AP Art History Unit 9

Navigation Chart

Completely identify: Navigation Chart(s) Unknown artist(s): Marshallese navigators (ri-metos) Marshall Islands, Micronesia 19th to 20th century C.E. Wood and fiber Pacific art British Museum (no collection: not on display) 67.5 x 99 x 3 cm Number 221 Formal analysis (elements and principles): Composed of wooden sticks bound to palm leaves and connected by shells representing the Marshall Islands Art-Making process (materials\technique): Assortment of wood, fibers, and shells Arranged to show and indicate various regional Marshallese geographic locations such as coral atolls Content: Chart is a form of a Rebbelib (a chart that covers most or all of the Marshall Islands) Used for navigation between the Marshall islands in eastern Micronesia Composed of wooden sticks: horizontal and vertical acted as supports and the diagonal and curved ones represented wave swells Small shells represented where all the islands were Context\Audience: Shows the ingenuity of the Marshallese ri-metos, despite Europeans initially believing they were primitive Micronesians in the northwestern pacific are renowned for their navigational skills, particularly regarding these navigation charts The Marshallese navigators were able to utilize natural ocean swells to navigate around vast island chains The Navigation Charts have vital information and serve as mnemonic devices for skilled ri-metos who had great status and social influence because of their navigation skills Ri-metos religiously guarded their charts and treated them as prized social items, the type which would be passed on from generation to generation Intended function\purpose: Used for navigation between the Marshall islands Different charts represented differing degrees of geographical measurement Some represented large geographic areas, while others only showed smaller water features around islands The maps were memorized and not actually brought on the canoes with people Artistic Innovation\Convention: The Navigation Charts represents the ability of the Marshallese navigations to fluently read oceanic swells in large sections of the Pacific Thematic + Cross Cultural Connections: Related to mattang type of navigational map, which is similar but is more of a training version of this map THEMES: Domestic life History\memory Identity Power\authority Family Everyday life

Malagan Display and Mask

Context Malagan is a cycle of rituals of the people in in the northern coast of New Ireland. Malagan express many complex religious and philosophical ideas. They are principally concerned with honoring and dismissing the dead, but they also act as affirmation of the identity of clan groups, and negotiate the transmission of rights to land. ​ Malagan sculptures were made to be used on a single occasion and then destroyed. Often used at funeral sites Bid farewell to the dead and celebrate the vibrancy of the living Can be anywhere from a couple days to a few years They are symbolic of many important subjects, including identity, kinship, gender, death, and the spirit world Often include representations of fish and birds of identifiable species, alluding both to specific myths and the animal's natural characteristics Figure was collected by Hugh Hastings Romilly, Deputy Commissioner for the Western Pacific while he was on a tour of New Ireland in 1882-83 It was one a group of carvings made to be displayed at a particular malagan ritual. They were originally standing in a carved canoe, which unfortunately Romilly did not collect The ownership of Malagan objects is similar to the modern notion of copyright When a piece is bought, the seller surrenders the right to use that particular Malagan style, the form in which it is made, and even the accompanying rites. This stimulates production, as more elaborate variations are made to replace the ones that have been sold. Content: The masks can represent a number of things. Dead ancestors Ges (the spiritual double of an individual) Or the various bush spirits associated with the area The base of this figure is depicted a rock cod, a species which as it grows older changes gender from male to female. The rock cod features in an important myth of the founding of the first social group, or clan, in this area; thus the figure also alludes to the identity of that clan group. Form: Different masks made of the same materials and pigment high wood, vegetable fiber, pigment, and shell found in north coast of New Ireland c. 1882-83 CE Function: Commonly used at funeral sites Send a farewell off to the dead Celebrate the achievements and life of the dead Also used as a sort of copyright When someone buys a piece, the seller gives up his right to use that particular style again. This stimulates vibration and variance in the malagan displays and masks. Sending off the malagan was very important Sculptures are treated delicately The 'souls' of the dead are said to be transferred to these sculptures Each sculpture represents a specific individual and his/her relationship with ancestors, family members and clan totems. Represents the persons soul/spirit. Not a self portrait Sculptures are burned once the souls leave the malagan sculptures Themes: Funerary / Funeral Traditions, Death Family Ritual objects of belief Sacred, Profane Cross Cultural Connections- dutch influence as they discovered the island of Papa New Guinea nineteen different languages are spoken on the island based off of other influence maybe masks relate to a native way of life?

