscape painting A: Fan Kuan, Chinese Neo-Confucianist P: None or Unknown OL: unknown, likely remote mountains of China M: Ink on Silk T: Chinese landscape Method, Bold directness, Strong depth F: Portrays people as irrelevant to nature. Nature is the almighty C: Fan Kuan turned away from human affairs and decided to paint a more naturalistic image. It has dots of Human inhabitance, rough texture to make tress, but mostly the mountains to stand out over all else. M: Shows people are turning away from the corrupt and unreliable Chinese government and looking toward nature.

197. Todai-ji. Nara, Japan. Various artists, including sculptors Unkei and Keikei, as well as the Kei School. 743 C.E.; rebuilt c. 1700. Bronze and wood (sculpture); wood with ceramic-tile roofing (architecture).

N: Tōdai-ji D: 734 C.E. P/S: Nara architecture A: Various artists, including sculptors Unkei and Keikei. P: Emperor Shōmu OL: Nara, Japan M: Bronze and wood (sculpture); wood w/ ceramic tile (architecture) T: Irimoya, Kōn-do F: Place of worship C: Tōdai-ji is a Buddhist temple complex that was once one of the powerful Seven Great Temples. Tōdai-ji is a temple of the Kegon sect of Buddhism, which reveres the Buddha Vairocana (Birushana in Japanese) as the cosmic, central Buddha. The principal image of the temple is a bronze statue of Vairocana, colossal in scale. DT: Temple, Buddhist, ceramic, pagoda, garden M: Tōdai-ji represents the culmination of imperial Buddhist architecture.

12. White Temple and its ziggurat. Uruk (modern Warka, Iraq). Sumerian. c. 3500-3000 B.C.E. Mud Brick.

N: White Temple and it's Ziggurats P: 3500-3000 B.C.E. P/S: 1st Period Mesopotamian art A: Government hired architect(s) P: Uruk government: all citizens of Uruk OL: City of Uruk, present day Warka, Iraq M: White Mud bricks for Temple, baked bricks for ziggurat T: Layered bricks to create its massive structure F: Place to perform various rituals to the city god, Amu; sacrifice animals and pray to gods. Only select few high religious authorities could enter. Shows massive power. C: Huge size and white color atop allowed for it to be spotted from a distance. Reflects dedication to the city god Amu. Dt: Base ziggurat on bottom and white temple atop. 210ft. by 150ft. ziggurat base and temple 40ft. above ground 60ft. by 16ft. Large, located on flat surroundings. M: Shows dedication to god Amu and power standing of the city

155. Yaxchilan. Chiapas, Mexico. Maya. 725 C.E. Limestone (architectural complex).

N: Yaxchilan D: 5th-8th century A.D. P/S: Mayan Art A: unknown who the main designer was but it was built by Mayan citizens Pa: no patron OL: located on the Mexican side of the Usumacinta River in the state of Chiapas M: stone T: no technique F: severed as a Mayan city and was one of the most powerful Mayan states along the Usumacinta C: contain several monuments, temples, lintels, a Main Plaza, Central Acropolis, and many other structures whose purpose is unknown DT: large, complex, organized, functional M: no specific meaning

194. Funeral banner of Lady Dai (Xin Zhui). Han Dynasty, China. c. 180 B.C.E. Painted silk.

NAME: Funeral banner of Lady Dai (194) DATE: 180 BCE PERIOD: Han China ARTIST: unknown craftsman PATRON: unknown - most likely member of the family ORIGINAL LOCATION: Mawangdui, Hunan Province, China MATERIAL: pigments, silk TECHNIQUE: painted directly onto silk FUNCTION: employed to attract the spirits of the deceased to the coffin, where it could properly start on its journey to the afterlife, rather than remain on the earth with the living CONTEXT: function aligns with the prominent Chinese belief in the veneration of ancestors; use as a sort of "attraction point" for the spirits of the deceased solidifies the belief that they still posses the ability to intervene in worldly affairs; expresses the richness of yin-yang duality in early Chinese thought DESCRIPTIVE TERMS: T-shaped; from top to bottom; segues from heaven, to the human realm, to the underworld; in heaven, dragons and immortal beings appear between and below two orbs - the red sun and it symbol, the raven, on the right, and the silver moon and its symbol, the toad, on the left. On earth, the Marquise of Dai stands on a white platform, awaiting her ascent to heaven; under her, the artist depicted her funeral; two intertwining dragons unify the whole composition MEANING: provides insight into the funerary practices of Han China, as well as emphasizes the importance of yin-yang duality in Chinese philosophy