Staff God

FULLY IDENTIFY Staff God Artist not known (Rarotongan people - women & men) Late 18th - early 19th century C.E. Carved wood, bark cloth, tapa, fiber & feathers Rarotonga, Cook Islands, Central Polynesia Currently housed with Trustees of the British Museum (not on public display) FORM Alternating figures appear to be placed along the spine, alluding to genealogical continuity & Tangaroa's children Represent male & female roles in reproduction Reference to Tangaroa as a god of fertility: Female figures (shown from front) = women in childbirth Male figures (shown from side) = important ancestors Barkcloth wrapping Polynesians would have believed that the cloth was needed to protect deity's spiritual force This force, MANA, is contained within the layers Red feathers and pearls on the wooden head also act as a symbol of MANA If wrapping comes off, deity would leave, and the staff god would be useless Provides deity with clothing, as seeing a god naked would have been inappropriate Phallus at the bottom is a reference to Tangaroa being responsible for creation, and thus sexual reproduction FUNCTION Meant to be a symbol of "manava" or the soul of god 1888- The Cook islands became a protectorate of Britain- in this way the Staff God celebrates paganism and the life native people held before the influx of missionaries and their conversion to Christianity Little is known of the function of this work- art historians posit that the staff is used to worship Tangaroa (creator of God) Protects ancestral power of "mana" or deity of the society CONTENT 12 feet long Includes Tangaroa's head, spine, & body Elongated body topped by carved head Head makes up about ⅓ of wood carving Smooth Stylized large eyes Pointed chin Close mouth A line of smaller figures were carved just below the head Small figures alongside larger ones = characteristic of Polynesian art Alternate between male and female Most of figure (besides head/neck) are encased in barkcloth Clothing & protection CONTEXT Late 18th century-early 19th century CE Wooden and humanistic head is at the top and at the end is a naturalistic phallus Missionaries often began to cut off the natural phallus because they felt it was indecent In reality, native people to these islands did not hold the same standards of modesty and shame over sex- this work that celebrates the naturalness of sex really represents their goal to survive and build future generations. Both women and men are present on the wooden head of the staff- women are in childbirth This is another reference to the importance of fertility Survival was creating new members of the Cook Island civilization- they celebrated the natural process behind it rather than cover it up (frequently done in the Western World) The only surviving and wrapped example of a staff god of the Cook Islands Very valuable to art historians Taragoa was seen as the very first god- he was born in an egg After birth he busted out of his shell and found that no one else was there- after that he became dedicated to creating his own "family of gods' Christian missionaries convinced the Rarotongan people (people of the Cook Islands) to embrace Christianity and abandon their own faith- due to this much of art historians' knowledge about traditions and religious beliefs original to the island "are irrevocably lost" Producing barkcloth was a demanding & complicated process THEMES Fertility Gender roles Sex The Natural World Creation Effects of Colonialism Sacred Lineage Images of Identity- social Ritualistic Materials and their Symbolism

Female Diety

Form sculpture. wooden. 40 cm. Made from the Bread Fruit Tree (Artocarpus Altilis) Either carved using an adze with clamshell blades or traditional European tools. Figures all had ovoid heads, discrete or missing facial features, flat buttocks, and flexed legs. Function Religious purposes Each sculpture represents a specific deity. Were all labeled with names. Also, every deity was related to a different extended family group, a priest, and a specific temple. Used for a special annual harvest ritual They were given food offerings during this festival Old and rotting wooden figures were replaced during this time The people believed that the spirit of the deity resided inside of the wooden figurine for the duration of the festival. Content Nukuoro deities were believed to inhabit animals, pieces of wood, and wood figures called tino aitu. Sacrifices to the figurine occured each year during the harvest of coconuts, arrowroot, taro, banana, sugarcane, breadfruit, and pandanus (a fibrous fruit). Perhaps the lack of facial detail and the flexed legs provide a "blank canvas" ready to take on a deity's vital force during each festival. In addition to representing deities, the figures sometimes symbolized ancestors. Nails attached to the figures allowed clothing to be added when they took on deities' identities at the festivals. For the female figures, the triangular shape of the pelvis indicates a mandatory tattoo there (for elite women. Context Nukuoro is a Micronesian atoll (a ring-shaped coral reef) in the Western Pacific. According to archaeological records and oral history, it was settled in the 8th Century C.E. by Polynesians traveling in canoes from Samoa. Nukuoro's culture retains Polynesian influences such as social structures and the practice of carving human figures, even though it is geographically located in Micronesia. Europeans started trading with the island's population of about 400 during the 1830s, and most of the islanders had given up their religion for Protestantism by the early 20th Century; similarly, most of their distinctive wooden sculptures had been traded off. Nukuoro was ruled by a religious and a secular chief; the secular chief was passed down hereditarily within a family without regard for gender. These smaller deities were worshipped along with a primary figure, which was likely offered human sacrifices annually. Themes Ritual Objects of Belief Images of Power/Authority/Divine Sacred Space Funerary (ancestors) History/Memory Cross-Cultural connections Hands Holding the Void (Invisible Object), Alberto Giacometti—heavily influenced by wooden Nukuoro figures. Ikenga Male Figures (Igbo people, Nigeria). vocabulary Tino Aitu- what these figures were called by the Nukuoro people. Adze- a tool similar to an ax with an arched blade at right angles to the handle, used for cutting or shaping large pieces of wood. Te mata: a pelvic tattoo associated with elite women that had a religious function

Nan Madol

Form: Materials are basalt boulders and prismatic columns Carved basalt stones from volcanic plugs Transported stones 5-50 tons from mountains to reef without the use of large animals or complex machinery Thought to be an engineering masterpiece with such little technology available at the time A system of canals that crisscrosses the ruins "Nan Model" translates to "spaces between Did not use concrete, but instead, a crisscrossing pattern of horizontal logs called stretchers and perpendicular logs on top of them called headers (similar to post and lintel) Function: Remote location meant they did not have to devote many resources towards the military Allowed them to instead concentrate on building a unique capital city complex that became the Nan Model Served as a home to over 1,000 inhabitants Themes: Sacred Space Images of Power and Authority The Natural World Change over time Sacred/Profane Innovation: Materials and Techniques Context: Pohnpei, Micronesia Saudeleur Dynasty An early example of a centralized political system in the western Pacific Placed high importance on agriculture and gods 700-1600 C.E. Inhabitants referred to it as the "Reef of Heaven" Saudeleur Dynasty fell with increasingly oppressive rulers and offending several deities, eventually fell in 1628. Now it is an abandoned city with no preservation. Crumbling ruins with much mystery and unknown. Content: A system of crisscrossing canals Luxurious palaces for the rulers and smaller houses surrounding for their servants Contained a variety of specialized islets Some for constructing canoes, holding sacred eels, and preparing coconut oil for sacred ceremonies Cross-Cultural Connections: Log system used for the structure similar to log cabins Log crisscrossing pattern of stretches and headers similar to the post and lintel system used on Stonehenge. Note architectural similarities despite being isolated Place of residence for the elites and servants of a society Forbidden City Versailles