208. Jahangir Preferring a Sufi Shaikh to Kings. Bichitr. c. 1620 C.E. Watercolor, gold, and ink on paper.

NAME: Jahangir Preferring a Sufi Shaikh to Kings (208) DATE: c. 1620 CE PERIOD: Mughal dynasty, India ARTIST: Bichitr PATRON: Jahangir (r. 1605 - 1627) ORIGINAL LOCATION: unknown MATERIAL: watercolor, gold, ink, paper TECHNIQUE: painting on paper FUNCTION: asserts that Jahangir favors spiritual aspects of oneself over those that are worldly CONTEXT: the cosmopolitan court of the Mughals developed a refined taste for European luxury goods; as a result, British ambassadors and merchants became frequent visitors to the Mughal capital DESCRIPTIVE TERMS: Jahangir is depicted as seated on an hourglass throne an surrounded by a halo that is a mix between the sun and the moon, suggesting that he is the center of the universe and the source of all light; to the right stand four figure: three are significant European political figures, while the topmost one is a mystical saint that is the only figure receiving Jahangir's attention; the painter depicted himself at the very bottom of the painting, below all other figures MEANING: asserts the spirituality of Jahangir; use of both western and eastern symbols reflects the impact of both European and Persian styles on Mughal painting under Jahangir

205. Portrait of Sin Sukju (1417-1475). Imperial Bureau of Painting. c. 15th century C.E. Hanging scroll (ink and color on silk).

NAME: Portrait of Sin Sukju (205) DATE: c. 15th century CE PERIOD: Joseon Period ARTIST: unknown painter PATRON: unknown - likely a supporter of the politician Sin Sukju ORIGINAL LOCATION: Imperial Bureau of Painting, Korea MATERIAL: ink, pigments, silk TECHNIQUE: hanging scroll (ink and colors on silk) FUNCTION: political propaganda advocating the degree of political power and dominance possessed by Sin Sukju CONTEXT: Sin Sukju was a prominent political figure, serving under six kings; the materials the work is consisted of were of very high value and demand, alluding to its importance DESCRIPTIVE TERMS: 109.5 cm by 167 cm; in this full-length portrait, Sin Sukju is in the green official uniform, facing slightly to the right side MEANING: used as political propaganda to display the amount of power possessed by an influential politician, which is evidence of the evolution of art being utilized to convey deeper political intentions

199. Angkor, the temple of Angkor Wat, and the city of Angkor Thom, Cambodia. Hindu, Angkor Dynasty. c. 800-1400 C.E. Stone masonry, sandstone.

Name: Angkor Wat Date: 12th century Period / Style: Khmer architectural style Architect: Suryavarman II completed by Jayavarman VII Patron: Suryavarman II, Jayavarman VII Original Location: Cambodia Material: Sandstone Technique: Mortise and tenon joints, bamboo scaffolding Function: Angkor Wat was built primarily to serve their God Vishnu. Although many claim that it is a temple, some say that it is also Suryavarman's tomb Context: Unlike most of the Hindu architectures of the time, the Angkor Wat is facing west due to its holy 4 purposes. It is commonly believed that Angkor Wat served as a temple when Suryavarman was alive and when he died, it also functioned as a monument embedding the emperor who is embodied by the Vishnu, the original "owner" of the temple. Descriptive Terms: Bold, angular, naturalistic, monumental, rough Meaning: (See function and context)

166. Black-on-black ceramic vessel. Maria Martínez and Julian Martínez, Tewa, Puebloan, San Ildefonso Pueblo, New Mexico. c. mid-20th century C.E. Blackware ceramic.