Presentation of Fijian mats and tapa cloths to Queen Elizabeth II

Form: Black and white photo of women wearing skirts in a procession No known photographer Procession of women Wearing skirts and holding mats Skirts are decorated and painted with geometric patterns Making their way across a grassy open area and through groups of men Men are wearing primarily white clothing Women have similar hairstyles (smaller afros) and appear to have face paint/tattoos on their foreheads and cheeks Function: The photo depicts a celebration honoring the visit of Queen Elizabeth II Content: Procession of women Their skirts are made of barkcloth and the mats are tapa mats Barkcloth is also known as masi Tapa mats are made from the bark of the paper mulberry tree Men tend to the trees but only women can make the actual fabric The bark (it is very soft) is cut into strips and beat with a hammer The women felt the pieces → beat them together to form long plain sheets The designs are painted onto the cloth by hand Function of tapa mats: cloth, sheets, capes, cites, gifts (weddings, feasts, important ceremonies, rituals, tributes) Tapa mats are often presented as gifts to important people Simplicity indicate importance More widely available than masi Context: On December 17, 1953 the queen visited the Kingdom of Tonga, which was the only Pacific nation to retain a monarchy and was protected by the British government Fiji, Polynesia Cloth is presented as a gift in special ceremonies like funerals or weddings and also to commemorate special events Queen Elizabeth witnessed many Fijian traditions and participated in the kava ceremony Cross-Cultural Connections: English colonization and its effects → contact with Europeans Christianization Cultural Genocide Role of women in art Athenian women created the peplos (a rich outer robe or shawl worn by women in ancient Greece, hanging in loose folds and sometimes drawn over the head) that adorned the statue of the Athena Parthenos in the Parthenon (the statue that disappeared) Themes: Gender roles in art Converging cultures History/Memory Performance (ritual and ceremony) Power and authority Social commentary Narrative art Individual and society Colonization

'Ahu 'ula (feather cape)

Form: Made with feathers and olona fiber (netting made in straight rows) Feathers were attached to the netting in overlapping rows Exterior = red feathers from the 'i'iwi bird, black and yellow feathers from the 'o'o bird Dimensions: 64 x 15 1/2 in. (162.6 x 39.4 cm) Location: Hawaii 500,000 feathers - some birds had only seven usable feathers Coconut fiber used as a base Function: Male nobility wore feather cloaks and capes for ceremonies and battle (they were called 'ahu'ula aka red garments) Only high-ranking chiefs or warriors of great ability were entitled to wear these exceptional garments Neckline - curved shape to best fit the wearer The cloaks and capes were given as gifts to sea captains and their crews created by artist who chanted the wearer's ancestors to imbue their power on it Protected the wearer from harm Content: A feather cloak - yellow and red Red = associated with gods and chiefs across Polynesia Yellow = valuable because of their scarcity in the Hawaiian Islands Semi-circular cape is a later development from the trapezoidal shape Feather cloaks and capes were symbols of power and social standing in Hawaiian culture 18th century Context: Earliest European visitors to Hawaii It is unknown who brought this cape to England as many of the items given as gifts were passed onto wealthy patrons to get them to finance their voyage This cape was apparently retained by Captain Cook's widow and inherited by the descendants of her cousin, Rear Admiral Isaac Smith Captain Cook arrived in Keylakekua Bay, Hawaii, on 26 January 1779 which was at the same time as the Makahiki seasonal festival. Kalaniopuu (the chief) greeted Cook in a ceremonial way and gave him his own cloak Cross Cultural Connections: Regalia the emblems or insignia of royalty, especially the crown, scepter, and other ornaments used at a coronation the distinctive clothing worn and ornaments carried at formal occasions as an indication of status Ruler's Feather Headdress Gold and Jade Crown Ndop Contextual Photograph though feather work was also found in other parts of Polynesia, the main features of the Hawaiian technique were unique Themes: Public life Performance (rituals and ceremonies) Power/Authority Respect Status Royalty

Tamati Waka Nene

Form: Oil on canvas 101.9 x 84.2 cm Man centered in portrait Wearing feathered robe Veined, muscular arm holding a weapon Weapon looks like an axe made of wood Feathers hanging from the head Carving with an eye in its center (gemstone?) below grip Cloak covered in feathers (kiwi) Earring hanging from right ear (gemstone?) Hair is a light to dark grey ombré Green tattoos cover his entire face, save for an area around his eyes Swirling patterns End at his jawline Background is of foliage, mountains, and a slightly overcast sky Function: Preserving the person in history Bring the presence of ancestors into the living world → so the painting could not just show the image/appearance of Tamati Waka Nene, but also physically embody him His attire shows his status Content: Shows Tamati waka Nene- Māori man → indigenous people of New Zealand A Rangatira or chief of the Ngāti Hao people in Hokianga -- from the Ngāpuhi tribe An important war and peacetime leader Estimated to be born in the 1780s and died in 1871 Persuaded Maori chiefs to accept Treaty of Waitangi (with the British) Business man Context: Gottfried Lindauer Born in Bohemia in 1839 Studied at Academy of Fine Arts in Vienna Moved to New Zealand to escape military service and to receive more portrait commissions Started painting Maori leaders (220 images) Technique rooted in Renaissance naturalism Didn't make many sketches beforehand and often reimagined black and white images into color His works would include artistic intervention instead of being purely realistic or documentary Painted in 1890 Three years after Tamati Waka Nene died, so it was likely based on a photograph in a newspaper The culture reveres their ancestors after they die - hang paintings on walls to cherish and even speak to If the painting is removed from the related family, the organization who has the painting will make sure to keep a close relationship with the descendants Was a time of rapid change in New Zealand during the time of Tamati Waka Nene -- first British missionaries and settlers were arriving Māori people Indigenous people of New Zealand Settled after discovery around 1200-1300 BCE Belief in the importance of mana as a force Connection to power and prestige Special importance on complex face tattoos Cross-Cultural Connections: Painting was made at the same time as the Jean-Antoine Houdon sculpture of George Washington They each represent their own own cultural values (also both in reference to the British) Washington: dignity, lead successful rebellion against the British Nene: great mana, negotiated peacefully with the British Themes: Conflict/Harmony Converging Cultures History/Memory Identity Portraiture Images of Authority Individual/Society

Buk (mask)

Identify: Location: Australia, Mabuiag Island, Queensland, Torres Strait. Currently: Metropolitan Museum of Art Date: Mid- to late 19th century C.E. Materials: Turtle shell, wood, fiber, cassowary feathers, resin and paint. Dimensions: H. 21 1/2 x W. 25 x D. 22 3/4 in. (54.6 x 63.5 x 57.8 cm) Form: Turtle shell, wood, fiber, cassowary feathers, resin and paint. The process of creating Torres Strait masks was tedious and time-consuming Heated individual hawksbill sea turtle shell plates so that they became flexible and could be bent to create the desired shape Each plate then had to be pierced around the edges, so that the maker of the mask could use fiber to thread the plates together Connected plates formed a three-dimensional appearance Features of the mask were accentuated by the addition of feathers, shells, and hair Rafia creates impression of human hair- very textured piece Many separate pieces stitched together Function: Ceremonial significance to the Torres Strait Islanders Ritualistic uses Male initiation Funerary Rites Associated with hunting and warfare rituals Enhances the effects of rites performed to produce plentiful a plentiful harvest, as well as fish and game animals Displays the connection between humans and animals in ritual Ceremonies included performances by senior male dancers surrounding a campfire They wore grass costumes paired with masks that fit like helmets and danced to the beat of sacred drums The bird might have represented the wearer's personal totemic species Believed to help the wearer have access to supernatural spirits Content: Part of elaborate costume for significant performance, and meant to have movement with dance Possibly honoring and depicting a hero or ancestor The bird could be a mythological totem connected to a family→ connected culture to the supernatural and symbolic animals A ceremonial mask called buk. Combines an abstracted human face below a frigate bird. The face may represent an honored ancestor or a hero. Demonstrates a connection of animals to humans The mask depicts a black seabird with a forked tail, elongated beak, and a large wingspan. The bird may represent strength and nobility. Context: Torres Strait is between Australia and Papua New Guinea and has many small mostly uninhabited islands. Diego de Prado, a Spanish explorer, first found works that used turtle shells in this way in 1606 Archaeological excavations show that people arrived on the Mabuiag islands around 7,300 years ago As this is an island group of people, they were very dependent on ocean life so fishing was vital to survival. The language of the island is Kala Lagaw Ya. Masks made out of turtle shells were distinct to the people of the Torres Strait Feathers are a significant artistic material throughout Oceania Islands became Christianized When missionaries arrived, islanders were often told to burn their masks as the practice and materials were seen by them as obsolete→ few surviving pieces Themes: Ritual Objects of Belief Images of Identity - cultural, social The Natural World War and Violence Sacred/Profane Materials and their Symbolic Importance Cross-Cultural Connections: Transformation Mask- #164 Bird is a symbol of strength and nobility like the eagle in American art.