Name: Black-on-black ceramic vessel Date: Mid 20th Century C.E. Period/Style: Contemporary Art Deco Movement Artist: Maria Martinez and Julian Martinez Patron: Unknown Original Location: Tewa, Puebloan, San Ildefonso Pueblo, New Mexico Materials: Local clay, raw materials, and temper (sherds of broken pots that had been pounded into a powder or volcanic ash) Technique: Hand shaped ceramics finished with a slip and decorated with iron-rich solution then applying a matte-black design over polished-black Function: Prior to the 1880s pots were used in the Pueblos for food storage, cooking, and ceremonies. But around 1910 the pots were created as something beautiful to look at rather than as utilitarian objects. Context: Making ceramics in the Pueblo was a communal activity, where different steps in the process were often shared in a family. The potters helped each other with the arduous tasks such as mixing the paints and polishing the slip. As the pots moved into a fine art market, Ms. Martinez started to sign her name on the bottom of her pots. Even though this denied the communal nature of the art, she began to do so as it resulted in more money per pot. Descriptive Terms: Symmetric, organic lines, inorganic lines, geometric shapes Meaning: The work of Martinez marks an important point in the long history of Pueblo pottery. Ceramics from the Southwest trace a connection from the Ancestral Pueblo to the modern Pueblo eras. The works brought the distinctive Pueblo style into a wider context, allowing Native and non-Native audiences to appreciate the art form. The elements of the art piece are abstract but suggest a bird in flight with rain clouds above, perhaps a prayer for rain that could be flown up to the sky.

198. Borobudur Temple. Central Java, Indonesia. Sailendra Dynasty. c. 750-842 C.E. Volcanic-stone masonry.

Name: Borobudur Temple Date: c. 750-842 C.E. Period/Style: Mahayana Buddhist Artist: Gunadharma Patron: Individuals of the Buddhist religion Original Location: Central Java, Indonesia Material: Stone blocks Technique: Stupa and candi Function: Blends the Indonesian indigenous cult of ancestor worship and the Buddhist concept of attaining Nirvana Context: Buddhism is a nontheistic religion with the ultimate goal of attainment of the sublime state of nirvana, by practicing the Noble Eightfold Path (also known as the Middle Way). Descriptive Terms: Stupa: mound-like or hemispherical structure containing Buddhist relics, typically the ashes of the Buddhist monks used by Buddhists as a place of meditation Meaning: The monument is both a shrine to the Lord Buddha and a place for Buddhist pilgrimage. The journey for pilgrims begins at the base of the monument and follows a path around the monument and ascends to the top through three levels symbolic of Buddhist cosmology: Kāmadhātu (the world of desire), Rupadhatu (the world of forms) and Arupadhatu(the world of formlessness).

187. Folio from a Qur'an. Arab, North Africa, or Near East. Abbasid. c. eighth to ninth century C.E. Ink, color, and gold on parchment.

Name: Folio from a Qur'an. Date: Eight to ninth century C. E. Artist: Unknown. Patron: Unknown. Original location: Arab, North Africa or Middle East. Materials: Ink, color and gold on parchment. Function: To praise the Islamic religion. Context: The Qur'an is the sacred text of Islam, consisting of the divine revelation to the Prophet Muhammad in Arabic. Over the course of the first century and a half of Islam, the form of the manuscript was adapted to suit the dignity and splendor of this divine revelation. Descriptive details: The two-page spread (or bifolium) of a Qur'an manuscript, which contains the beginning of Surat Al-'Ankabut (The Spider). Meaning: "So each We punished for his sin; of them was he on whom We sent down a violent storm, and of them was he whom the rumbling overtook, and of them was he whom We made to be swallowed up by the earth, and of them was he whom We drowned; and it did not beseem Allah that He should be unjust to them, but they were unjust to their own souls." Period/Style: Abbasid. Technique: Calligraphy.

45. Forum of Trajan. Rome, Italy. Apollodorus of Damascus. Forum and markets: 106-112 C.E.; column completed 113 C.E. Brick and concrete (architecture); marble (column).

Name: Forum of Trajan Date: 113 C.E. Artist: Apollodorus of Damascus Patron: King Trajan Original Location: Center of royal court Rome, Italy Material: Marble P/S: Roman Realism Technique: Practicalism, spiral frieze Descriptive Terms: Reliefs, Illustrated Scroll, Spiral Frieze, Episodes Context: Placed in the middle for all to see Meaning: The meaning was to celebrate the kings victories over the dacians

2. Great Hall of the Bulls. Lascaux, France. Paleolithic Europe. 15,000-13,000 B.C.E. Rock painting.

Name: Great Hall of the Bulls Date: 13000 B.C.E. Artist: Uknown Patron: Uknown Original Location: Lascaux, France Material: Chalk on Rock P/S: Cave Drawing Technique: Side Front view Descriptive Terms: side front view, overcrossing drawings Context: Most likely whenever they saw something in the wild they drew it in a cave Meaning: The meaning was probably to record what types of animals were in their hunting area

192. Great Stupa at Sanchi. Madhya Pradesh, India. Buddhist; Maurya, late Sunga Dynasty. c. 300 B.C.E.-100 C.E. Stone masonry, sandstone on dome.

Name: Great Stupa at Sanchi Date: c. 300 B.C.E.-100 C.E. Period/Style: Maurya, late Sunga Dynasty / Buddhist Artist: N/A Patron: Emperor Ashoka the Great Original location: Madhya Pradesh, India Material: Stone masonry, Technique: Sandstone on dome. Function: to honor and shelter the relics Context: The construction work of this stupa was overseen by Ashoka's wife, Devi herself, who was the daughter of a merchant of Vidisha. Sanchi was also her birthplace as well as the venue of her and Ashoka's wedding Descriptive Terms: Early Buddhist stupas were mounds surrounded by a fence—not unlike the sacred trees and other village shrines found throughout India—that became objects of worship. Devotees walked around the stupa in a clockwise fashion. As stupas became more elaborate, they were crowned with a platform and a series of disks derived from umbrellas (originally used to shade royalty). The dome itself was garlanded with flowers, and gateways were added at the cardinal points. Meaning: Stupas were venerated as a symbol of the Buddha's final release

7. Jade cong. Liangzhu, China. 3300-2200 B.C.E. Carved jade.

Name: Jade Cong Date: 3300-2200 B.C.E. Period/Style: Prehistoric Artist: Unknown Patron: Original Location: Liangzhu, China Material: Jade Technique: It was crafted out of true jade, also known as nephrite, which is very hard to cut into due to its sturdiness. So to create the designs, sand was rubbed into the stone very carefully. Function: Originally made to be decorative, with lines and circles on the exterior. Used two distinct types of ritual jade objects: a disc, later known as a bi, and a tube, later known as a cong. Context: Their knowledge in the crop allowed for a surplus of rice to be grown, resulting in the ability for their society to become sophisticated. Descriptive Terms: square shaped, hollow ,symmetric, organic lines, inorganic lines, geometric shapes, and organic shapes Meaning: The purpose and meaning of the pieces of why it was produced is still unknown. However, it is thought that the circles are representations of faces. The corners of most cong are decorated with faces, shown through eyes and parallel bars.

200. Lakshmana Temple. Khajuraho, India. Hindu, Chandella Dynasty. c. 930-950 C.E. Sandstone.

Name: Lakshmana temple Date: 930-950 AD Artist: unknown Period/style: chandella period 10th century Technique: architecture Patron: n/a Original location: Khajuraho, India Medium: limestone Function: temple Context: New temple in the middle of nowhere, pilgrimage to visit vishnu Descriptive terms: Buddhist, temple, Vishnu, religious Meaning: There are repetitive images of Vishnu, the god of protection. People would go here in times of sin, meditation, or asking for help. Not much is really known about this temple.