Maoi on platform (ahu)

Moai on platform C.1100-1600 C.E Volcanic figures of basalt base Rapa Nui Context: Easter Island is called Rapa Nui by the people who live here. Moai means "statue" Ahu means "Platform" Original Location Shown on a stone platform Orongo - Stone village on Rapa Nui that is used for ritualistic purposes. by the ocean As the environment of the island changed the religion also shifted which led to the end of the creation of the Moai From 1600 C.E, statues began to be torn down Last ones were torn down in 1838 Created by one stone carver or groups of carvers (those who made them were masters in art of making the moai) When the statues were finished they were taken down to the coast by groups of tens to hundreds of people. Used ropes and levers to move them Form: Medium; technique; size Made from chiseled stone 14 are made from basalt while the rest are made from volcanic tuff About 887 moai on Easter Island Originally painted with red and white designs Height of the statues range from 8 to 70ft (most around 13ft tall) The older statues are larger and more detailed/complex Treatment of human body: The majority of statues share features such as: Heavy eyebrow ridge Elongated ears Oval nostrils Emphasized clavicle Protruding nipples Thin arms that lie against the body Barely any hands Thin lips in a downward curve - stern expression The eyes originally were filled with red stone and coral Composition: Made on Easter Island carved stone Some statues have carvings on the back made at a later date Space: Made on platforms (ahu) All the statues are turned with their back to the sea outside around the island, lots of open space around, on grassy hills by the coast Color and lighting: Pigment for accents on select statues always in natural light - outdoor setting Content: Carvings on the back of some statues that are believed to have been made at a later date Carvings reference the easter island birdman cult which developed after 1400 C.E. Themes: Sacred spaces Ancestors Rituals Religion Function: The Moai represent the human spirit Used to honor and represent the ancestors of the people. The sculpture was probably made by a high status individual with a significant skill in carving The rock they are made out of is hard and difficult to work with Cross-cultural connections: Carved stone statues - everywhere Representing ancestors - spirituality Referenced in popular culture - movies (Night at the Museum)

Hiapo (tapa)

Niue, c. 1850-1900, Tapa or bark cloth, freehand painting, 8 x 6.5 ft, Auckland War Memorial Museum Form Fine lines, detailed geometric designs such as spirals, concentric circles, squares, triangles, and diminishing motifs Along the edges of the cloth are intricate representations of native plants Animated freehand drawing process may represent Bark cloth is an involved process, performed entirely by women Bark is pounded flat with a wooden tool (felting) Several pieces of bark are stuck together with a paste from plants such as arrowroot Designs are either pounded in with a carved beating tool or by rubbing over a stencil Function Tapa were used for clothing, bedding, and wall hangings Tapa would also be displayed on special occasions Still exist today as parts of funeral rituals and burial rights Tapestries could function as a type of currency -- they could be exchanged for food and work/services Used for ceremony or to designate status Worn during rituals, exchanged in marriage or other events, used to wrap babies and sacred objects If a family has no tapa to give away, they are considered poor Content Certain designs and textiles were designed for people with high social standing or rank Important figures and high-ranking individuals would wear these decorated cloths at important stages in their lives Different cultures and islands would present similar pieces of cloth to places they travel to by boat Similar pieces of bark cloth have designs representing local wildlife and marine animals (such as jellyfish and starfish) and occasionally depictions of humans As the designs on a particular piece of tapa cloth are unique to the maker's island, township, or region; all pieces of this type of cloth are unique Context The cloth is from Niue, a small Polynesian island country located 1,500 miles northeast of New Zealand Its location next to Tonga, Samoa, and the Cook islands allowed for lots of trade with Christian missionaries in the region The making of tapa cloth was traditionally seen as a women's art as it is a type of weaving and works with soft materials Women's art would often also use materials such as flowers or leaves In Polynesia, textiles were seen as a woman's wealth Tapa cloth is used across many other islands in the Pacific, such as Tonga, Samoa, and Fiji, introduced by missionaries Cross-cultural connections A more contemporary version of the tapa may have originally been introduced to the island of Niue by Samoan missionaries brought to the island by the British, though it is thought that there was an earlier tradition related to this type of cloth making that was native to Niue Used to wrap sacred objects as seen in the God staff Themes Social Status/Class, Identity Maritime Travel Trade The natural world/surroundings Funeral traditions Everyday material