195. Longmen caves. Luoyang, China. Tang Dynasty. 493-1127 C.E. Limestone.

Name: Longmen Caves or Longmen Grottoes Date: 493-1127 C.E. Period/Style: Tang Dynasty/Chinese Buddhist art Artist: N/A Patron: Emperor Xiaowen and Empress Wuzetian Original location: Luoyang, China. The Xiangshan and Longmenshan mountains, running east and west Material: Limestone. Technique: The images, many once painted, were carved into caves excavated from the limestone cliffs Function: served as an important pilgrimage destination for over five hundred years, and during that period it received numerous foreign and domestic visitors and dignitaries. Context: Fifty large and medium sized caves are seen on the west hill cliffs which are credited to the Sui, and Tang Dynasties, while the caves on the east hill were carved entirely during the Tang Dynasty. Descriptive Terms: There are as many as 100,000 statues within the 1,400 caves, ranging from a 1 inch (25 mm) to 57 feet (17 m) in height. Meaning: reflect the heyday of the Tang Dynasty culture (618-907).

159. Ruler's feather headdress (probably of Motecuhzoma II). Mexica (Aztec). 1428-1520 C.E. Feathers (quetzal and cotinga) and gold.

Name: Ruler's feather headdress (probably of Motecuhzoma II) Date: 1428-1520 C. E. Period/Style: Pre-Columbian Artist: Unknown Patron: Most likely Motecuhzoma II Original Location: Unknown Materials: quetzal and other feathers, gold studs, precious stones Technique: Concentric layers to form a semicircle Function: Though there the actual function is still being debated, the headdress is thought to be a symbol of their last ruler's power before being conquered. Context: The Aztecs and other Mesoamerican people valued feather works along with jade, turquoise, and gold. Feather works were registered as being Moorish, a term that can be interpreted as meaning: non-European or exotic, from a European point of view. However, when in the context of the Mexican feather works, Moorish probably did specifically mean Mexican. Descriptive Terms: Inorganic lines, geometric shapes, radial balance Meaning: Museums and historians are still being put to the task of discovering the significance and meaning of the headdress. It is believed that the headdress was just another example of demonstrating the wealth and high social standing of Motecuhzoma II.

14. Statues of votive figures, from the Square Temple at Eshnunna (modern Tell Asmar, Iraq). Sumerian. c. 2700 B.C.E. Gypsum inlaid with shell and black limestone.

Name: Statues of Votive Figures Date: c2700 B.C.E. Artist: probably skill workers of tribe Patron: Leader of the tribe Original Location: in an ancient temple Material: black shells P/S: Sumerian Technique: Subtractive method Descriptive Terms: simplified pessimistic conical Context: size could enforce hierarchy Meaning: The meaning was to create something that they could use to pray to the gods away from home

209. Taj Mahal. Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India. Masons, marble workers, mosaicists, and decorators working under the supervision of Ustad Ahmad Lahori, architect of the emperor. 1632-1653 C.E. Stone masonry and marble with inlay of precious and semiprecious stones; gardens.

Name: Taj Mahal Date: 1648 Period / Style:Mughal architecture Architect: Ustad Ahmad Lahauri Patron: Mughal emperor Shah Jahan Original Location: Agra, India Material: Marble Technique: Domes, arch, finial, iwan, minaret, etc Function: To commemorate the death of emperor Shah Jahan's wife, Mumtaz Mahal Context: Mumtaz Mahal was Jahan's third wife who eagerly supported the reign of Jahan and soon became his favorite wife out of the three. Unfortunately she died giving birth to their 14th child and out of grief Jahan orders to build a magnificent mausoleum in remembrance of his wife. Descriptive Terms: Grand, sacred, pure,delicate Meaning: (See function & context)

11. Terra cotta fragment. Lapita. Solomon Islands, Reef Islands. 1000 B.C.E. Terra cotta (incised).

Name: Terracotta Fragment Artist: Unkown, Lapita people DOC: 1000 B.C.E Period: Neolithic Style: Technique: Material: Terracotta Patron: Origin: Lapita, New Caledonia Context: The patterns were incised into the pots before firing with a comblike tool used to stamp designs into the wet clay. Each stamp consisted of a single design element that was combined with others to form elaborate patterns. Meaning: One of the finest examples of the Lapita potter's art, this fragment depicts a human face incorporated into the intricate geometric designs characteristic of the Lapita ceramic tradition.

19. The Code of Hammurabi. Babylon (modern Iran). Susian. c. 1792-1750 B.C.E. Basalt.

Name: The Code of Hammurabi Date: 1750 BC Period/Style: Artist: Hammurabi Patron: The people of ancient Mesopotamia Original Location: Ancient Mesopotamia Material: Diorite and basalt Technique: Function: The function was to set down a reasonable and unchanging set of laws that addressed the problems in the high kingdom. Context/Relevant Ideas: The upper portion of the Code of Hammurabi is Hammurabi himself receiving a ring and receptor (law codes). Descriptive Terms: Meaning: The meaning of the Code of Hammurabi is to keep a formal legal code for the people of ancient Mesopotamia.

204. The David Vases. Yuan Dynasty, China. 1351 C.E. White porcelain with cobalt-blue underglaze.

Name: The David Vases Date: May 13, 1351 Period: Yuan Dynasty Artist: Zhang Wenjin Patron: Daoist temple in Hong Kong, China Original Location: Hong Kong, China Material: Porcelain Technique: Ancient Chinese kilns used that could reach 1200 degrees Celsius Function: An offering to a general who had recently been made a god Context: Both vases contain the exact date, artist and reason for creation. They both also have a dragon and a floral pattern on the top and bottom Descriptive Terms: Cobalt (known in China as hui hui qing or "muslim blue") came from Iran- the blue paint added to the white porcelain Meaning: Religious way of showing respect to an important figure

37. Winged Victory of Samothrace. Hellenistic Greek. c. 190 B.C.E. Marble.

Name: The Winged Victory of Samothrace Date: 190 BCE Period/Style: Hellenistic Greek Artist: N/A Patron: the kings of fourth century Macedonia Original Location: Island of Samothrace, Greece Material: Parian marble for the statue and gray Rhodian marble for the boat and base. Technique: Each section was separately carved then assembled, a characteristic of the Hellenistic period. Function: statue for worship to the goddess of Victory Context: The woman sculpted is the Greek goddess of Victory, and she is presented here with wings and on a battleship. The Hellenistic period was abundant with naval battles so these ships played an important role in society as well in the art society, because these new naval innovations prompted architects to create better warships. The Greek gods and goddesses also played a huge role in society. The Greeks represented concepts such as Peace, Fortune, Vengeance, and Justice as goddesses at a very early date. Victory (the goddess in the statue) was one of the earliest of these. She is a female figure with large wings that enable her to fly over the earth spreading news of victory, whether in athletic competition or in battle. Descriptive Terms: symmetrical balance, organic lines, gold and silver color spectrum, geometric naval ship design Meaning: statue worshiped by citizens of Samothrace in hope of bringing victory in battles to them, a good luck statue.

42. Head of a Roman patrician. Republican Roman. c. 75-50 B.C.E. Marble.

Name:Head of a Roman Patrician Date:c. 75- 50 BCE Period / Style: Hellenistic Period, verism Artist: Unknown Patron: Emperor AUgustus Original Location:Otricoli, Italy Material: Marbles Technique: Veristic portrait Function: To illustrate the idealistic physical appearance at the time which is old face that indicated how wise they are Context: Roman Emperor Augustus admired Greek verism and he encouraged sculptors to promote and adopt to verism Descriptive Terms: Exhausted, serious, experienced, determined, loyal Meaning: That the old ones are the wisest and expresses the tradition of Roman art

HELLENISTIC 323-30 BCE

The work from the Hellenistic period became even more emotional, displayed more dramatic movement, explored a greater range of themes and the modeling, and became even more realistic.